HEAT TRANSFER

(PC-ME 501)
By

Dr. AMBARISH MAJI

Introduction and Basic
Concepts
 Heat Transfer
• The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence
of a temperature difference.
• The second law requires that heat
be transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
• The temperature difference is the driving force for heat
transfer.
• The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends
on the magnitude of the temperature gradient in that
direction.
• The larger the temperature gradient, the higher the rate
of heat transfer.
Application Areas of Heat Transfer
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
– conduction,
– convection,
– radiation.
• All modes of heat
transfer require the
existence of a temperature difference.
• All modes are from the high-temperature
medium to a lower-temperature one.
 Conduction
• Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
• Conduction can take place in solids,
liquids, or gases
– In gases and liquids conduction is due to
the collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion.
– In solids conduction is due to the
combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy
transport by free electrons.
 Conduction
Rate of heat conduction ∝
( Area )( Temperature difference )
Thickness
 T1 − T2 ∆T
Qcond = kA = −kA (W) (1-21)
∆x ∆x

where the constant of proportionality k is the

thermal conductivity of the material.
In differential form
dT (1-22)
Q cond = −kA (W)
dx
which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
 Thermal Conductivity
• The thermal conductivity of a material is a
measure of the ability of the material to conduct
heat.
• High value for thermal conductivity
good heat conductor
• Low value for thermal conductivity
poor heat conductor or insulator.

Thermal conductivity depends on (i) Material structure

(ii) Moisture content (iii) Density of material (iv) Pressure and
temperature
 Thermal Conductivities of Materials
• The thermal conductivities
of gases such as air vary by
a factor of 104 from those
of pure metals such as
copper.
• Pure crystals and metals
have the highest thermal
conductivities, and gases
and insulating materials the
lowest.
 Thermal Conductivities and
Temperature
• The thermal conductivities
of materials vary with
temperature.
• The temperature
dependence of thermal
conductivity causes
considerable complexity in
conduction analysis.
• A material is normally
assumed to be isotropic.
 Thermal diffusivity
Heat conducted k
α = ( m2 s ) (1-23)
Heat stored ρcp
• The thermal diffusivity represents how fast heat
diffuses through a material.
• Appears in the transient heat conduction analysis.
• A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a
low heat capacity will have a large thermal diffusivity.
• The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the
propagation of heat into the medium.
 Convection
Convection = Conduction + Advection
(fluid motion)
• Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion.
• Convection is commonly classified into three sub-
modes:
– Forced convection,
– Natural (or free) convection,
– Change of phase (liquid/vapor,
solid/liquid, etc.)
 Convection
• The rate of convection heat transfer is expressed by
Newton’s law of cooling as
Q conv hAs (Ts − T∞ )
= (W) (1-24)
• h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in
W/m2°C.
• h depends on variables such as the
surface geometry, the nature of fluid
motion, the properties of the fluid,
and the bulk fluid velocity.
 Radiation
• Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules.
• Heat transfer by radiation does not require the presence of
an intervening medium.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal
radiation (radiation emitted by bodies because of their
temperature).
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon. However, radiation
is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for
solids that are opaque to thermal radiation.
 Radiation - Emission
• The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at a thermodynamic temperature Ts (in K or R) is given
by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as
Q = σ A T 4 (W)
emit ,max s s
(1-25)
• σ =5.670X108 W/m2·K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
• The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate
is called a blackbody.
• The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the
radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, and
is expressed as

Qemit ,max = εσ AsTs 4
(W) (1-26)

0 ≤ ε ≤1
• ε is the emissivity of the surface.
 Radiation - Absorption
• The fraction of the
radiation energy incident
on a surface that is
absorbed by the surface is
termed the absorptivity α.

0 ≤α ≤1
• Both ε and α of a surface depend on the temperature
and the wavelength of the radiation.
HEAT CONDUCTION
EQUATION
Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer

• Steady implies no change

with time at any point within
the medium
• Transient implies variation
with time or time
dependence
• In the special case of
variation with time but not
with position, the
temperature of the medium
changes uniformly with
time. Such heat transfer
systems are called lumped
systems.

21
 Multidimensional Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
– one-dimensional
– two dimensional
– three-dimensional
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is three-
dimensional. However, some problems can be classified as two- or one-
dimensional depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer rates in
different directions and the level of accuracy desired.
• One-dimensional if the temperature in the medium varies in one direction
only and thus heat is transferred in one direction, and the variation of
temperature and thus heat transfer in other directions are negligible or zero.
• Two-dimensional if the temperature in a medium, in some cases, varies
mainly in two primary directions, and the variation of temperature in the
third direction (and thus heat transfer in that direction) is negligible.

22
23
CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION
Adding more insulation to a wall or
to the attic always decreases heat
transfer since the heat transfer area
is constant, and adding insulation
always increases the thermal
resistance of the wall without
increasing the convection
resistance.
In a a cylindrical pipe or a spherical
shell, the additional insulation
increases the conduction
resistance of the insulation layer
but decreases the convection An insulated cylindrical pipe exposed to
resistance of the surface because convection from the outer surface and
of the increase in the outer surface the thermal resistance network
area for convection. associated with it.
The heat transfer from the pipe
may increase or decrease,
depending on which effect
dominates.
1
The critical radius of insulation
for a cylindrical body:

The critical radius of insulation

for a spherical shell:

The largest value of the critical

radius we are likely to
encounter is

We can insulate hot-water or

steam pipes freely without The variation of heat transfer
worrying about the possibility of rate with the outer radius of the
increasing the heat transfer by insulation r2 when r1 < rcr.
insulating the pipes. 2
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH
FINS
 Introduction
&
Q conv = hA s (Ts − T∞ )

There are two ways to increase the rate of heat transfer

• too increase
c e se thee convection
co vec o heat
e transfer
s e coefficient
coe c e h
• to increase the surface area As

• Increasing h may require the installation of a pump or fan,

• Or replacing
p g the existingg one with a larger
g one
• The alternative is to increase the surface area by attaching to
the surface extended surfaces called fins
• made of highly conductive materials such as aluminum
Heat sinks
Pin fins

The thin plate fins of a car radiator greatly

increase the rate of heat transfer to the air

Fins from nature

 Longitudinal fins
Rectangular Trapezoidal

Triangular Concave parabolic

Convex parabolic
Radial fins:

Rectangular
g p
profile Triangular profile Hyperbolic profile

Pins:

Radial fin coffee cup

(a)Cylindrical (b)conical (c) concave parabolic (d) convex parabolic

 Fin Equation
dT
Q& x = − kA c
dx
& & d Q& x
Q x + dx = Q x + dx
dx

conv = hdA s (T − T∞ )
&
dQ

Energy Balance:
dQ&
Q& x = Q& x + dx + d Q& conv &
= Qx + x dx + hdA ( T − T )
s ∞
dx
d ⎛ dT ⎞ h dA s
⎜A c ⎟− (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx ⎝ dx ⎠ k dx

d 2T 1 dA c ⎛ dT ⎞ ⎛ 1 h dA s ⎞
+ ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟ (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx 2 A c dx ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ A c k dx ⎟⎠
 Fins with uniform cross sectional area
d 2T 1 dA c ⎛ dT ⎞ ⎛ 1 h dA s ⎞
2
+ ⎜ ⎟− ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ( T − T ∞ ) = 0
dx A c dx ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ A c k dx ⎠
dA c
=0
dx
dA s
A s = Px = P
d
dx

d 2 T ⎛ hP ⎞
2
− ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ( T − T ∞ ) = 0
dx ⎝ kA c ⎠
Excess temperature θ

θ ( x ) ≡ T ( x ) − T∞

d 2θ
2
− m 2
θ =0 (a) Rectangular Fin (b) Pin fin
dx
 General solution and
Boundary Conditions
d 2θ
2
− m 2
θ =0
dx
hP
m2 =
kA c
θ ( x ) ≡ T ( x ) − T∞
The g
general solution is of the form

θ ( x ) = C 1 e mx + C 2 e − mx
 Convection from tip

q denotes &
Q

BCs dT
hA c [T ( L ) − T∞ ] = − kA c |x = L
T (0 ) = T∞ dx
dθ
θ (0 ) = Tb − T∞ ≡ θ b h θ( L ) = − k |x =L
dx

θ cosh m ( L − x ) + ( h / mk ) sinh m ( L − x )
=
θb cosh mL + ( h / mk ) sinh mL
 Heat transfer from the fin surface:

& =Q& = − kA dT | dθ
Q f b c x =0 = − kA c |x =0
dx dx

& = sinh mL + ( h / mk ) cosh mL

Q f hPkA c θ b
cosh mL + ( h / mk ) sinh mL

Another way of finding Q

•
Q fin = ∫ A fin h [ T ( x ) − T∞ ]dA fin = ∫ A fin h θ ( x ) dA fin
 Insulated tip

General Sol: θ ( x ) = C 1 e mx + C 2 e − mx
dθ
BC
C 1: θ ( 0 ) = Tb − T∞ ≡ θ b BC 2: |x= L = 0
d
dx

θ h m( L − x)
cosh
=
θb cosh mL

dT dθ
q f = q b = − kA c | x = 0 = − kA c |x=0
dx dx

qf = hPkA c θ b tanh mL
 Prescribed temperature
This is a condition when the temperature
p at the tip
p is known
(for example, measured by a sensor)

θ (θ θ )sinh mx + sinh m ( L − x )
= L b
θb sinh mL

cosh mL − (θ L θ b )
qf = hPkA c θ b
sinh
i h mL
L
 Infinitely
y Long
g Fin ((Tfin tip = T∞)

Boundary condition at the fin tip: θ ( L ) = T ( L ) − T∞ = 0 as L→∞

The general solution is of the form

θ ( x ) = C 1 e mx + C 2 e − mx

Possible when C1 → 0

θ( x ) = C 2 e − mx
Apply boundary condition at base and find T
hP
−x
kA c
T ( x ) = T∞ + ( T b − T∞ ) e

• dT
Q longfin = − kA c |x =0 = hPkA c ( T b − T∞ )
dx
 Corrected fin length
g
Ac
Corrected fin length:
g Lc = L +
P
Multiplying the relation above by
the perimeter gives
Acorrected = Afin (lateral) + Atip

t
Lc,rectangularfin = L +
2
D
L c,cylindrica lfin = L +
4

Corrected fin length

g Lc is defined such that heat transfer from a fin of
length Lc with insulated tip is equal to heat transfer from the actual
fin of length L with convection at the fin tip.
 Fin Efficiency
y
•
Q fin Actual heat transfer rate from the fin
η fin = •
= Ideal heat transfer rate from the fin
Q fin , max if the entire fin were at base
temperature
In the limiting case of zero thermal resistance or
infinite thermal cond
conductivity
cti it (k →∞ ),
) the temperat
temperature
re
of the fin will be uniform at the base value of Tb.

• •
Q fin = η fin Q fin , max = η fin hA fin (Tb − T∞ )
•
Q fin hPkA c (Tb − T∞ ) 1 kA c 1
η longfin = •
= = =
Q fin , max hA fin (Tb − T∞ ) L hp mL
•
Q fin hPkA c (Tb − T∞ ) tanh mL tanh mL
η insulatedt ip = •
f
= =
Q fin , max hA fin (Tb − T∞ ) mL
 Fin Effectiveness
• •
Heat transfer rate from
Q fin Q fin
ε fin = •
= = the fin of base area Ab
Q nofin hA b (Tb − T∞ ) Heat transfer rate from
the surface of area Ab

•
Q fin kA c (Tb − T∞ )
hPkA
h kP
ε longfin = •
= =
Q nofin hA b (Tb − T∞ ) hA c

1. k should be as high as possible, (copper, aluminum, iron).

Aluminum is p preferred: low cost and weight,
g , resistance to corrosion.
2. p/Ac should be as high as possible. (Thin plate fins and slender pin fins)
3. Most effective in applications where h is low. (Use of fins justified if when the
medium is gas and heat transfer is by natural convection).
 Fin Effectiveness
• •
Heat transfer rate from
Q fin Q fin
ε fin = •
= = th fifin off base
the b area Ab
Q nofin hA b (Tb − T∞ ) Heat transfer rate from
the surface of area Ab

ε fin = 1 Does not affect the heat transfer at all.

ε fin < 1 Fin act as insulation (if low k material is used)

ε fin > 1 Enhancing heat transfer (use of fins justified if εfin>2)

Overall Fin Efficiency
y
When determining the rate of heat transfer
from a finned surface,, we must consider the
unfinned portion of the surface as well as the
fins. Therefore, the rate of heat transfer for a
surface containing n fins can be expressed as
• • •
Q total , fin = Q unfin + Q fin
= hA unfin (Tb − T∞ ) + η fin hA fin (Tb − T∞ )
= h ( Aunfin +η fin A fin )( Tb − T∞ )
We can also define an overall
effectiveness for a finned surface as the
ratio of the total heat transfer from the
finned surface to the heat transfer from the
same surface if there were no fins
•
Q total , fin h ( Aunfin + η fin A fin )( Tb − T∞ )
ε fin , overall = •
=
Q total , nofin hA nofin (Tb − T∞ )
Efficiency of circular, rectangular, and triangular fins on a plain surface of
width w (from Gardner, Ref 6).
Efficiency of
circular fins of
length L and
constant
thickness t (from
Gardner, Ref. 6).
Proper length of a fin
“a” means “m”
• Fins
Fi with
i h triangular
i l andd parabolic
b li profiles
fil contain
i less
l
materialand are more efficient requiring minimum weight

• An important consideration is the selection of the proper fin

length L. Increasing the length of the fin beyond a certain value
cannot be justified unless the added benefits outweigh the added
cost.

•The
Th efficiency
ffi i off mostt fins
fi usedd in
i practice
ti isi above
b 90 percentt
Transient Heat Conduction with
Heissler Chart
PLANE WALL
4
CYLINDER
SPHERE