Getting Started s2

−1 −1 W =∫ F ds
R=8.314 J ∙mo l ∙ K , R=R /M s1

T [ C ] =T [ K ] −273.15 W =F v
m V2
n= (number of moles)
M W =∫ pdV
V1
1 kWh=3600 kJ
V −v f U−u f
1¯
¿ 100 kPa=100000 Pa m= =
v g−v f uG −uf
m=ρV =V /v
V̇ VA V A Irreversibility and the Reversable Limit
ṁ= = = Pipe friction
v v V 2
fL V
v=Mv v ( pi −p e ) + g ( z i−z e )=u e −ui=
2D
Hydrostatic Pressure: p= p atm= ρgh

Buoyancy: F net=( ρblock −ρ H 2 O ) V block g

Closed Systems
1 2 1 2
Δ KE = m v 2− m v 1
2 2
Δ PE(mg z 2−mg z 1)
E=KE+ PE+ U (can often make assumption that
PE and KE are negligable)

Δ E=Q−W
Clausis Inequality (can be used closed system
dE cycles)
=Q̇−Ẇ
dt δQ δQ
∮ T
≤ 0∮
T
=−σ cyc (see week 5 homework)
W cyc=Q¿ −Qout
=0 if reversible
W cycle
η= <0 if irreversible
Q¿
Performance is calculated through
What you get The reversible limit (For carnot cycle)
What you pay for
Tc
Q out ηmax =1−
Q¿ TH
β= γ=
W cycle W cycle
TC
β max =
T H −T C
 TH
γ max =
T H −T C

System Properties
H=U + pV
h=u+ pV
U U
u= u=
m n

cv=( dTdu )v
specific heat at constant volume Ideal Gas Model
pv=RT
c =( )
dh
p specific heat at constant pressure u=u(T )
dT p

cp h=h ( T )=u ( T ) + RT
k= Specific heat ratio
cv T2

Δ u=∫ c v dT

( )
2 T1
δQ
S2−S 1= ∫
1
T ∫ rev T2

Δ h=∫ c p dT
TdS=dU + pdV T1

v2
Tables W =mRT ln
v1
Table A-2 to A-6 is for water/steam
To find c p use table A-20 or A-21
A-7 to A-18 is for other fluids

( x−x 0 ) ( y 1− y 0 ) c p=c v + R k =c p /c v
Linear interpolation: y= y 0+
x1−x 0 kR R
c p (T )= c v ( T )=
mvap k−1 k−1
x= (Vapour mass fraction) To find the entropy of a ideal gas
mliq +mvap
T2
H mf h f +m g h g cv ( T ) v
h= = =( 1−x ) hf + x h g=h f + x hg s ( T 2 , v 2 ) −s ( T 1 , v 1 )=∫ dT + R ln 2
m m T1
T v1
s=s f + x ( s g −s f ) T2
c p (T ) p
s ( T 2 , p2 )−s ( T 1 , p1 ) =∫ dT + R ln 2
T1
T p1
In a 100% efficient isentropic process entropy of the
system will remain the same

h 1−h2
ηisentropic =
h1−h 2 s
Isentropic Process on Ideal Gas (Specific heat is a Generalized Compressibility
constant)
These charts plot reduced pressure p R against the

( ) ( )
T2 v1
k−1
p
k−1 compressibility Factor
2 k
= =
T1 v2 p1 pV
Z=
RT

( )
k
p2 v1
= p
p1 v2 p R=
pc
More formulas that can be used if specific heat is
constant T
T r=
Tc
' v
Δ u=c v (T 2−T 1) v R=
R T C / pc
Δ h=c p (T 2−T 1)
Knowing Tc and Pc you can determine (p,v,T)
c P=c V + R
Incompressible Fluid Model
T2 p2
Δ s=c p ln −R ln v=consant , u=u ( T ) , c p=c v =c (T )
T1 p1
T2
T2
¿ c v ln + R ln
v2 u2−u 1=∫ c (T ) dT
T1 v1 T1

T2
Insentropic process on ideal gas (specific heat is
not constant) h2 −h1=u2−u1+ ( p 2− p1 ) v=∫ c ( T ) dT + v ( p 2− p1 )
T1
p2 pr( T2) T2
= c (T )
p 1 pr (T 1 ) s2−s 1=∫ dT
T1
T
v2 vr (T 2 )
= If specific pressure and specific volume is constant
v 1 v r (T 1 )
Δ u=c Δ T
Find pr and v r in table A-22
Δ h=c Δ T +v Δ p
T2
Polytropic process with ideal gas Δ s=c ln
T1
Assume p V n is a constant

V2 Open Systems
W isoth =mRT ln Examples covered in this topoic include
V1
 Nozzles
mR (T 2−T 1)  Turbines
W poly , n ≠1=  Compressors
1−n
 Heat Exchangers

( ) ( )
n −1 n−1  Throttle and valved
T2 p V
= 2 n
= 1
T1 p1 V2 In throttles we can assume h2 =h1 , p2 < p1
Mass Balance Ẇ cv / ṁ h 1−h2
ηt = =
( Ẇṁ )
d mcv h1−h 2 s
=∑ ṁi −∑ ṁe
cv

dt i e s

∑ ṁi =∑ ṁe ηnozzle =

2
V 2 /2
i e

( )
2
V2
Ai V i
ṁ=∑ 2 s
i vi
Energy Balance
η=
( ṁ ) h −h
Ẇ

=
cv

s 2s 1V

( ) ( )
2 c2
d E cv V V Ẇ / ṁ h2−h 1
=Q̇ cv −Ẇ cv + ∑ ṁi hi + + g z i −¿ ∑ ṁe he + + g zcve ¿
i e
dt i 2 e 2
2 2 Cycles: Vapor Compression
V 1−V 2
0=Q̇cv −Ẇ cv + ṁ[ ( h1−h 2) + + g ( z 1−z 2 ) ] Q̇¿
2 h −h
ṁ
β= = 1 4
Ẇ c / ṁ h2−h 1
Entropy Balance
The entropy of an isolated system must always Q̇out
increase over time h2−h3
ṁ
γ= =
Δ S isol=Δ S sys + Δ S surr =σ >0 Ẇ c / ṁ h2−h1
2 Cycle analysis
δQ
S2−S 1=∫ + σ (Entropy balance process)
1 T 1. Determine all states
a. Calculate isentropic states then
dS Q̇ j ‘real’ states in case of non-ideal
=∑ + σ̇ (Entropy rate balance closed compressor
dt j Tj 2. Evaluate cycle efficiency and specific work
system) 3. Relate efficiency, total work/heat and mass
rate

Efficiency of Rankine Cycle

Ẇ t−Ẇ p h −h
η= =1− 2 3
Q̇¿ h1−h 4
Entropy rate balance, open single-input, single output Ẇ p h 4−h3
bwr ( back work ratio ) = = x`
Q̇ j Ẇ t h1−h2
0=∑ + ṁ ( s1−s 2 )+ σ̇ cv
j Tj Approximating pump work in a ideal Rankine Cycle

Ẇ p
Isentropic Efficiency ≈v (p −p )
ṁ ∫ rev 3 4 3
 Increase the work required
 Decreased the work produced
 Reduces the kinetic energy.
Gas Power

Otto Cycle

1-2) Isentropic compression Δ Q=0 , Δ S=0,

W ¿ =u2−u1=C v (T 2 −T 1 )
2-3) Constant Volume Heat Addition

Q¿ =C p ( T 3−T 2 )=u3 −u2 Brayton Cycle (uses air) Rankine Cycle (uses
water)
3-4) Isentropic Expansion
In a Rankine cycle the compressor is called a pump
W out =C v ( T 3−T 4 ) =u3−u 4
1-2) Isentropic Compression
4-1) Constant Volume Heat Rejection
2-3) Constant pressure heat addition
Qout =C v (T 4 −T 1)
3-4) Isentropic expansion

4-1) Constsnt pressure heat rejection

Diesel Cycle
Rankine Cycle
1-2) Isentropic Compression

2-3) Constant Pressure, heat addition

Q¿ =u3−u 2+ P(v 3−v 2)

Q¿ =Δ h=C P Δ T

3-4) Isentropic Expansion

4-1) Constant Volume, heat rejection

q out =C v (T 4−T 1 )
 Open mode gas turbine cycle

Wc
mep ( mean effective pressure )=
V
mRT
V=
P
Ideal Gas Mixture
ni j
y i= u=∑ y i u i
n i=1
mi Mi j
m f i= = y i
m M h=∑ y i hi
i=1
j
j
M =∑ y i M i s=∑ y i si
i=1
i=1
pi= yp

p=∑ p i
j cv=( ∂∂ Tu ) p

c =(
∂T )
i=1 ∂h
p
Brayton Cycle p

Psychrometric
H
h da= =h a+ ω h v
ma
V
v da=
ma
pv
ϕ= Relative Humidity
p sat (T )
mv pv
ω= =0.622
ma p− p v
Closed mode gas turbine cycle
pa + p v =p
Dew Point
 '
p sat ( T as )
ω =0.622
p− p sat (T as)

Psychrometric mass and energy balance

0=Q̇cv + ṁa ( ha 1 +ω 1 h v1 ) + ṁa ( ω 2−ω 1 ) hw 3−ṁa (h a 2+ ωv 2 hv 2)

 Evaluate h a2 using Table

A-22 or c p , a ( T 2−T 1 )

psat ( T dp )= p v1  Evaluate h v2 using steam

table
State 1 pv 1 < psat (T )
Q̇ cv
0= +h + ( ω2 −ω1 ) hw 3−hda ,2
State D: psat ( T dp )= p v1 ṁa da, 1
State 2,3: saturated vapour and liquid are separate.
V̇
v da=
ṁa
Ḣ
h da =
ṁa

Combustion
…+ b ( O2+ 3.76 N 2 ) →

C H 4 +a ( O2 +3.76 N 2 ) →b C O2+ c H 2 O+ d N 2
Adiabatic Saturator (wet bult temperature) Example of balancing this equation

C H 4 +2 ( O2+3.76 N 2) → C O2 +2 H 2 O+7.52 N 2

Absolute Enthalpy

h ( T , p ) =hf + [ h ( T , p )−h ( T ref , pref ) ]=h f + Δ h

o o

Reactions in steady state open system

Q̇cv Ẇ cv
=∑ ne (h f , e + Δ he ¿)−∑ n e (h f , i+ Δ hi ¿)¿ ¿
o o
−
ṅF ṅ F eϵP iϵP

Reactions in closed systems

Q−W =∑ ni (hf ,i + Δ hi ¿−R T p )−∑ n i (hf ,i + Δ hi ¿−R T R)¿ ¿

o o
'
ha ( T as) −h a ( T ) +ω (h g ( T as) −h f ( T as ) ) iϵP iϵR
ω=
h g (T )−hf ( T )
Q−W =∑ ni ( hof ,i + Δ h i) −∑ ni ( hof ,i + Δ hi )−R T p ∑ ni + R T R ∑
iϵP iϵR iϵP
Adiabatic Flame Temperature o o o o
ΔG=ν c gc ( T )+ v D g D ( T )−ν A g A ( T ) −ν B g B (T )
∑ ne Δ he =∑ ni Δ hi+∑ ni Δ h of ,i −∑ ne Δ hof ,e g=h−T s
eϵP iϵR iϵR eϵP
o o
Reactants at standard enthalpy Δ G=h f + Δ h−T s (this can be used for reactions
not 298K, data can be sourced from Table A-23
∑ ne Δ he =¿ ∑ ni Δ hof , i−∑ n e Δ h of , e ¿ Δ G=−RT ln K
eϵP iϵR eϵP

Find h f from table A-24 y vC y vD

( )
 c D
p −−++¿¿

 Find adiabatic temperature by interpolating K ( T )= vA vB

y A yB pref
T and h in table A-23
Reaction with inert component
mass of air n air M air
Air fuel Ratio AF= =
nvc nvD
( )
mass of fuel n fuel M fuel c D
p −v A −v B + vC +v D
K ( T )= vA vB
M air nA nB n p ref
AF=
M fuel
Van’t Hoff
Chemical Equilibrium
d ln K Δ H
Extent of Reaction =
dT RT
2

v a A+ v B B → v c C+ v d D
Phase Equilibrium

When O2 is reacting with N 2 the '

g (T , p )=g ' '(T , p)
number of moles for O2 is 1 and the ' ''
μ A =μ A
number of moles for N 2 is 3.76.
' ''
O2 +3.76 N 2 is the approximate model μ B=μ B
for air

μi= ( ) ∂G
∂ ni T , p ,n ≠i

j
G=∑ ni g i ( pi , T )
i=1
Thermodynamic Laws
μi=g i ( pi , T )
Law Equation
o yi p Zeroth Law If two systems T 1=T 3 and
μi=g i ( T ) + R T ln (refer to table A-25) are each in T 2=T 3
pref thermal
equilibrium with
Idea gas single reaction equilibrium a third system, Then
then they are in T 1=T 2
v A A +v B B ↔ v c C +v D D
thermal
equilibrium with
Δ ni
ϵ= each other
vi First Law Energy cannot be ΔE=Q−W
 created or
destroyed, only
transformed.
Second Law Entropy of an σ ≥0
isolated system σ̇
cannot decrease =s −s
over time ṁ 2 1

Components

Solve using the conservation of mass flow rate.