23.

A LT E R N AT I N G
CURRENT

1. INTRODUCTION
A majority of electrical power in the world is generated, distributed, and consumed in the form of 50-Hzor60-Hz
sinusoidal alternating current (AC) and voltage. It is used for household andindustrial applications.
AC has several advantages over DC. The major advantage of AC is the fact that it can be transformedinto any form,
whereas direct current (DC) cannot. A transformer permits voltage to be stepped up or down for the purpose of
transmission. Transmission of high voltage (in terms of KV) implies that less current is required to produce the same
amount of power. Less current permits thinner wires to be used for transmission.
In this chapter, we will introduce a sinusoidal signal and its basic mathematic equation. We will discuss and analyse
circuits where currents i(t) and voltages v(t) vary with time. The phasor analysis techniques will be used to analyse
electronic circuits under sinusoidal steady-state operating conditions. The chapter will conclude with single-phase
power.

2. SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORMS
AC, unlike DC, flows first in one direction, then in the
opposite direction. The most common AC waveform is a RMS value
sine (or sinusoidal) waveform. Peak value

In discussing AC signal, it is necessary to express the

current and voltage in termsof maximum or peak values, Peak-to-Peak
peak-to-peakvalues, effective values, average values, or
instantaneous values. Each of these values has a different
meaning and is used to describe a different amount of
current or voltage. V(t)=V0 sin wt. Where Vo is the peak
voltage, ω = 2π f is the angular frequency expressed in
radian per second (rad/s), f is the frequencyexpressed in
Hertz (Hz), t is time expressed in second (s). 1 cycle

Figure 23.1: Sinusoidal Waveform.

2.1 Instantaneous Value
The instantaneous value of an AC signal is the value of voltage or current at one particular instant. The value may
be zero, if the particular instant is the time in the cycle at which the polarity of the voltage is changing. It may also
be the same as the peak value, if the selected instant is the time in the cycle at which the voltage or current stops
increasing and starts decreasing. There are actually an infinitenumber of instantaneous values between zero and
the peak value.
2 3 . 2 | Alternating Current

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

It is always advisable to find symmetries in functions while calculating rms and average value to reduce
the period of integration.It helps a lot in avoiding unnecessary calculations when functions are defined
part by part.
Yashwanth Sandupatla (JEE 2012, AIR 821)

2.2 Average Value t2

∫ fdt t2
t1
Average value of a function,from t1 to t2, is defined as <f>=
t2 − t1
. We can find the value of ∫ fdt graphically if the
graph is simple. It is the area of f-t graph from t2 − t1 . t1

∫ idt
0
Iavg =
t
,where i is the instantaneous value of the current.

∫ dt
0

2.2.1 For Sinusoidal Variation of Current and Voltages

t

∫ io sin ( ωτ + θ) dt
Case I: Average value over complete cycle 0 t
. Similarly Vavg = 0

∫ dt
0
t/2

∫ io sin ( ωτ + θ ) dt
0 2io 2 io
Case II: Average value=
over half cycle Iavg = ; Similarly Vavg =
t/2 π π
∫ dt
0

Illustration 1: An electric heater draws 2.5 A current from a 220-V, 60-Hz power supply. Find  (JEE MAIN)
(a) The average current
(b) The average of the square of the current
(c) The current amplitude
(d) The supply voltage amplitude

Sol: In AC circuit, the average value of current over a long time interval is zero but I2 is not zero. The r.m.s. value of
Imax Vmax
current and voltage is=
given by Irms = and Vrms .
2 2
(a) The average of sinusoidal AC values over any whole number of cycles is zero.
 P hysi cs | 23.3

(b) RMS value of current = Irms =2.5 A so, =

I2 ( ) av
(=
Irms )
2
6.25 A2

Im
( c ) Irms = ; So, current amplitude I =
m
= 2 Irms 2 ( 2.5A ) 3.5 A
=
2

Vm
( d) = =
Vrms 220V ; So, supply voltage amplitude
= V m 2 ( Vrms )
= ( 220V ) 311 V.
2=
2

2.3 Effective Value (RMS Value)

This is the value of AC signal that will have the same effect on a resistance as a comparable value of direct voltage
or current will have on the same resistance. It is possible to compute the effective value of a sine wave of current to
a good degree of accuracy by taking equally spacedinstantaneous values of current along the curve and extracting
the square root of the average of the sum of the squared values. For this reason, effective value is sometimes called
RMS value. t 2

∫ f 2dt
t1
Root mean square value of a function, from t1 to t2 is defined as frms =
t2 − t1
T T

∫ I2dt ∫ I02 sin2 ( ωτ ) dt

I20
The magnitude of Irms is given by
= 2
Irms 0
= 0
=
T T 2
∫ dt0 ∫0 dt

I0 V0
I= =
eff Irms = 0.707 I0 =
Where I0 is the peak value of the current. Similarly Ve f f or Vrms = 0.707 E0 A
2 2

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

RMS value is actually more important because in the context of power transmission,the loss in energy
due to a resistor plays an important role. And the power is given by i2R, where R is the resistance.
Yashwanth Sandupatla (JEE 2012, AIR 821)

π π 3π
Illustration 2:Find the RMS value of current I = Im sin ω t from (i) t=0 to t= (ii)t= to t =  (JEE MAIN)
ω 2ω 2ω

Sol: In AC circuit over time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ T the RMS value of current is given by

T T

∫ I2dt ∫ I20 sin2 ( ωτ ) dt

0 0 I0 2π
=
Irms = = where T =
T T
2 ω
∫ dt 0 ∫0 dt
 2 3 . 4 | Alternating Current

3π
π 2π

∫
2
ω Im sin2 (ωt)dt
∫ Im2 sin2 (ωt)dt 2
Im I
π 2
Im Im
(i) =
Irms 0
= = m (ii) =
Irms 2
= = A
π 2 2 π 2 2
ω ω

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

The RMS value of one cycle or half cycle (either a positive or negative cycle) is same.
GV Abhinav (JEE 2012, AIR 329)

2.4 Difference between Sine and Cosine Representation of AC Signal

The sine and cosine are essentially the same function, but with a 900 phase difference. For example, sin ωt =cos
( ωt − 90 ) . Multiples of 360 may be added to or subtracted from the argument of any sinusoidal function, without
0 0

changing the value of the function. To realize this, let us consider

=V1 VP1 cos 10t + 20

= (
0
)
VP1 sin 10t + 900 + 200 ( ) 
… (i)

(
= VP1 sin 10t + 1100 = )
Leads V2 VP2 sin 10t − 40
0
( )  … (ii)

by 1500. It is also correct to say that v1lags v2by 2100, since v1 may be written as

= (
V1 VP1 sin 10t − 2500 ) V … (iii)

v
VP

VPsin(t+) Vpsin t

t


-VP

Figure 23.2: Representation of voltage as sine and cosine function

 P hysi cs | 23.5

3. POWER IN AC CIRCUITS t

∫ vidt
Average power in alternating current circuit over time t is defined as Pavg = 0
, where V andiare the
t

∫ dt
0

instantaneous values of voltage and current respectively. Let V= V0 sin ω

= ( )
t; i i0 sin ωt − φ , Average power over a cycle
T T
 1 
∫ v oio sin ωt.sin ( ωt − φ ) dr v oio ∫  sin2 ωt cos φ − sin2ω t sin φ  dt
0 0 
2  1
Pavg = ;= = V=
i cos φ Vrmsirms cos φ
T T 2 00
∫ dt
0
The term cos φ is known as power factor.
If the current leads voltage, it is said to be leading, whereas, if it lags voltage, it is said to be lagging. Thus, a power
factor of 0.5 lagging means the current lags voltage by 60o (as cos-10.5 = 60o). The product of Vrms and irms gives
the apparent power, while the true power is obtained by multiplying the apparentpower by the power factor cosφ

Thus, apparent power = Vrms × irms and true power=apparent power × power factor

For φ = 0o, the current and voltage are in phase. The power is thus, maximum (Vrms × irms). For φ = 90o the power is
zero. The current is then stated wattless. Such a case will arise when resistance in the circuits is zero. The circuit is
purely inductive or capacitive. The case is similar to that of a frictionless pendulum, where the total work done by
gravity upon the pendulum cycle is zero.
We shall discuss more about the power and power factor later, shortly after we define impedance and its properties.

Illustration 3: When a voltage Vs = 200 2 sin (ωt+15o) is applied to an AC circuit, the current in thecircuit is found
to be I=2 sin (ωt+π/4) then average power consumed in the circuit is  (JEE MAIN)

(A) 200 W (B) 400 2 W (C) 100 2 W (D) 200 2 W

Sol: Power in any AC circuit is calculated

= as Pav Vrms Irms cos φ where φ is phase angle between V and I.

=Pav Vrms=
Irms cos φ
200 2 2
2
. =
2
cos 300 ( )
100 6 W

4. SIMPLE AC CIRCUITS

4.1 Purely Resistive Load Vs = Vm sin t

Writing KVL along the circuit (see Fig. 23.3), VS iR=0


Vs Vm sin ωt i
Or =I = = Im sin ωt . R
R R
Figure 23.3: AC voltage applied to
We see that the phase difference between potential differences across resistive load
resistance, VR and iR is 0.
2 3 . 6 | Alternating Current

Vm Vrms Vrms2
Im = ⇒ Irms = <P> = Vrms Irms cos φ =
R R R

4.2 Purely Capacitive Vs = Vm sin t

Writing KVL along the circuit shown in Fig. 23.4


q i
VS − 0 And current in the circuit is
=
c C

dq d ( cv ) d ( cvm sin ωt ) Vm Figure 23.4: AC voltage

I = = = = cvmω sin ω=
t cos ωt.
dt dt dt 1 / ωC applied to capacitive load

Vm
= cos=
ωt Im cos ωt
XC
1 V-
T
where X C =
where and is called capacitive reactance. Its unit is Ohm ( Ω ).
ωC t
From the graph of current versus time and voltage versus time,
i
T
it is clear that current attains its peak value at a timebefore the
4
T t
time at which voltage attains its peak value. Corresponding to phase difference.
4
2π T π
= ω� t = = i leadsvcby π / 2 diagrammatically (phasediagram) represented as Figure 23.5
T 4 2 c

Since φ =900 ,<P>= Vrms Irms cos φ =0 Im

The current leads the voltage by π / 2 in a capacitive circuit
Vm
MASTERJEE CONCEPTS
<P>=0 doesn’t mean it is zero in any period less than the time period. In actuality, first the capacitor
gets charged up, gaining energy during the first half cycle, and loses it for the next half cycle.So overall,
power becomes zero.Same goes for the inductor in a different fashion (magnetic field plays a role there).
Yashwanth Sandupatla (JEE 2012, AIR 821)

4.3 Pure Inductive Circuit

di di Vs = Vm sin t
Writing KVL along circuit, Vs − L
dt
=;L
0=
dt ∫ Ldi
Vm sin ωt;= ∫ Vm sin ωt dt ;

Vm
i =− cos ωt + C ; <i>=0 ; C=0; i
ωL
L
V Vm
∴i = − m cos ωt Im = From the graph of current versus time and voltage Figure 23.6: AC voltage
ωL XL applied to inductive load
T
versus time, it is clear that voltage attains its peak value at a time before the time
4
T 2π T 2π π
at which current attains its peak value. Corresponding to , the phase difference = ω� t = = =
4 T 4 T 2
 P hysi cs | 23.7

V T
t

Figure 23.7: Variation of current and voltage with respect to time

Vm
Diagrammatically (See Fig. 23.7) it is represented as

Im
iL lags behind VL by π / 2 since φ =90 , <P>=Vrms Irms cos φ =0. The current lags voltage by π / 2 in a purely inductive
0

circuit.

Applied Induced
voltage voltage

Figure 23.8: AC voltage applied to purely inductive circuit

5. IMPEDANCE
We have already seen that the inductive reactance XL = ωL and capacitance reactance X=
C 1 / ωL play the role of
an effective resistance in apurely inductive and capacitive circuit respectively. In the series RLC circuit, the effective

( )
2
resistance is the impedance,defined as Z = R + XL − X C …(iv)

The relationship between Z, XL, and XC can be represented by the diagram shown in Fig. 23.9.
Following is a diagrammatic representation of the relationship between Z, XL and XC. 
Z
The impedance has SI unit of Ω. In terms of Z the current may be rewritten as I(t) XL - XC

V0
sin ( ωt − φ ) …(v)

=
Z R

Figure 23.9: Impedance

Notice that the impedance Z also depends on the angular frequency ω ,as do XL and XC.
Triangle
Using the above equations for phase φ and Z, we may readily recover the limit for
simple circuit (with only one element).
2 3 . 8 | Alternating Current

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

By now, students should get a clear idea of individual behaviour of inductor, capacitor and resistor and
be able to visualize phasors. They should never get confused whetherinductor, capacitor is leading, etc.
Chinmay S Purandare (JEE 2012, AIR 698)

The upcoming series of circuits would be easy to understand because they are just a superposition of individual
phasor diagrams.

6. MIXED AC CIRCUITS
6.1 LR Circuit
If VR, VL and Vsare the RMS voltage across are R, L and the AC source respectively. Then,

=
VS VR2 =
+ VL2 I2 R 2 + XL2 Where Is is r.m.s value of source current.

The total opposition to the current is called impedance and it is denoted by Z.

VS
Z= = R2 + X
=L
2
R 2 + ω2L2
IS

VL
R VR

V S VS
L VL

VR IS
(a) (b)

Figure 23.10: (a) AC voltage applied to LR circuit (b) Phasor diagram of voltage drops across R and L

−1 −1 X   ωL 
The phase angel φ by which the applied voltage leads the current
= is φ tan
= L
  tan  
R
   R 

Illustration 4: An alternating voltage of 220V RMS at a frequency of 40 cycles/second is supplied to a circuit

containing a pure inductance of 0.01 H and a pure resistance of 6Ω in series. Calculate (a) The current, (b) Potential
difference across the resistance, (c) Potential different across inductance, (d) The time lag. (JEE MAIN)

Vrms
R 2 + ( ωL ) . The RMS value of the current is Irms =
2
Sol: Theimpedance of LR circuit is=
Z . In LR circuit, the
Z
 ωL 
current lags the applied voltage by phase angleφ obtained as φ =tan−1  .
 R 
The impedence of the L-R series circuit is given by:
1/2 1/2
Z2= R 2 + ( ωL )
2  2 2
 = (R ) + ( 2πfL ) 
 P hysi cs | 23.9

1/2
= 62 + ( 2 × 3.14 × 40 × 0.01 ) 
2
= 6.504 Ω
 

V 220
(a) RMS value of the current: Irms==
rms
= 33.83 A
Z 6.504
(b) The potential difference across the resistance is given by: VR=Irms × R=33.83 × 6= 202.83 V
(c) Potential difference across the inductance is given by:
( )
VL = Irms × ( ωL ) = 33.83 × 2 × 3.14 × 0.01 = 96.83 V

 ωL 
(d) Phase angle φ =tan−1   ; so, φ = tan (0.4189=22.46)
-1

 R 

φ 22.46
Now time lag= = T= = 0.0623 s.
360 360

9
Illustration 5: A H inductor and a 12 Ω resistance are connected in a series to a 225 V, 50 Hz ac source.
100π
Calculate the current in the circuit and the phase angle between the current and the source voltage. (JEE MAIN)

Vrms
R 2 + ( ωL ) . The RMS value of the current is Irms =
2
Sol: Theimpedance of LR circuit is =
Z . In LR circuit, the
Z
 ωL 
current lags the applied voltage by phase angleφ obtained as φ =tan−1  .
 R 
9
Here XL= ωL =2 πfL = 2π × 50 × = 9Ω
100π

So, Z = R 2 + XL2 = 122 + 92 =15Ω

V 225 −1  XL  −1  9  −1
(a) l=
= and (b) φ tan
= 15A = = =
  tan =
  tan 3 / 4 370o
Z 15 R
  12
 
i.e., the current will lag the applied voltage by 370 in phase.

Illustration 6: A chokecoil is needed to operate an arc lamp at 160 V (RMS) and 50 Hz. The arc lamp has an
effective resistance of 5Ω when running of 10 A (RMS). Calculate the inductance of the choke coil. If the same arc
lamp is to be operated on 160V (dc), what additional resistance is required? Compare the power losses in both
cases.
 (JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: The choke coil is a LR circuit having large inductanceand small

Ark lamp
resistance. The potential difference across the resistor and inductor is added
vectorially:V2=VR2+VL2.
L R
As for the lamp, VR=IR = 10 × 5 = 50V , so when it is connected to 160 V ac source
VL VR
though a choke in series,V2=VR2+VL2, VL= 1602 − 502 =
152 V

VL
And as, VL=IXL=I ωL = 2πfLI L=
2πfI
=
152
2 × π × 50 × 10
=4.84 ×10 −2 H 
V = V0sin t

Now the lamp is to be operated at 160 V dc; instead of choke, if additional Figure 23.11
resistance r is I put in a series with it, V = I(R+r), i.e. 160 = 10(5+r) i.e. r = 11Ω In
case of AC, as choke has no resistance, power loss in the choke will be zero, while
2 3 . 1 0 | Alternating Current

the bulb will consume P=I2 R=102 × 5=500 W. However, in case of DC,as resistance r is to be used instead of choke,
the power loss in the resistance r will be PL=102 X 11=1100 W
While the bulb will still consume 500 W, i.e., when the lamp is run on resistance r instead of choke, more than
double the power consumed by the lamp is wasted by the resistance r.

6.2 RC Circuits
VR
IS
R VR 

V S VC
VS
C -
- VC

(a) (b)

Figure 23.12: (a) AC voltage applied to RC circuit (b) Phasor diagram of voltage drops across R and C

If Vs, VR and VC are RMS voltages across a source, resistance and capacitor respectively

VS = VR2 + VC2 =IS = R 2 + X 2C

VS 1
Impedance of circuit, Z= = R 2 + X 2C = R2 +
IS 2 2
ωC

−1 −1 X   1 
VS leads=
IS by φ tan
= 
C
 tan  
 R   ωCR 
The current leads the applied voltage by angel φ .

Illustration 7:An ac source of angular frequency ω is fed across a resister R and a capacitor C in series. The current
registered is I. If now, the frequency of source is changed to w/3 (but maintaining the same voltage), the current in
the circuit is found to be halved. Calculate the ratio of reactance to resistance at the original frequency w.
 (JEE MAIN)
Sol: The impedance of RC circuit is:

2
 1  Vrms
=
Z R2 +   . The RMS current is Irms =
 ωC  Z

V V
According to the given problem, I= = … (i)
Z  2 2
1/2


R + ( 1 / C ω ) 

ω I V
And for frequency of , = … (ii)
3 2  2 2
1/2


R + ( 3 / C ω ) 

Substituting the value of I from equation (i) in (ii),

 1  9 1 3
4  R2 + R2 +
= i.e.. = R2
2 2  2 2 2 2 5
 C ω  C ω C ω
 P hysi cs | 23.11

1/2
3 2
 R 
X (1 / cω )  5  3
So that,
= = =
R R R 5

Illustration 8: In an RC series circuit, the RMSvoltage of source is 200V, and its frequency is 50 Hz. If R = 100 Ω
100
and
= C µF , find
π 220V50HZ
(a) Impedance of the circuit (b) Power factor angle 
(c) Power factor (d) Current
(e) Maximum current (f) Voltage across R
C R
(g) Voltage across C (h) Max voltage across R Figure 23.13
(i) Maxvoltage cross C ( j)<P>
(k) <PR> (l) <PC> (JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: The impedance of RC circuit is

2
 1 
2
=Z R + 
 ωC 

Vrms XC
The RMS current is Irms = . The phase angle between current and voltage is given by tan φ = . The RMS
Z R
I0 V0
value of current and voltage
= is Irms = and Vrms =
. Power developed in circuit is P Vrms Irms cos φ .
2 2

106
=
XC = 100 Ω
100
π
( )
2 π50

Z = R 2 + XC2 = 1002 + (100 ) = 100 2Ω

2
(a)

XC
(b) tan=
φ = 1 φ 450
∴=
R
1
(c) Power factor= cos φ =
2

Vrms 200
(d) Current=
Irms = = 2A
Z 100 2

(e) Maximum current =Irms 2 = 2 A

(f) Voltage across R=VR,rms=Irms R= 2 × 100 V

(g) Voltage across C= VCrms = IrmsXC = 2 × 100 V

(h) Max voltage across R= 2 VR,rms=200 V

(i) Max voltage across C= 2 VCrms=200 V

2 3 . 1 2 | Alternating Current

1
( j) <P>= Vrms Irms cos=
φ 200 × 2 × W
2
(k) <PR>Irms 2R=200 W

(l) <Pc>=0

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

We observed here that inductor’s reactance is directly proportional to the frequency used in the circuit
and vice-versa for capacitor. So a combined circuit of them can be used as a frequency filter. High
frequencies can be received by noting the voltage across capacitor and low frequencies can be noted
using the inductor.
Nitin Chandrol (JEE 2012, AIR 134)

Vs = V sint XL
 V
V
90
o I
I
XC
L C
(a) (b)
Figure 23.14: (a) AC voltage applied to LC circuit (b) Phasor diagram for voltage drops across L and R

6.3 LC Circuits

( )
From the phasor diagram V = I XL − X C = I Z; φ =900

6.4 RLC Circuits

VR2 + ( VL − VC )
2
For LCR series circuits Vs =

2
2  1 
R + ( XL − X C )
2 2
Impedance of circuits Z = = R +  ωL − 
 ωc 

 1 
 X − X   ωL − 
VS leads IS by φ =tan−1  L −1 ωc 
 = tan 
C

 R   R 
 
 
R
Power in LCR circuit= Vrms=
Irms cosf V=
rms Irms VR Irms
Z
 P hysi cs | 23.13

VL -
R VR

VL-VC
VS
VS L VL

VR IS
C VC VC-

(a) (b)

Figure 23.15: (a) AC voltage applied to LCR circuit. (b) Phasor diagram of voltage drops across L, C and R

Where cos φ is called the power factor of the LCR circuit.

6.4.1 Resonance in RLC Circuits

1
At a particular angular frequency ωο of the source, when XL = X C or ωο L= , the impedance of the circuit
ω0 C
becomes minimum and equal to R and therefore, the current will be maximum. The circuit is then said to be

in resonance. The resonance angular frequency ωο andfrequency V0 given by

1 1
ω0= .ν0=
2 2π LC
The variation of RMS current with the frequency of the applied voltage is shown
in the Fig. 23.16. If the applied voltage consists of a number of frequency Irms
components, the current will be large for the components having frequency V0.
ω0L
The Q factor of an LCR series circuit is given by Q= . A direct current of a
R
flows uniformly throughout the cross-section of theconductor. An alternating

current on the other hand, flows mainly along the surface of the conductor.
This effect is known as the skin effect. The reason is that when ac flows through
V0 V
aconductor, the flux change in the inner part of the conductor is higher.
Figure 23.16

MASTERJEE CONCEPTS

The idea of resonance is used in TV channelsfor clarity: a particular frequency is assignedto a channel
and when this frequency is received by the receiver,the current corresponding to this frequency becomes
maximum. This helps in maximum possible separation of channels, thus increasing their individual clarity.
It is also used by intelligence agencies to intercept the signals of anti-social elements. They generally use
frequency of a very high order.
Nivvedan (JEE 2009, AIR 113)
2 3 . 1 4 | Alternating Current

Illustration 9: In the circuit shown in the Fig. 23.17, find  (JEE MAIN)
(a) The reactance of the circuit 200V, 50Hz
(b) Impedance of the circuit 
2 100
(c) The current H 100  F
(d) Reading of the ideal AC voltmeters
(These are hot wire instruments and read RMS values) V1 V2 V3
V4

R 2 + ( X C − XL )
2
Sol: In series LCR circuit, the impedance is Z = where XC V5

and XL are the capacitive reactance and inductive reactance respectively. Figure 23.17

2 1
(a) XL = 2πfL = 2π × 50 × = 200Ω XC= =100 Ω
π 100 −6
2π50 × 10
π
∴ The reactance of the circuit X=XL-XC=200-100=100 Ω

Since XL>XC, the circuit is called inductive.

(b) Impedance of circuit Z= R 2 + X=

2
1002 + 100=
2
100 2 Ω

vrms 200
(c) The current =
Irms = = 2A
Z 100 2
(d) Readings of ideal voltage

V1 : Irms XL = 200 2 V

V2 : IrmsR = 100 2 V

V3 : Irms X c = 100 2 V

V4 : Irms R 2 + XL2 =
100 10 V
, which also happens to be the voltage of source.
V4 : Irms Z = 200 V,

Illustration 10: A resistance R, inductance L and a capacitor C all are connected in series with ac supply. The
resistance of R is 16 Ω and for a given frequency, the inductive reactance of L is 24 Ω and capacitive reactance of C
is 12 Ω. If the current in the circuit is 5 amp, find: (JEE MAIN)
(a) The potential difference across R, L and C
(b) The impedance of the circuit
(c) The voltage of ac supply
(d) Phase angle

R 2 + ( X C − XL ) where XC and XL are the capacitive reactance and

2
Sol: In series LCR circuit, the impedance is Z =
 X − XC 
inductive reactance respectively. The phase angle between voltage and current is given by φ =tan−1  L  .
 R
 
 P hysi cs | 23.15

(a) Potential difference across resistance: VR=iR = 5 × 16 =

80 V
( )
Potential difference across inductance: VL=i × ωL = 5 × 24 = 120 V
i (1 / ωC ) =5 × 12 =60 V
Potential difference across capacitor: Vc =×

  1  
2

(16 ) + (12) =
2 2
(b) Z= R 2 +  − ωL  = 20 Ω

  ωC  

(c) The voltage of ac supply is given by: V =IZ =5 × 20 =100 V

 ωL − ( 1 / ωc ) 
−1  24 − 12 
(d) φ =tan 

=
R
 tan−1=
 
16
=
 tan
−1
( 0.75) 360 46"
   

Illustration 11: An oscillating voltage drives an alternating current through a resistor, an R

inductor, and a capacitor that are all connected in series. Calculate the RMS voltage across Vrms
each another by multiplying the reactance or resistance of each element by the RMS current. 
To calculate the RMS current, divide the RMS voltage by the impedance.  (JEE ADVANCED)
L
lrms C

R 2 + ( X C − XL )
2
Sol: In series LCR circuit, the impedance is Z = where XC and XL are the Figure 23.18

capacitive reactance and inductive reactance respectively. The phase angle between voltage
 X − XC 
and current is given by φ =tan−1  L  . Find the current in the series circuit, and multiply the resistance or
 R
 
reactance of each element with the currrent to find the voltage drop across it.

1 1
1. Calculate XC; X
= = =17.68 k Ω
C
ωC 2π ( 60.0Hz ) 0.15µF

( )( )
2. Calculate XL ; XL =ωL = 2π 60.0Hz 25mH = 9.42π Ω

3. Calculate the impedance:

R 2 + ( XL − X C=
) ( 9.9k Ω ) + ( 0.00942k Ω − 17.68k Ω)
2 2 2
=
Z = 20.25 K Ω

Vrms 115 V
4. Divide the voltage by the impedance: =
Irms = = 5.7 mA
Z 20.25 k Ω

= Irms=
5. Multiply the current by the resistance: Vrms.R R 5.68 mA(9.9k =
Ω) 56 V

= Irms=
6. Multiply the current by the inductive reactance: Vrms.L XL 5.68 mA( 9.42k=
Ω) 54 V

7. Multiply the current by the capacitive reactance:

= Irms=
Vrms.C X C 5.68 m A(17.68k =
Ω ) 100V
= 0.10 KV
2 3 . 1 6 | Alternating Current

6.5 Parallel RCL Circuits

Consider the parallel RLC circuit illustrated in Fig. 23.19. 
V(t) R L C
The voltage source is V (t) =V0 sin ωt .
Unlike the series RLC circuit, the instantaneous voltage acrossall three circuit
elements R, L, and C are the same, and each voltage is in phase with the current
through the resistor. However, the current through each element will be different. Figure 23.19 Parallel LRC circuit

In analysing this circuit, we make use of the results derived before. The current
V(t) V0
in the resistor is IR (t)= = = sin ωt= IR0 sin ωt  … (i)
R R
dIL
Where IR0 = V0 /R. The voltage across the inductor is VL (t)
= V(t)
= V0 sin ω=
t L … (ii)
dt 
t
V0 V0 V0  π  π
which gives=
IL (t) ∫L sinωt'dt'
=
ωL
=
cos ωt
XL
sin  ωt −=

 IL0 sin  ωt −  
2  2
… (iii)
0

where IL0 = V0 / XL andXL = ωL is the inductive reactance.

Similarly, the voltage across the capacitor is VC (t)=V0 sin ωt =Q(t)/c, which implies

dQ V  π  π
IC (t) = =ωCV0 cos ωt = 0 sin  ωt +  =IC0 sin  ωt +   … (iv)
dt XC  2  2

= V0 / XC and X=
where IC0 C 1 / ωL is the capacitive reactance.

Using Kirchhoff’s junction rule, the total current is simply the sum of all three currents.

I(t) = IR (t) + IL (t) + Ic (t) = IR0 sin ωt + IL0 sin  ωt − π  + IC0 sin  ωt + π   … (v)
 2  2

The current can be represented with the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 23.20


ICO

  
I0 ICO + ILO

 
IRO V0

ILO

Figure 23.20: Phase difference between current and voltage

   
From the phasor diagram, we see that. I0 = IR0 + IL0 + IC0  … (vi)

And the maximum amplitude of the total current, I0 , can be obtained as

 P hysi cs | 23.17

2 2
      1  1 1  1 1 
I0 = I0 = IR0 + IL0 + IC0 = I2R0
+ (Ic0 − I=
L0 ) V0
2
+  ωC − =  V0 + −  … (vii)
ωL  
 X C XL  
2 2
R  R
Note however, since IR(t), IL (t) and IC(t) are not in phase with one another, I0is not equal to the sum of the maximum
amplitudes of the three currents: I0 ≠ IR0 + IL0 + IC0  … (viii)
With I0 = V0 /Z, the (inverse) impedance of the circuit is given by:
2 2
1 1  1  1  1 1 
= +  ωC − = + −   … (ix)
Z R 2
 ω L R 2  X C XL 

The relationship between Z, R, XL and XC is shown in Fig. 23.21 which shows a relationship between Z, R, XL and XC
in a parallel RLC circuit.

1/Z 1 -1
XC XL

1/R

Figure 23.21: Impedance triangle

V0 V0
−
 IC0 − IL0  X C XL V V 
From the phasor diagram, we see that the phase can be obtained as: tan
= φ  =  = R 0 − 0 
 I  V0 X 
 R0   C XL 
 π 
= R  ωt −  R … (x)
 2

The resonance condition for the parallel RLC circuit is given by φ =0, which implies:
1 1
=  … (xi)
X C XL
1
The resonant frequency is: ω0 =  … (xii)
LC
which is the same as for the series RLC circuit. From Eq. (xii), we readily see that 1/Z is minimum (or Z is maximum)
at resonance. The current in the inductor exactly cancels out the current in the capacitor, so that the total current
V0
in the circuit reaches minimum, and is equal to the current in the resistor: I0 =  … (xiii)
R

As in the series RLC circuit, power is dissipated only through the resistor. The average power is

V02 V02 V02 Z

P(t) = IR (t)V(t) = IR2 (t)R = sin2 ωt = = =   … (xiv)
R 2R 2Z  R 

Thus, the power factor in this case is

P(t) Z 1
Power factor = = = = cos φ  … (xv)
V02 / 2Z R  R 
2
1 +  RωC − 
 ω L
 2 3 . 1 8 | Alternating Current

Illustration 12: The image shows an inductor (L=0.22 mH) in series with a 15 Ω L R
resistor. These elements are in parallel with a second 15 Ω resistor. An AC generator
powers the circuit with an RMS voltage of 65V. R
In the limit of high frequency, the inductor behaves like a very large resistor. In such a
case, nearly all of the current flows through the branch with the lone resistor. Calculate
the current by dividing the RMS voltage by the single resistor. 
Figure 23.22
In the limit of low frequency, the reactance of the inductor approaches zero.
In such a case, the current flows through each resistor equally. Calculate the
equivalent resistor and divide the voltage by the equivalentresistance to determine the current.(JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: For very high source frequency, the reactance of the inductor becomes practically infinite so that the current
doesn’t flow through the inductor. Thus, the inductor acts as an open circuit. For very low source frequency, the
reactance of the inductor becomes practically zero, and theinductor behaves as a short circuit.
Vrms 65 V
1. Calculate the current at high frequency: =
Irms = = 4.3 A
R 15 Ω
−1
1 1 R 15Ω
2. Calculate the equivalent resistance at low frequency: R eq =
 +  == = 7.5Ω 3.
R R  2 2
Vrms 65V
Divide the voltage by the equivalent resistance: =
Irms = = 8.7 A
R eq 7.5Ω

Illustration 13: For the circuit shown in Fig. 23.23, current in inductance is 0.8 A while its capacitance is 0.6A. What
is the current drawn from the source? (JEE ADVANCED)

IL
C
I IC

Figure 23.23

Sol: For LC circuit, total current in the circuit= ( )

is I I0 sin ωt + φ = IL + IC. The current in the inductor lags the applied
π π
voltage by phase difference of while in capacitor, the current leads applied voltage by In parallel ac circuit,
2 2
=V V0 sin ωt is applied across both the inductorand capacitor, current in inductor lags the applied voltage while
current in capacitor leads the applied voltage.

V  π V  π
So, IL= ; IC
sin  ωt −  =−0.8 cos ωt= sin  ωt += 0.6 cos ωt
XC  2 XC  2

So, the current drawn from the source, I =IL + IC =−0.2cos ωt , i.e. I0 = 0.2 A

7. MORE ON POWER FACTOR

(a) The factor cos φ present in the relation for average power of an ac circuit is called power factor.
Pac Pavg
So, cos φ = = . Thus, ratio of average power and virtual power in the circuit is equal to power factor.
Erms Irms pV
 P hysi cs | 23.19

(b) Power factor is also equal to the ratio of the resistance and the impedance of the Z
ac circuit.
1
R
Thus, cos φ = C
Z 
(c) Power factor depends upon the nature of the components used in the circuit.(d) If 0 R
a pure resistor is connected in the ac circuit then, Figure 23.24
E0 I0 E02
=φ 0,cos
= φ 1; p=
av = = Erms Irms
2 2R
Thus, the power loss is maximum and electrical energy is converted in the form of heat.
(e) If a pure inductor or capacitor are connected in the ac circuit, then
φ ≠ 90o , cosφ = 0 ∴ Pav =0 (minimum)
Thus is no loss of power.
(f) If a resistor and an inductor or a capacitor are connected in an ac circuit, then φ ≠ 0 or φ ≠ 90o. Thus φ is in
between 0 & 90o.
(g) If the components L, C and R are connected in series in a circuit, then

X ( ωL − 1 / ωC ) R R R
=
tan φ= = and cos φ= = ; Power factor cos φ
R R Z  2 2
1/2 Z
(
R ωL − 1 / ωC  )
(h) Power factor is a unit less quantity.

(i) If there is only an inductance coil in the circuit, there will be no loss of power, and energy will be stored in the
magnetic field.

( j) If a capacitor is only connected in the circuit, there will also be no loss of power, and energy will be stored in the
electrostatic field.

(k) In reality, an inductor and capacitor do have some resistance. So, there is always some loss of power.
(l) In the state of resonance, the power factor is one.

8. WATTLESS CURRENT
(a) The component of current whose contribution to the average power is nil, is called wattless current.
(b) The average wattle of power iszero because the average of the second Irms cos
component of instantaneous power for a full cycle will be 0

E

E0 sin ωt (l0 sin φ ) sin ( ωt − π / 2 ) = 0

X
(c) The component of current associated with this part is called Wattless Z
current. Thus the current

(l0 sinφ) sin ( ωt − π / 2) is a wattless current whose amplitude is l0 sinφ . Irms sin Irms

Figure 23.25
(c) If RMS value of current in the circuit is Irms, then the RMS value of a
wattless current will be Irms, sinφ . A wattless current lags or leads the e.m.f.
by an angle π / 2 . RMS value of wattless current:
2 3 . 2 0 | Alternating Current

l0 l0 X X
Irms=
sin φ sin φ ; = . Since sin φ = , where X is the resultant reactance of the circuit.
2 2Z Z

9. TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device used to convert low alternating voltage at higher current into high alternating voltage
at lower current, and vice-versa. In other words, a transformer is an electrical device used to increase or decrease
alternating voltage.

9.1 Types of Transformers

(a) Step-up transformers: The transformerwhich converts low alternating voltage at higher current into a high
alternating voltage at lower current is called a step-up transformer.
(b) Step-down transformers: The transformer which converts high
alternating voltage at lower current into a low alternating voltage
athigher current is called a step-down transformer. EP P S ES Load

Principle: A transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction.

An e.m.f. is induced in a coil, when a changing current flows through its
Core
nearby coil.
Figure 23.26
Construction: Itconsists of two separate coils of insulated wires wound
on the same iron core. One of the coil connected to a.c. input is called primary (p) and the other winding giving
output is called secondary (S) winding or coil.
Theory: When an alternating source of e.m.f. Ep is connected to the primary coil, an alternating current flows
through it. Due to the flow of alternating current in the primary coil, an alternating magnetic flux induces an
alternating e.m.f. in the secondary coil (Es). Let Np and Ns be the number of turns in the primary and secondary coil
respectively. The iron core is capable of coupling the whole of the magnetic flux φ produced by the turns of the
primary coil with the secondary coil.
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the induced e.m.f in the primary coil,
dφ
EP = −NP  ... (i)
dt
dφ
The induced e.m.f in the secondary coil. ES = −NS ... (ii)
dt 
ES NS NS
Dividing (ii) by (i), we get = ; Where =K the transformation ratio or ratio.
Ep NP NP
ES NS
Then, = =K
Ep NP

K< 1 for step down transformer. In this case, NS < NP and ES < Ep i.e. Ep , and output alternating voltage <input
alternating voltage.

K>1 for step up transformer. In this case, NS > NP and ES > Ep i.e., output alternating voltage is greater than the
input alternating voltage.
For an ideal transformer (in which there in no energy losses), output power= input power .... (iii)
Let Ip and Is be the current in the primary and secondary coil respectively.
Es IP 1
Then output power= Es IS ; input power= Ep Ip ; from equation (iii) Ep = Es or = ; In general, E ∝ . For
Ep IS I
same power transfer, voltage increases with the decrease in current and vice-versa. Thus, whatever is gained in
voltage ratio is lost in the current ratio and viceversa. So, astep-up transformer increases the alternating voltage by
 P hysi cs | 23.21

decreasing the alternating current, and a step- down transformer decreases the alternating voltage by increasing
the alternating current.

ouputpower Es IS
For a transformer, efficiency, n= = For an ideal transformer, efficiency, n is 100%. But in a real
inputpower EP IP
transformer, the efficiency varies from 90-99%. This indicates that there are some energy losses in the transformer.

10. CHOKING COIL

Let us consider a choke coil of large inductance L and low resistance R. Then, the power factor of the given circuit
R R
will be given by cos φ = = (as R<< ωL )
R 2 + ω2L2 ωL

Now, as we know that R<<wL, the power factor is small and hence the power absorbed will be very small. And also,
on account of its large impedance (large inductance), current passing through the coil is very small. Hence, such a
coil is preferred in electrical circuits for the purpose of adjusting the current to any desired value without having a
significant energy waste.

Illustration 14: An ac circuit consists of a 220 Ω resistance and a 0.7 H choke. Find the power absorbed from a 220V
and 50 Hz source connected in this circuit if the resistance and choke are joined, (a) in series (b) in parallel
 (JEE ADVANCED)

Sol: For a seriesLR circuit, impedance is=

Z R 2 + ω2L2 and average power dissipated in circuit is calculated as
=P Vrms Irms cos φ .

1 1 1 1
In parallel LR circuit = + . But for a choke, L is very large, so ≈0.
2 2 2 2
Z R ωL ω2L2
Z
(a) in series the impedance of the circuit is: XL

R 22 + ( 2πfL=
))2 (( 220 )2 + ( 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 0.7=
))2 311
2 2 2
=
Z R 22 + ω22=
L22 Ω 
=
Z R + ω= L R + ( 2πfL= 220 ) + ( 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 0.7= 311Ω
V 220 Figure 23.27
∴ Irms = Vrms = 220 = 0.707A R 220
∴ Irms = rmsZ = 311 = 0.707A , cos φ= = = 0.707
Z 311 Z 311

=
and the power absorbed in the circuit,
= P Vrmsirms cos φ (=
220 )( 0.707 )( 0.707 ) 110.08 W

(b) When the resistance and choke are in parallel, the entire power is absorbed in resistance, as the choke (having
( 220 )
2
V 2rms
zero resistance) absorbs no power. =
∴P = =220W
R 220
2 3 . 2 2 | Alternating Current

PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS

(a) In this chapter, we have seen how a phasor provides a powerful tool for analysing the AC circuits.
Below are some important tips:
1. Keep in mind the phase relationship for simple circuits.
(i) For a resistor, the voltage and phase are always in phase.
(ii) For an inductor, the current lags the voltage by900.
(iii) For a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by 900.
(b) When circuit elements are connected in series, the instantaneous current is the same for allelements, and
instantaneous voltages across the elements are out of phase. On the otherhand, when circuit elements are
connected in parallel, the instantaneous voltage is the same for all elements, and the instantaneous currents
across the elements are out of phase.

(c) For a series connection, draw a phasor diagram for the voltage. The amplitude of the voltage drop across
all the circuit elements involved should be represented with phasors. In Fig. 23.28, the phasor diagram for a
series RLC circuit is shown for both the inductive case XL > X C and the capacitive case XL < X C . Below is a
phasor diagram for the series RLC circuit for (a) XL > X C (b) XL < X C .


VLO 
VLO
  
V0 VLO +VCO  
 I0 VRO
    
I0 VRO  VLO +VCO
V0

VCO 
VCO

(a) (b)
Figure 23.28: Phase angle between applied voltage and current (a) in RC circuit, (b) in LC circuit

From Fig. 23.28(a), we see that VL0 > VC0 in the inductive case and V 0 leads I0 by a phase φ . On the other
hand, in the capacitive case shown in Fig. 23.28(b), VC0 > VL0 and I0 leads V 0 by a phase φ .
(d) Students should directly learn the formula for reactance, impedance, etc.to solve any problem easily.
(e) For parallel connection, draw a phasor diagram for the currents. The amplitudes of the current across all the
circuit elements involved should be represented with phasors. In the following Fig. 23.29, the phasor diagram
for a parallel RLC circuit is shown for both the inductive case XL > X C and the capacitive case XL < X C .
 
ICO ICO

  
  I0 ICO + ILO
IRO V0 
    
 ICO + ILO IRO V0
I0
 
ILO ILO

(a) (b)
Figure 23.29
 P hysi cs | 23.23

(f) Phasor diagram for the parallel RLC circuit for (a) XL > X C And (b) XL < X C : From Fig. 23.29(a), we see that
IL0 > IC0 in the inductive case and V0 lead I0 by a phase φ .On the other hand, in the capacitive case shown
in Fig. 23.29 (b), IC0 > IL0 and I0 leads V0 by a phase φ .

FORMULAE SHEET

(a) In an AC circuit, sinusoidal voltage source of amplitude V0 is represented as:V(t) =V0 sinwt.
The current in the circuit has amplitude I0 and lags the applied voltage by phase angle φ .
Current is represented as: I(t) = I0 sin ( ωt − φ )
(b) For a single-element circuit (a resistor, a capacitor or an inductor) connected to the AC voltage source, we
summarise the results in the below table:

Circuit elements Resistance/Reactance Current Amplitude Phase angel φ

R R 0
V0
IR =
0 R

L Inductive Reactance
XL = ωL (π/2)
V0
IL = i.e.,current lags
0 XL
voltage by 900

C Capacitive Reactance
1 (- π / 2 )
XC = V0
ωC IC = i.e. current leads
0 XC
voltage by 900

(c) For a circuit having more than one circuit element connected ina series,we summarise the results in the below
table:

Circuit elements Impedance Z Current amplitude Phase angle φ

R C V0 π
R 2 + XL2 I0 = 0<φ< 
2
R + XL2 2

R C V0
2 I0 =  π
R + X 2C R 2 + X 2C −  < φ < 0
 2

R L C φ > 0 if
V0
R + ( XL − X C )
2
2
I0 = XL > X C
R + ( XL − X C )
2 2
φ < 0 if XL < X C
 2 3 . 2 4 | Alternating Current

(d) For series LCR circuit,

(i) the impedance is Z = R 2 + (XL − X C )2

(ii) the current lags the voltage by phase angle φ =tan−1

( XL − XC )
R
1
(iii) the resonant frequency is ω0 = .
LC

At resonance, the current in the series LCR circuit is maximum, while that in parallel LCR circuit is minimum.

(e) Impedance for parallel LCR circuit, is given by

2 2
1 1  1  1  1 1 
= + − ωC=
 + − 
Z R 2
 ω L  R 2  XL X C 

The phase angle by which the current lags the voltage is

 1 1   1 
=φ tan−1 R = −  tan−1 R  − ωC 
X 
 L XC   ωL 

(f) The RMS (root mean square) value of voltage and current in an AC circuit are given as
V0 I0
Vrms = , and Irms =
2 2
R
(g) Average power of an AC circuit
= is P(t) Irms Vrms cos φ where cos φ = is the power factor of the circuit.
Z
ω0L 1 L
(h) Quality factor Q of LCR circuit is=
Q =
R R C
V2 N2
(i) For a transformer, the ratio of secondary coil voltage to that of primary coil voltage is =
V1 N1
where N1 is number of turns in primary coil, and N2 is number of turns in secondary coil.
For the step-up transformer, N2 > N1 ; for step down transformer, N2 < N1 .