Good morning sir, good morning classmates, My name is

Jo-Ann Martin, and I will be the first reporter for Chapter 1

LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS

These intriguing scenarios reflect our everyday

encounters with language. With such diverse
experiences, it raises several important questions:
How Many Languages Are There in the World?

Ever wondered how many languages exist in our world? You've

probably seen dictionaries listing language names or come across
lists showing the number of speakers for various languages. Every
decade, the U.S. Census Bureau gathers fascinating data on the
languages spoken by residents and shares it with the world. At
the United Nations, ambassadors from across the globe need to
know which languages are spoken in their home countries. With
all this wealth of information, answering the question "How many
languages are there?" should be easy. But is it really?

Counting the exact number of languages in the

world is a challenging task. Even when criteria for
inclusion on a list of languages are established,
there are numerous complications.
The Complexity of Counting Languages

Enumerating the number of languages in the world is far from straightforward. Several factors
contribute to the complexity:

Dialects vs. Languages

Deciding whether two varieties are dialects of the same language or distinct languages can be
challenging. For instance, Mandarin and Cantonese are often referred to as dialects of Chinese,
but they are mutually unintelligible, suggesting they could be considered separate languages.

Newly Discovered Languages

Languages previously unknown to scholars are occasionally discovered in remote regions like
the Amazon or Papua New Guinea. These discoveries add to the ever-evolving count of world
languages.

Spoken and Signed Languages

Some compilations focus solely on spoken languages, while others include signed languages.
Sign languages, like spoken languages, are diverse and culturally significant. For example,
Chiangmai Sign Language is known among older signers in Chiangmai, Thailand, while younger
signers use Thai Sign Language.

Language Extinction and Revival

Languages die when their last speaker dies, which happens more frequently than one might
think. Conversely, some languages experience revival. Hebrew, once considered a dead
language, is now widely spoken. Similarly, Cornish, a Celtic language whose last native speaker
died in 1777, has been revived and is now spoken by a couple of thousand people in southwest
England. Manx, another Celtic language, is also being revived despite being extinct as a first
language.

Pidgins and Creoles

Pidgins, simplified languages used for communication between people without a common
language, can evolve into fully developed creole languages when spoken by children as their first
language. Creoles are thus counted among the world's languages, despite often being referred to
as pidgins.

Estimating the Number of Languages

One trusted source, The Ethnologue, lists 6,912 languages. However, this number is not
definitive. For instance, the U.S. Census Bureau allows residents to identify as speaking
"Chinese," but The Ethnologue lists thirteen distinct Chinese languages, such as Hakka,
Mandarin, Wu, Xiang, and Yue, each with its own dialects.

Sign Languages

A considerable number of the 6,912 languages are sign languages. Despite their different mode
of expression, sign languages share many characteristics with spoken languages, including the
challenges of identification and counting.

Conventional Wisdom

Given these complexities, it is generally accepted that there are between 6,000 and 7,000
languages in use worldwide. However, accurately estimating this number is difficult due to the
dynamic nature of languages.
Official Languages at the United Nations

Among the thousands of languages, only Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish
have official status at the United Nations. Interestingly, some of the most spoken languages, like
Hindi, Bengali, Portuguese, German, and Indonesian-Malay, have more speakers than some of
the official UN languages.

Languages in the United States

In the year 2000, the U.S. Census Bureau identified 30 individual languages in use in the United
States, excluding broad categories like "African languages" and "other Asian languages." This
illustrates the difficulty in estimating the number of languages spoken even within a single
country, let alone the entire world.

Conclusion

Determining the exact number of languages worldwide is an incredibly complex endeavor.

Factors such as dialects, newly discovered languages, language extinction and revival, and the
inclusion of sign languages contribute to this complexity. While we can estimate between 6,000
and 7,000 languages, the ever-changing nature of language makes it a captivating yet challenging
field of study.

 Official Language: This is the language designated by a country’s government

to be used in its official documents, court proceedings, and other formal
communications. It is often chosen to ensure clear and consistent communication
within the government and public institutions. For example, English is the official
language of India for governmental purposes, even though the country has a
multitude of regional languages.

 National Language: This term usually refers to a language that holds a special
cultural or historical significance within a country. It may be widely spoken by the
population and is often a symbol of national identity. A national language can be
an official language, but it doesn’t necessarily have to be. For instance, Filipino is
the national language of the Philippines, promoting a sense of national unity, while
English is also an official language used in governmental and legal matters.

Does the United States Have an Official Language?

 Common Misconception:
o Many Americans believe English is the official language of the United States.
o The United States does not have an official language at the federal level.
o Some states have designated official languages: Spanish in New Mexico and
English and Hawaiian in Hawaii.
 Linguistic Diversity:
 o Nearly 47 million U.S. residents over the age of 5 speak a home language other
than English, representing almost 18% of that age group.
o Spanish is spoken by 28 million people, with over half also speaking English very
well.
o Almost 10 million youngsters aged 5 to 17 speak a home language other than
English, with most reporting high English proficiency.
o In seven heavily populated states, at least one in four residents over the age of 5
speaks a home language other than English.
o Languages such as Arabic, Hindi, Hungarian, Korean, Tagalog, Thai, Urdu, and
Vietnamese are spoken across all 50 states.
o Indigenous North American languages are also spoken, with Navajo used in
homes in 47 states.
o According to The Ethnologue, 162 living languages are spoken in the United
States today.
 Stability of Linguistic Richness:
o The linguistic richness of the United States is not stable.
o Many Native American languages are endangered due to aging populations and
insufficient resources.
o Spanish is the most widely spoken language after English, with 28 million
speakers.
o Despite the diversity, 215 million U.S. residents above the age of 5 speak English
at home, accounting for 80% of the population.
o Children or grandchildren of immigrants often lose the ability to speak or
understand their ancestral language, including Spanish.
 Language Policy and Controversies:
o The "English-only" movement seeks to legislate the use of English exclusively in
certain contexts, particularly in schools.
o This movement is driven by concerns over the failure of school-aged children to
master standard English, though some argue it is xenophobic.
o Other Americans support the preservation of heritage languages and advocate for
bilingual education and the "English plus" approach.
o California's Proposition 227 in 1998 aimed to teach children in public schools
English quickly, reducing bilingual education except in specific circumstances.
o Opinions on Proposition 227 are divided, with some viewing it as beneficial and

Historical Context: The U.S. has a history of immigration, which

has contributed to its linguistic diversity. The lack of an official
language at the federal level allows for this diversity to thrive.
What Is Human Language?

Human language is one of the most fascinating aspects of our existence. It’s a
complex system of communication that allows us to coney thoughts, emotions,
and information.

The study of language, also known as linguistics, delves into questions that have intrigued
scholars for millennia. Ancient philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, as well as Indian
grammarians, pondered the nature of language. Their contributions still influence modern
linguistic analysis. In the 19th and 20th centuries, linguistics emerged as a formal field,
addressing fundamental questions such as:

 What is the relationship between signs and their meanings?

 How are the elements of language organized within words, sentences, and discourse?
 What enables us to produce and understand sentences we've never heard before?
 How do languages achieve their communicative goals?
 What is the origin of language?
 How do languages change and develop?
 What does it mean for languages to be related?
 How are languages and dialects related?
 How do young children learn languages so efficiently?
 Why is it challenging for adults to learn new languages?
 Are there right and wrong ways to express things, and who decides?

Three Faces of a Language System

The fundamental function of every language system is to link

meaning and expression, providing a systematic way to convey
thoughts and feelings. A grammar can be viewed as a coin with
two sides: expression and meaning. The task of grammar is to
systematically link these two sides. However, language has a third
critical aspect: context. Context is vital for producing and
interpreting utterances correctly. Without context, the intended
meaning of an expression can be misunderstood.

Three Faces of a Language System

Language is a dynamic and multifaceted tool that bridges the gap between meaning
and expression. It provides verbal expression for thoughts and feelings, enabling
effective communication. A language system can be visualized as a three-sided
figure consisting of expression, meaning, and context. Each of these components
plays a crucial role in how we convey and interpret messages.

Expression

Expression encompasses the tangible elements of language, such as words,

phrases, sentences, intonation, and stress. It is the physical manifestation of our
thoughts and feelings, allowing us to articulate our ideas.

For example:

 "She sells seashells by the seashore" (words and phrases)

 "I can't believe you did that!" (intonation and stress)

Meaning

Meaning refers to the interpretations and references of these expressions. It is the

essence of what we intend to convey through our words and sentences.

For example:

 "The cat is out of the bag" means a secret has been revealed.
 "Break a leg" is an idiom wishing someone good luck.

Context

Context is the social and situational environment in which expressions occur. It

includes the shared knowledge between the speaker and the listener, as well as the
circumstances surrounding the conversation. Context is essential for accurately
interpreting the intended meaning of an expression.

For example:

 A guest at a dinner table asking, "Is there any salt on the table?" is likely
requesting someone to pass the salt, rather than seeking information
about the salt's presence.

 In contrast, a host in the kitchen asking a guest who has just come from the
dining room, "Is there any salt on the table?" is likely seeking information
about whether there is salt on the table.
Conclusion

Conversationalists cannot interpret an utterance from expression alone. To grasp

the intended meaning of an expression, hearers must consider it in light of its
context. When uttering an expression, speakers routinely rely on the hearer's ability
to recognize their intentions within a specific context. Therefore, besides meaning
and expression, the foundation of language use is context. Language can best be
viewed as a three-sided figure of expression, meaning, and context. Expression
encompasses words, phrases, and sentences, including intonation and stress.
Meaning refers to the senses and referents of these elements of expression. Context
refers to the social situation in which the expression is uttered and relies on shared
knowledge between the speaker and hearer. What links expression and meaning is
grammar, and what links grammar and interpretation is context. Without attention
to both grammar and context, we cannot understand how language works.

These scenarios demonstrate how expression, meaning, and context

work together to ensure effective communication. Without
considering the context, the intended meaning of an expression
might be misinterpreted, leading to confusion or misunderstandings.

Language: Mental and Social

Language serves as a vehicle of thought, transferring ideas from one person to another. Beyond
this, language fulfills essential social and emotional functions. Linguists study how language is
organized in the mind and how social structures shape language.

Social and Emotional Functions of Language

Beyond its cognitive role, language also serves essential social and emotional functions:

1. Social Interaction: Language is a primary tool for communication in social settings. It

helps build relationships, establish social norms, and create a sense of community.
2. Emotional Expression: Language allows us to express our emotions, share our feelings,
and provide comfort and support to others. It plays a crucial role in emotional bonding
and empathy.

Language in the Mind

Linguists and cognitive scientists are deeply interested in understanding how language is
organized in the mind. Key questions include:

 Mental Representation: How are words and grammatical rules stored and accessed in
the brain?
 Language Acquisition: How do young children acquire language so rapidly and
efficiently?
 Language Processing: How do we produce and comprehend language in real-time, often

Language is a complex and dynamic system that bridges the mental and social worlds. It
enables us to think, communicate, and connect with others in profound ways.
Understanding language requires exploring its cognitive underpinnings, social functions,
and the intricate ways in which it reflects and shapes human experience. Through this
lens, we can appreciate the richness and diversity of human language and its vital role in
our lives.

Signs: Arbitrary and Nonarbitrary

In our daily conversations, we often refer to signs—indicators of something else. For instance,
we talk about signs of economic trouble, a train's arrival at a station, or a person's vital signs.
These indicators can be divided into two categories: nonarbitrary and arbitrary signs.

Nonarbitrary Signs

Nonarbitrary signs have a direct, usually causal relationship with what they indicate. For
example, smoke is a nonarbitrary sign of fire, and clouds are a nonarbitrary sign of impending
rain. These signs are inherently connected to what they signify.

Arbitrary Signs

In contrast, arbitrary signs have no inherent connection to what they represent. Examples of
arbitrary signs include traffic lights, wedding rings, and national flags. A traffic light's colors, for
example, do not inherently mean "stop" or "go"; these meanings are assigned by social
convention. Arbitrary signs can be present even when what they signify is absent. For instance, a
bachelor might wear a wedding ring without being married.

Language as an Arbitrary Sign System

Language itself is a system of arbitrary signs. The relationship between words and their
meanings is generally arbitrary. For example, the English word "tree" has no inherent connection
to the physical object it represents. Other languages use different words for the same concept:
"árbol" in Spanish, "Baum" in German, and "木" in Japanese.

Representational Signs
Some signs, while essentially arbitrary, suggest their meanings to some extent. These are called
representational or iconic signs. For instance, a skull and crossbones symbol suggests poison,
and the Roman numerals II and III represent the numbers two and three. In language, words like
"meow" and "trickle" suggest their meanings through their sounds.

Spontaneous Iconicity in Speech

Iconic expression can appear spontaneously in ordinary speech. For example, a child might say,
"My mother is taking a long, loong, looong shower," stretching the vowel sound to emphasize
the length of the shower.

Representational (or iconic) language is linguistic expression that in any fashion

mimics or directly suggests its content.

Iconicity in Grammar

Iconicity can also be seen in grammar. For example, English allows conditional sentences to be
structured in two ways:

 "If you behave, I’ll give you some M&Ms."

 "I’ll give you some M&Ms if you behave."

While both structures are grammatically correct, there is a preference for the
condition to precede the consequence, reflecting the real-world order of
events. This preference mimics the sequence of actions and is found in many
other languages as well.

Language: A System of Arbitrary Signs

Despite occasional iconic characteristics, human language is primarily arbitrary. The form of an
expression is generally independent of its meaning, established through social conventions.

Example: Burning Rice

Imagine a parent cooking dinner and suddenly smelling burning rice. This aroma, a nonarbitrary
sign, would prompt the parent to check the kitchen. The smell is caused by the burning rice and
would alert anyone, regardless of language. However, if a child shouted, "The rice is burning!"
the words themselves are arbitrary signs. Different languages express the same meaning
differently, such as "pap tahnda" in Korean, "wali inaunguwu" in Swahili, and "yah. tariqu
alruzzu" in Arabic.

Even words that mimic natural noises differ across languages. For example, in English, cats
"meow," but in Korean, they "yaong."
A central characteristic of human language is that the connection between
words and their meanings is largely arbitrary. This arbitrariness allows for a
vast diversity of expressions across different languages. While some aspects of
language can be iconic, the fundamental nature of language as a system of
arbitrary signs enables the rich and varied ways in which humans
communicate. The variety of possible expressions, even for simple concepts,
illustrates the limitless potential of human language.

The Organized Nature of Language

Given the arbitrary relationship between linguistic signs and what they represent,
languages must be highly organized systems to function as reliable vehicles of
communication. The observable patterns that languages follow are known as
"rules." These rules are not imposed from the outside like traffic regulations but are
based on the observed regularities of language behavior and the underlying
linguistic systems inferred from that behavior. Even children unconsciously
acquire and use these rules when they master their native tongue.

A language consists of elements and a system for combining them into patterned
expressions that accomplish specific tasks in specific contexts. Language allows us
to report news, greet relatives, invite friends to lunch, request the time from
strangers, make wisecracks, argue for a course of action, express admiration,
propose marriage, create fictional worlds, and more. This capacity, known as
grammatical competence, enables speakers to form grammatical sentences
and produce and understand an infinite number of sentences they haven't
heard before.

Hallmarks of Human Language Systems

Beyond arbitrariness, four other characteristics of human language systems deserve highlighting:

1. Discreteness

Speakers can identify the sound segments in the words of their language. For example, English
speakers can identify the sounds in "cat" as the three represented by the letters c, a, and t.
Similarly, the sounds in "spill" are recognized as four: the initial consonant cluster s and p, the
final consonant sound ll, and the vowel sound in between. This structural feature means that
words are composed of elemental sounds.

2. Duality
Human languages can be analyzed on two levels. At one level, they have meaningful units, such
as the two parts "table" and "top" in "tabletop." At a lower level, the elements within these
meaningful parts do not carry meaning individually. The three sounds of "top" don't have
independent meanings but form a meaningful unit when combined. This duality allows these
sounds to form other combinations with different meanings, like "pot," "opt," "topped," and
"popped."

3. Displacement

Human languages can represent things and events that are not present, whether spatially or
temporally distant. We are not confined to discussing the here and now but can talk about
faraway places, past events, future plans, and even hypothetical scenarios. This characteristic is
so significant that primatologist Jane Goodall highlighted it as a key difference between
humans and other apes. It enables us to teach our children about distant events, plan for
the future, and share knowledge that isn't immediately observable.

4. Productivity

From relatively few elements and rules, humans can produce and understand a limitless number
of sentences. By combining and recombining these elements and patterns, we generate a vast
array of expressions. This linguistic inventiveness makes repeated sentences unlikely in
written publications, such as newspapers and magazines. Our ability to generate and
understand an infinite number of sentences is a hallmark of human language and a central
focus of linguistic theory.

Language Organization and Communication

The high degree of organization in languages ensures that they function effectively as
communication systems. The rules governing languages are based on regularities observed in
linguistic behavior. For example, English speakers intuitively know that "My mother is taking a
long shower" is grammatical, while "A taking long my shower is mother" is not. This
grammatical competence enables us to produce and understand countless new sentences.

Conclusion

Human language is a highly organized and complex system that relies on a set
of underlying rules and principles. These rules are acquired unconsciously
and allow speakers to communicate effectively and creatively. Key
characteristics such as discreteness, duality, displacement, and productivity
highlight the unique capabilities of human language. Despite its arbitrary
nature, language serves as a powerful tool for conveying thoughts, emotions,
and information across time and space.

Speech as Patterned Language Use

Mastering the elements of a language and the patterns for forming well-structured sentences is
crucial, but it's only part of the equation. Effective communication also requires the ability to use
those sentences appropriately in various contexts. This capability is known as communicative
competence.

Communicative Competence

Communicative competence is the ability to use language appropriately across different

situations. It involves:

 Linking Sentences in Conversations: Knowing how to connect sentences smoothly in

conversations to create coherent narratives, apologies, requests, directions, and more.
 Contextual Awareness: Using context to shape and interpret utterances correctly. For
example, understanding that a question about salt at the dinner table is likely a request for
action, not information.

Being a fluent speaker requires both communicative and grammatical competence.

Grammatical Competence

Grammatical competence is the unconscious knowledge of vocabulary, pronunciation, sentence

structure, and meaning. It's the foundation that allows speakers to produce and understand an
infinite number of sentences they've never heard before.

Cultural and Social Variation

The patterns governing the appropriate use of language can differ significantly across speech
communities. Even within a shared language like English, cultural differences influence
communication styles:

 Humor: What one culture finds humorous, another may find offensive. The concept of
telling jokes might not exist in some societies, where "funny stories" are preferred.
 Politeness: Social norms for politeness vary. For example, New Yorkers may seem
brusque to visitors, but their directness is considered routine among fellow New Yorkers.

These variations highlight the importance of understanding not just the rules of grammar but also
the social rules of language use.

Conclusion

Effective language use involves more than just knowing grammar; it requires
understanding how to use language appropriately in different contexts.
Communicative competence, combined with grammatical competence, allows
speakers to navigate the complexities of language and culture, ensuring successful
communication across diverse situations.
LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND SHIFT

Language maintenance and shift refer to the processes through which languages are preserved,
altered, or replaced within a community. Various social reasons influence the choice of language
or dialect in multilingual communities. This discussion explores these choices, the impact of
economic and political factors, and the potential long-term effects, including language shift or
language death. Additionally, it highlights efforts to reverse these consequences through
language revival.

Language Shift in Different Communities

Migrant Minorities

Example 1: Maniben's Experience

Maniben is a young British Hindu woman living in Coventry, whose family moved to Britain
from Uganda in 1970. Initially, she spoke mainly Gujarati at home and work. However, over ten
years, her language use shifted predominantly to English due to various factors:

 Work Environment: Initially, Maniben used Gujarati with her colleagues. After a
promotion and moving to the main office, she needed to use English more frequently.
 Education: Learning computer skills in evening classes further increased her English
use.
 Societal Pressure: In predominantly monolingual countries like England, Australia, New
Zealand, and the USA, immigrants are often pressured to conform and shift to English as
a sign of successful assimilation.

This gradual shift is typical for migrant families, where children initially meet English in school
and gradually introduce it at home, resulting in a generational language shift.

Nonimmigrant Communities

Example 2: Armeen's Concern

Armeen, an Iranian teacher of English, is worried about the displacement of his native language
Azeri by Farsi, the official language of Iran. Factors contributing to this shift include:

 Political and Social Changes: As Iran strives for national unity, Farsi is promoted as the
dominant language.
 Lack of Education in Minority Languages: Despite constitutional protection, minority
languages like Azeri are not taught in schools, leading to reduced literacy and public use.
 Symbolic Dominance: Farsi dominates public spaces, reinforcing its significance while
marginalizing minority languages.

Without assertive measures to maintain Azeri, its long-term survival is at risk.

Historical Example

Example 3: Oberwart's Shift

Before World War I, the town of Oberwart (formerly Felsöör) was part of Hungary, and
Hungarian was the dominant language. After becoming part of Austria, German replaced
Hungarian due to several factors:

 Political Changes: German became the official language, and Hungarian was banned in
schools.
 Economic Advancement: Industry replaced farming, and German became associated
with social and economic progress.
 Social Perception: Hungarian was seen as old-fashioned and associated with peasantry,
while German was linked to modernity and success.

By the 1970s, younger generations predominantly used German, and Hungarian was confined to
older people and specific contexts like prayers.

Factors Influencing Language Shift

Economic and Political Factors

 Economic Opportunities: Access to better jobs and social mobility often requires
proficiency in the dominant language.
 Political Power: The language of the ruling group typically gains prominence,
influencing language policies and public use.
 Social Integration: Immigrants and minority groups may adopt the dominant language to
integrate and avoid discrimination.

Social and Cultural Factors

 Education: Schools play a crucial role in language shift by promoting the dominant
language.
 Media and Technology: Exposure to media in the dominant language influences
language preferences.
 Interpersonal Communication: Social interactions and peer influence contribute to
language choices.

Consequences of Language Shift

 Language Death: Complete disappearance of a language when its last speakers die.
 Loss of Cultural Heritage: Language is a key component of cultural identity and
heritage, and its loss can lead to diminished cultural diversity.
 Reduced Linguistic Diversity: The dominance of world languages like English can lead
to the extinction of lesser-used languages.

Language Revival Efforts

Efforts to reverse language shift and preserve endangered languages include:

  Educational Programs: Introducing and promoting minority languages in schools.
 Community Initiatives: Encouraging the use of minority languages in daily life and
cultural activities.
 Government Policies: Implementing policies that protect and promote linguistic
diversity.

Conclusion

Language maintenance and shift are influenced by a combination of social, economic, and
political factors. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing strategies to preserve
linguistic diversity and prevent language death. Efforts to revive and maintain minority
languages are essential to safeguarding cultural heritage and promoting inclusivity in
multilingual societies.

Migrant Majorities

Example 4: Colonial Impact

When colonial powers invade other countries, their languages often become dominant. For
instance:

 New Zealand: Maori people shifted from monolingualism in Maori to English due to
colonial rule. Despite revival efforts, only 21% of adults claimed to hold everyday
conversations in Maori by 2013.
 Australia and USA: Aboriginal and American Indian languages were lost over
generations due to English dominance, with communities shifting to the colonizer's
language.

Factors Influencing Language Shift

Economic and Political Factors

 Economic Opportunities: Access to better jobs and social mobility often requires
proficiency in the dominant language.
 Political Power: The language of the ruling group typically gains prominence,
influencing language policies and public use.
 Social Integration: Immigrants and minority groups may adopt the dominant language to
integrate and avoid discrimination.

Social and Cultural Factors

 Education: Schools play a crucial role in language shift by promoting the dominant
language.
  Media and Technology: Exposure to media in the dominant language influences
language preferences.
 Interpersonal Communication: Social interactions and peer influence contribute to
language choices.

Consequences of Language Shift

 Language Death: Complete disappearance of a language when its last speakers die.
 Loss of Cultural Heritage: Language is a key component of cultural identity and
heritage, and its loss can lead to diminished cultural diversity.
 Reduced Linguistic Diversity: The dominance of world languages like English can lead
to the extinction of lesser-used languages.

Language Revival Efforts

Efforts to reverse language shift and preserve endangered languages include:

 Educational Programs: Introducing and promoting minority languages in schools.

 Community Initiatives: Encouraging the use of minority languages in daily life and
cultural activities.
 Government Policies: Implementing policies that protect and promote linguistic
diversity.

Conclusion

Language maintenance and shift are influenced by a combination of social, economic, and
political factors. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing strategies to preserve
linguistic diversity and prevent language death. Efforts to revive and maintain minority
languages are essential to safeguarding cultural heritage and promoting inclusivity in
multilingual societies.

LANGUAGE DEATH AND LOSS

Language death occurs when the last native speakers of a language die, leading to the complete
disappearance of the language. This process can happen rapidly due to factors like massacres or
epidemics, or gradually through language shift.

Example 5: Ayapaneco

Ayapaneco, an indigenous language of Mexico, faced extinction as its last two fluent speakers
refused to communicate with each other. However, the decline of Ayapaneco can be attributed
to:

 Urbanization: Increasing urbanization led to less use of the language.

 Education Policies: Compulsory education in Spanish reduced the transmission of
Ayapaneco.
Historical Examples

 Ubykh: The language died with its last speaker, Tefvik Esenç, in 1992.
 Manx: The last native speaker, Ned Maddrell, died in 1974.
 Cornish: The language effectively disappeared with Dolly Pentreath's death in 1777.
 Australian Aboriginal Languages: Many languages disappeared due to the massacre
and diseases introduced by Europeans.

Gradual Language Death

When a language dies gradually, it often follows a process similar to language shift, where the
language's functions are taken over by another language in one domain after another.

Example 6: Annie's Dyirbal

Annie, a young speaker of Dyirbal, an Australian Aboriginal language, is experiencing language

loss. As she uses English for most purposes, her proficiency in Dyirbal decreases:

 Vocabulary Shrinkage: She forgets Dyirbal words and substitutes English words.
 Simplified Grammar: She uses simplified grammatical patterns and struggles with
complex endings.
 Word Order: Her word order in Dyirbal becomes influenced by English.

As contexts for using Dyirbal diminish, the language retreats to personal activities like counting,
praying, and dreaming. This reduction in usage leads to a decline in linguistic complexity and
diversity.

Ceremonial Use

In some communities, the language may survive for ritual or ceremonial occasions but with
limited fluency and usage.

Example: Maori in New Zealand

The use of Maori in ceremonies depends on the availability of elders with knowledge of the
appropriate discourse. In many communities, Maori is limited to formal speeches, prayers, and
ceremonial occasions.

Conclusion

Language maintenance and shift are influenced by a combination of social, economic, and
political factors. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing strategies to preserve
linguistic diversity and prevent language death. Efforts to revive and maintain minority
languages are essential to safeguarding cultural heritage and promoting inclusivity in
multilingual societies.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO LANGUAGE SHIFT

Language shift occurs when a community transitions from using one language to another. This
process is influenced by various economic, social, political, demographic, and cultural factors.
Understanding these factors is crucial to comprehending why language shift happens and how it
can be managed or mitigated.

Economic, Social, and Political Factors

Economic Reasons

 Employment Opportunities: The most obvious reason for learning a second language is
to obtain work. In English-dominated countries, for example, people learn English to get
good jobs. Bilingualism is a necessary precursor of language shift.
 Economic Success: Rapid language shift occurs when individuals aim to achieve
economic success in a society where knowledge of the second language is essential.

Political Reasons

 Political Power: Language shift can be driven by political factors, such as the desire for
national unity. For example, in Israel, Hebrew was promoted to achieve political
cohesion.
 Government Policies: Policies that promote the dominant language in all major
institutional domains (e.g., education, media, government) contribute to language shift.

Lack of Perceived Threat

 Inactive Maintenance: Communities may not take active steps to maintain their ethnic
language if they do not see it as offering advantages or realize it is in danger of
disappearing. Without conscious maintenance, language shift is almost inevitable.

Social Goals

 Social Mobility: The social and economic goals of individuals play a significant role in
the speed of shift. Young upwardly mobile people are likely to shift fastest. Gender roles
also influence the shift, with women or men leading the shift depending on new job
opportunities.

Demographic Factors

Urban vs. Rural

 Rural Resistance: Resistance to language shift tends to last longer in rural areas due to
isolation from political centers and the ability to meet social needs in the minority
language.
  Urban Influence: Urban areas often see faster language shift due to greater exposure to
the dominant language.

Community Size

 Group Size: Larger groups of minority language speakers tend to resist language shift
better. In Australia, for example, areas with larger groups of Maltese speakers had lower
rates of shift towards English.
 Isolation: Migrant families in urban areas with few opportunities to use their mother
tongue find language maintenance difficult.

Intermarriage

 Language in the Home: Intermarriage between different language groups can accelerate
language shift. In predominantly monolingual societies, the dominant language often
prevails in the home.

Attitudes and Values

Cultural Pride

 Ethnic Identity: Language shift tends to be slower in communities where the minority
language is highly valued as a symbol of ethnic identity. Positive attitudes support the use
of the minority language in various domains.

International Status

 Language Prestige: The international status of a language can contribute to positive

attitudes and language maintenance. Languages like French and Spanish have better
chances of resisting shift due to their global importance.

Community Support

 Community Activities: Active community support and engagement in cultural activities

help maintain the minority language. For example, Ione, a young Samoan boy in
Australia, retains his language due to his family's pride and active participation in the
Samoan community.

Examples Illustrating Language Shift

Example 7: Crystal's Shift

 Chilean Refugee in New Zealand: Crystal, an 8-year-old Chilean girl, experienced rapid
language shift from Spanish to English after moving to a small town in New Zealand. Her
knowledge of Spanish made her seem odd to her school friends, leading her to refuse to
use Spanish even at home.
Example 8: Ione's Community

 Samoan Community in Australia: Ione's family takes pride in their Samoan identity
and actively participates in Samoan cultural activities. This strong community support
helps Ione maintain his Samoan language.

Conclusion

Language shift is influenced by a combination of economic, social, political, demographic, and

cultural factors. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing strategies to preserve
linguistic diversity and prevent language death. Efforts to maintain minority languages require
conscious and active steps, community support, and positive attitudes toward the language. By
addressing these factors, communities can better resist language shift and promote linguistic
diversity.

HOW CAN A MINORITY LANGUAGE BE MAINTAINED?

Maintaining a minority language requires concerted efforts and the presence of certain social,
cultural, and institutional factors that help resist the pressures leading to language shift. This
discussion explores various strategies and examples that illustrate how minority languages can be
preserved and revitalized.

Social Factors

Symbol of Identity

 Cultural Importance: When language is considered an important symbol of a minority

group's identity, it is likely to be maintained longer. For example, Polish and Greek
migrants in countries like Australia, New Zealand, and the USA have maintained their
languages for several generations due to their cultural significance.

Community Proximity and Interaction

 Living Close: Families from a minority group who live near each other and interact
frequently are more likely to maintain their language. For instance, the Greek community
in Wellington, New Zealand, uses Greek in their church and shops, fostering language
use within the community.
 Chinatown Example: In the USA, Chinese people living in Chinatown areas are more
likely to maintain a Chinese dialect as their mother tongue through to the third generation
compared to those living outside Chinatown.

Contact with Homeland

 New Migrants and Visitors: A regular stream of new migrants or visitors from the
homeland keeps the need for using the language alive. Polynesian migrants in New
 Zealand, for example, provide new linguistic input and motivation to maintain fluency in
their native languages.
 Regular Trips: Many Greek migrants prioritize trips back to Greece, which provides a
strong incentive to maintain proficiency in Greek.

Example 9 ‘. . . nothing benefits a country more than to treasure the languages and cultures of its
various peoples because in doing so, it fosters intergroup understanding and realizes greater
dividends in the form of originality, creativity, and versatility.’

Family and Social Structures

Family Organization

 Extended Families: Extended family arrangements with grandparents and unmarried

relatives living together support the use of the minority language at home.
 Discouraging Intermarriage: Groups that discourage intermarriage, such as Greek and
Chinese communities, help maintain their language by reducing the shift to the majority
language.

Example 10: Danuta's Family

 Strict Language Policy: Danuta's father insists on speaking Polish at home and sends her
to Polish Saturday School. Danuta's pride in her bilingualism and Polish identity
contributes to language maintenance.

Institutional Support

Education

 Heritage Language Programs: In Canada, heritage language programs use the minority
language in schools for part of each day to maintain languages like Ukrainian and
German.
 Bilingual Education: In Wales, bilingual education is available throughout the education
system, supporting the maintenance of Welsh.

Religion and Community Activities

 Church Services: Tongan people in New Zealand attend church services in Tongan,
reinforcing language use in a communal setting.
 Cultural Events: Community events and organizations that use the minority language
help maintain it.

Example 11: Hiwot's Efforts

  Cultural Education: Hiwot, an Ethiopian migrant in New Zealand, teaches her children
Amharic and Ethiopian culture with the support of the local Ethiopian community. They
attend church services in Amharic and participate in cultural activities.

Institutional Commitment

 Government Policies: When the government is committed to maintaining or reviving a

language, it can legislate for its use in education, law, administration, religion, and media.
For example, the Welsh National Assembly made Welsh a compulsory subject in schools
for children up to the age of 16.

Ethnolinguistic Vitality

Howard Giles and his colleagues introduced the concept of "ethnolinguistic vitality" to predict
the likelihood of language maintenance. It involves three components:

1. Status of the Language

o Attitudes: Positive attitudes towards the language and its cultural significance.
o Example: The pride that Polish and Greek communities have in their languages
helps maintain their use across generations.
2. Group Size and Distribution
o Concentrated vs. Scattered: The size of the group using the language and
whether they are concentrated in specific areas or scattered across regions.
o Example: Chinese communities in Chinatowns maintain their language better due
to concentrated living arrangements.
3. Institutional Support
o Support Systems: The extent to which the language enjoys support from
institutions like schools, churches, media, and government.
o Example: Bilingual education programs and church services in minority
languages provide crucial support for language maintenance.

Examining Linguistic Landscapes

The linguistic landscape involves analyzing public texts in their physical and social contexts.
This can provide valuable insights into the sociolinguistic complexities of a community. For
minority languages, the presence of signs in the minority language (e.g., restaurant signs, shop
signs, church signs) can indicate the vitality of the linguistic community.

Multilingual Signs

 Official Status: In some regions, bilingual or multilingual signs indicate that multiple
languages have official status (e.g., Wales or Luxembourg).
 Practical Needs: Signs in multiple languages may be necessary to communicate
important information to individuals with restricted linguistic repertoires.
 Impression of Sophistication: In some cases, multilingual signs may be used to convey
an impression of sophistication.
Political Messages

 Order of Languages: The order in which languages appear on signs can convey subtle
political messages about the status and importance of each language.

Conclusion

Maintaining a minority language involves a combination of social, cultural, and institutional

efforts. The concept of ethnolinguistic vitality provides a useful framework for understanding
and predicting language maintenance. Examining linguistic landscapes can offer valuable
insights into the vitality of minority languages. By fostering an environment that values and
supports minority languages, communities can resist language shift and preserve their linguistic
heritage.

LANGUAGE REVIVAL

Language revival involves conscious and deliberate efforts by a community to revitalize a

language that is in danger of disappearing. Several countries and communities have taken steps
to preserve and revive their indigenous languages. This discussion explores successful examples,
factors influencing language revival, and challenges faced in the process.

Examples of Language Revival

Hebrew in Israel

 Historical Context: Hebrew was revived after being effectively dead for nearly 1700
years. It had survived only for prayers and reading sacred texts.
 Nationalism: Strong feelings of nationalism led Israeli adults to teach Hebrew to their
children.
 Success: Hebrew is now a thriving language in Israel, used for everyday communication
and official purposes.

Welsh in Wales

 Flourishing Language: In the 19th century, Welsh was widely spoken and used for
everyday communication. It survived well as the low (L) language in a diglossia situation
where English was used for administration.
 Industrial Influence: Industrialization attracted English immigrants, leading to a decline
in Welsh speakers. By the 1980s, only 20% of the population spoke Welsh.
 Revival Efforts: Conscious efforts, such as establishing a Welsh-language television
channel and bilingual education programs, have slowed down the process of language
loss.
 Current Status: Surveys indicate that a significant percentage of the population can
speak Welsh, with many using it daily. The number of young Welsh speakers in urban
areas is rising due to Welsh medium schools.
Example 12: David's Experience David, a Welsh teenager, attends a Welsh-medium school
where he learns subjects in both Welsh and English. Despite his parents not being fluent, he has
learned more Welsh vocabulary through his education. His sister attends a Welsh primary
school, contributing to the family's language maintenance efforts.

FACTORS INFLUENCING LANGUAGE REVIVAL

Attitudinal Factors

 Desire to Revive: The community's strong desire to revive the language and their reasons
for doing so are crucial. Emotional and cultural attachment to the language plays a
significant role.
 Cultural Identity: Language is often seen as an important symbol of a community's
identity. This cultural significance motivates efforts to preserve and revive the language.

Educational Programs

 Immersion Method: Effective bilingual education involves immersion, where children

are taught subjects in the target language, helping them become fluent without explicitly
teaching the language.
 Bilingual Schools: Schools that provide instruction in both the minority language and the
dominant language contribute significantly to language revival.

Institutional Support

 Media and Technology: Establishing media channels (e.g., television, radio) in the
minority language helps increase its visibility and usage.
 Government Policies: Supportive government policies and legislation, such as making
the minority language a compulsory subject in schools, aid in language revival.

Community Involvement

 Cultural Activities: Community events, cultural activities, and social gatherings that use
the minority language promote its use and maintenance.
 Intergenerational Transmission: Encouraging families to use the language at home and
pass it on to the next generation is essential for revival efforts.

Challenges in Language Revival

Economic Factors

 Economic Situations: Economic challenges, such as unemployment and migration, can

impact language revival efforts. Families moving for better economic opportunities may
not prioritize learning or using the minority language.

Social Factors
  Social Integration: Pressure to integrate into the dominant culture and language can
hinder revival efforts. This is particularly challenging in regions where monolingualism is
the norm.
 Perceived Utility: The perceived utility and benefits of learning the minority language
influence revival success. If people see no practical use for the language, they are less
likely to invest time and effort in learning it.

Demographic Changes

 Migration: Influx of people from regions where the minority language is not spoken can
impact revival efforts. For example, migration from English-speaking areas to Wales
poses a threat to Welsh language programs.
 Population Decline: Declining population in regions where the minority language is
traditionally spoken can reduce the number of fluent speakers.

Conclusion

Language revival is a complex and challenging process that requires a combination of attitudinal
commitment, educational programs, institutional support, and community involvement.
Successful examples like Hebrew and Welsh demonstrate that languages can be revived when a
community values its distinct identity and regards language as a crucial symbol of that identity.
Understanding the factors influencing language revival and addressing the challenges can help
other communities in their efforts to preserve and revitalize endangered languages.