INTRODUCTION TO

REMOTE SENSING
ENS 243

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

What is Remote Sensing?
1. Remote sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of acquiring information
about the Earth's surface without actually being in contact with it.

2. Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object,
area, or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not
in contact with the object, area or phenomenon under investigation (Lillesand and
Kiefer 1994).

3. Remote sensing is the process of collecting and interpreting information about the
environment from a distance, typically from aircraft or satellites. It involves the use
of various technologies to capture and analyze data without direct physical contact.

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Advantages and Limitations of RS
Advantages
oData about the entire earth may be collected in a short period of time
oThe remote sensing satellites provide repetitive coverage of the earth
oData accessibility
o Time saving
o Cost effective

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Advantages and Limitations of RS
Limitations
o The greatest limitation is that its utility is often oversold.
o Human method produced error may be introduced, as the various
remote sensing instrument and mission parameters are specified.
o Remote sensing instruments often become uncalibrated, resulting in
uncalibrated remote sensing data.
o Remote sensors data may be expensive to collect, interpret, or analyze.

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L.

Pelane-Modutlwe
Remote Sensing Process
1. Energy Source or Illumination –an energy source which
illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the
target of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere – the energy travels from
its source to the target interact with the atmosphere.
This interaction also happens when the energy travels
from the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target- interacts with the target
depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor – a sensor/satellite
(remote - not in contact with the target) collects and
records the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing- transmitted,
often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing
station. This is where the data is processed into an
image.

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Remote Sensing Process
6. Interpretation and Analysis - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or
digitally or electronically, to extract information about the object.
7. Application – extraction of meaningful information from the imagery about the
target for various applications.

These seven elements comprise the remote sensing process from beginning to end.
We will be covering all of these in sequential order throughout the course building
upon the information learned as we go. Enjoy the journey!

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Types of Remote Sensors
Two types: Passive and Active Remote Sensing systems
• Optical (Passive) remote sensing
• measure natural radiation emitted or reflected by objects without providing external energy
sources
• Relies on solar radiation as an illumination source
• Radiation acquired by a sensor is measured at different wavelengths and the resulting
spectral signature is used to identify a given material.
• E.g. sensors on satellite such as Landsat, SPOT, etc.
• Active remote sensing
• The energy is emitted by an antenna towards the Earth’s surface and the energy scattered
back to the satellite is measured
• e.g. Radar system such as Real Aperture, Synthetic Aperture Radar

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

Fundamentals of Optical Remote Sensing
• Remote sensing is the process of inferring surface parameters from
measurements of the electromagnetic radiation (ERM) from the
Earth’s surface
• ERM can either be reflected or emitted from the Earth’s surface.

• Can be classified into three main categories based on the wavelength

regions of the spectrum
1. Visible and reflective infrared remote sensing
2. Thermal infrared remote sensing
3. Microwave remote sensing

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)
EMR is the solar energy propagated in the form of
an advancing interaction between electric and
magnetic fields.
Electrical field(E)- varies in magnitude in a • EMR can be described in terms of its
direction perpendicular to the direction in
which the radiation is traveling. velocity, wavelength and frequency
Magnetic field (M) oriented at right angles to • All EM waves travel at the speed of light, c
the electrical field. • 𝑐= 𝜆𝜈
• c≈ 3 x 10⁸m/s
Electric field • 𝑐=𝑓𝜆= 𝜈𝜆(𝑓=𝜈= frequency, wave theory)
• 𝑄=ℎ𝜈(quantum theory)
Distance • h = Planck’s constant, 6.626 x 10-34 J sec
• 𝑄=ℎ𝐶/𝜆(relationship between wave and
quantum models)
Magnetic Wavelength (λ)
field
Frequency (ƒ) • quantum energy is inversely proportional
to its wavelength
ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe
 Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)
Two characteristics of electromagnetic radiation:
• Wavelength- the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the distance between
successive wave crests.
• usually represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ).
• Can be measured in metres (m) or some factor of metres such as nanometres (nm, 10-9
metres), micrometres (μm, 10-6 metres) (μm, 10-6 metres) or centimetres (cm, 10-2
metres).
• Frequency- the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point per unit of time
• Normally measured in hertz (Hz)
• Equivalent to one cycle per second, and various multiples of hertz
• The two are inversely related to each other.
• The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency.
• The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency.

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)
• The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelengths (gamma and x-
rays).
• The longer wavelengths include microwaves and broadcast radio waves.

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)
• There are several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which are useful for remote sensing.
• Ultraviolet (UV): Portion of the spectrum that has the shortest wavelengths which are practical for
remote sensing.
• Visible spectrum: The light which our eyes (remote sensors) can detect.
• The only portion of the spectrum that can be associate with the concept of colours.
• The primary colours or wavelengths of the visible spectrum are Blue, green, and red.

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)
• Infrared(IR) region- covers the wavelength range from approximately 0.7 μm to 100 μm.
• The infrared region can be divided into two categories:
• Reflected IR- Radiation in this region is used for remote sensing purposes and covers wavelengths
from approximately 0.7 μm to 3.0 μm.
• Thermal IR- energy is essentially the radiation that is emitted from the Earth’s surface in the form
of heat.
• It covers wavelengths from approximately 3.0 μm to 100 μm.
• Microwave region: Covers the longest wavelengths used for remote sensing.
• Covers a portion from from about 1 mm to 1 m

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)
• Sun is the most obvious source of energy.
• However, all matter at temperature above zero (0°K, or -273°C) continuously emits
electromagnetic radiation
• i.e. terrestrial objects are also sources of radiation (but considerable different magnitude
and spectral composition from that of the sun) (Blackbody radiation)
• How much energy an object radiates is a function of the surface temperature of the
object, expressed by the Stefan-Boltzmann law:
Mλ= σT⁴, where
• M= total radiant exitance from the surface of a material, watts (W) m⁻²
• σ= Stefan-Boltzman constant, 56697 x 10⁻⁸W m⁻² K⁻⁴
• T= absolute temperature in kelvin (K) of the surface material

• The total energy emitted from an object varies as T⁴, therefore increases very rapidly
with increases in temperature.
ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe
 Energy flow in the system
• Solar radiation provides an enormous source of
energy, but only a very small portion of this in
the operation of biogeochemical processes .
• Upper atmosphere intercepts about 17.8 x
106W of largely shortwave radiant energy.

• About 30% of the energy is immediately

reflected back into space.
• Remainder, 12.3 x 106W, heats the atmosphere
and the surface and generates a mean global
surface temperature of about 15 °C.

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Energy flow in the system
• Of the 12.3 x 106W of the solar energy
received by the atmosphere a
significant amount (about 33%) drives
the hydrological cycle (Oceans –water
balance).
• A small portion is converted into
kinetic energy and powers circulation
of the air in the atmosphere and water
in the oceans.

• A further minute but highly significant

proportion (about 0.1%) is consumed
in photosynthesis. This is what powers
the biosphere.

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

Solar Radiation -EMR

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Layers of the atmosphere
• The vertical profile of the atmosphere is
divided into four main layers
• The atmosphere consists of a mixture of
gases and other solid and liquid particles:
N (78%), O (21%), Argon (1%)
• All weather conditions (clouds,
precipitation, water vapour) are confined
to the troposphere.
• Aerosol particles exist near to the Earth’s
surface (up to about 2 km)
• Ozone exist mainly in the stratosphere.

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere
• Because the molecules and particles in the atmosphere are optically
active, when the EMR from the Sun reaches the Earth’s atmosphere it
may be:
• Scattered: incident radiation is dispersed or spread out by the
particles unpredictably in all directions.
• Reflected: incident radiation bounces off the surface of a
substance in a predictable (specular reflection) or unpredictable
(diffuse reflection) direction.
• Absorbed: incident radiation is taken by the medium.
• Transmitted: incident radiation passes through matter with
measurable attenuation (absorbed or scattered).

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere -Scattering
• Atmospheric scattering is unpredictable diffusion of radiation by
particles in the atmosphere.
• There are three main types of scattering:
➢Rayleigh scattering
➢Mie scattering
➢Nonselective scattering

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere -Scattering
➢Rayleigh scattering:
i. Occurs when radiation interacts with atmospheric molecules and
other tiny particles diameters are much smaller than the
wavelength of the radiation (scattering due to gases/particles in the
atmosphere).
ii. Effect of Rayleigh scatter in inversely proportional to the fourth
power of wavelength.
iii. There is much stronger tendency for short wavelengths to be
scattered by this scattering mechanism than long wavelengths

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere -Scattering

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere -Scattering
As the Sun gets lower in the sky, its light is passing
through more of the atmosphere to reach you.

More of the blue light is scattered, allowing the reds

and yellows to pass straight through to your eyes.

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere -Scattering
➢Mie scattering:
• The scattering occurs when the diameters of
atmospheric particulates are equivalent to
the wavelengths of the scattered light.
• Major causes of Mie scatter are water vapour,
dust, pollen and smoke.
• Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower
portions of the atmosphere, where larger
particles are more abundant, and dominates
in cloudy conditions.
• Tends to influence longer wavelength.

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere -Scattering
➢Nonselective scatter
• Takes place when the diameters of particles causing scatter
are much larger than the wavelengths.
• Scattering is “nonselective” with respect to wavelength.
• Clouds (fog) appear white because equal quantities of blue,
green and red light are being scattered (by much larger
water droplets)
• i.e. All the colours of light add up to white

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere -Scattering
• Rayleigh scattering:
• Caused by tiny atmospheric particles
• Mostly affect shortwave radiation (blue sky, red evening skies)

• Mie scattering:
• Caused by relatively large atmospheric particles (water vapour, dust,
pollen, smoke)
• Mostly affects long wave radiation (lower portions of the atmosphere)

• Nonselective scatter
• Takes place when diameters of particles causing scatter are much larger
than the energy wavelengths
• All wavelength affected/scattered equally (white clouds, fog, snow)

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Effects of Scattering
• It causes haze in remotely sensed images

• It decrease the spatial detail on the images

• It decreases the contrast of the images

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere -Absorption

• Atmospheric absorption results in effective loss of energy to the atmospheric

constituents:-absorption of energy at a given wavelength

• Most efficient absorbers of solar radiation are: water vapour, CO2, and Ozone
(O3).

• These gases absorb EM energy in specific wavelength bands

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Atmospheric
Windows

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Energy Interactions with Features
• All EMR reaches the earth’s surface must be reflected,
absorbed and transmitted.
• Each is represented by a rate (%).
• The rate depends on:
• Wavelength
• Type of feature
• Angle of the sun

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

Energy Interactions with Features -Reflectance
• The process whereby radiation "bounces off" an object (e.g. water
body, terrestrial Earth).
• Spectral reflectance Pλ =ER(λ)/EI(λ)
=(E of wavelength λ reflected from the object)/
(E of wavelength λ incident upon the object)
• Different types of reflecting surfaces:
• Specular reflection:
• Diffuse (Lambertian) reflection:
• Most earth's surfaces are neither perfectly specular nor diffuse
reflectors. Somewhat in between
ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe
Energy Interactions with Features -Reflectance
• Different types of reflecting surfaces:
• Specular reflection: when the surface from which radiation
is reflected is essentially flat and smooth.
• and the angle of reflection equals the angle of incident
(mirror like reflections calm waters).

Perfect Specular Reflector

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe
Energy Interactions with Features -Reflectance
• Different types of reflecting surfaces:

• Diffuse (isotropic) reflection: reflectors have

rough surfaces that reflect “uniformly” in all
directions ≈ Lambertian surfaces.

• Most earth's surfaces are neither perfectly

specular nor diffuse reflectors. Somewhat in
between.

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

Energy Interactions with Features-Transmission
• Radiation passes through the object without
significant attenuation.
• Transmittance (t):
• t = transmitted radiation/incidence radiation

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 Energy Interactions with Features
Transmission:
• Radiation passes through the object without significant
attenuation.
• Transmittance (t):
• t = transmitted radiation/incidence radiation
• Absorption:
• t = absorbed radiation/incidence radiation
Interactions:
Reflectance + Transmission + Absorption = 100%

• NB: All features interact with EM energy all three ways but with
different proportions.
ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe
 Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere -Summary
Path 1: carries spectral solar irradiance that underwent
minimal attenuation before reaching and illuminating
the area within the Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV).

Path 2: carries spectral diffuse sky irradiance, which is

scattered in the atmosphere and never reaches the
Earth's surface. Unfortunately, this energy is frequently
scattered directly into the IFOV of the sensor system.

Path 3: carries solar energy that has undergone

various forms of scattering, i.e Rayleigh, Mie, or
nonselective scattering, as well as potential absorption
and reemission, before reaching the target.
Consequently, its spectral composition and
polarization might differ somewhat from the energy
reaching the ground from Path 1.

Path 4: consists of radiation that has been reflected or

scattered by surrounding terrain, such as soil, water,
and/or vegetation, into the IFOV of the sensor system.
ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe
It does not directly illuminate the specific target.
Energy Interactions in the Atmosphere -Summary
Path 5: represents energy that has been reflected from
nearby terrain into the atmosphere and subsequently
scattered or redirected onto the study area.

LT: The energy (LT) from Paths 1, 3, and 5 carries

essential spectral data related to the target of interest.

Path Radiance (Lp): The Path Radiance (Lp) from Paths

2 and 4 comprises diffuse sky irradiance or radiance
originating from adjacent ground areas. This path
usually introduces unwanted radiometric noise in the
data and complicates the image interpretation
process.

LS: Total radiance at the sensor

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe

 END

ENS 243 Introduction to Remote Sensing Lecturer: Dr. G.L. Pelane-Modutlwe