Consumer

Monitor
2023
EUROPEAN ALTERNATIVE FUELS OBSERVATORY

EUROPEAN AGGREGATED
REPORT

Lieselot Vanhaverbeke, Dennis Verbist, Gabriela Barrera, VUB-MOBI Electromobility Research Centre,
Máté Csukas, FIER
June - 2024
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport
Directorate B Investment, Innovative & Sustainable Transport
Unit B.4 — Sustainable and Intelligent transport
Contact: Rein Jüriado
E-mail: [email protected]
European Commission
B-1049 Brussels
 EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Consumer Monitor 2023

European Alternative Fuels
Observatory
EU Aggregated Report

Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport

European Alternative Fuels Observatory
2024 EUR <number> EN
Manuscript completed in June 2024

First edition

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 Consumer Monitor 2023
European Alternative Fuels Observatory
EU Aggregated Report

Contents

1. The 2023 European EAFO consumer monitor: key findings &

conclusions .............................................................................................. 6

2. Consumer monitoring results: general population views on driving

full-electric vehicles ............................................................................... 11

2.1. Socio-demographics ............................................................................ 11

2.2. Attitude and motivation towards battery electric vehicles ..................... 13
2.3. Main barriers and opportunities to adopt battery electric vehicles ....... 14
2.4. Time frame to buy a battery electric vehicle ........................................ 14
2.5. Willingness to pay and desired range of a battery electric vehicle ....... 15
2.6. Support and governmental incentives to drive a battery electric vehicles
16
3. Consumer monitoring results: Mobility and recharging behaviour of
battery electric drivers .......................................................................... 18

3.1. Mobility behaviour and vehicle ownership ........................................... 18

3.2. Purchase and lease price paid by BEV drivers .................................... 19
3.3. Factory range and range satisfaction of full-electric cars used by BEV
drivers .................................................................................................. 20
3.4. BEV drivers recharging according to battery level and waiting time at
public recharging points ....................................................................... 21
3.5. Recharging location and frequency of use by BEV drivers .................. 22
3.6. Important characteristics of a public recharging session for BEV drivers
23
3.7. BEV drivers’ opinion and payment options at public recharging points 24
3.8. Main problems encountered by BEV drivers when travelling abroad ... 26
3.9. Future trends: BEV drivers’ awareness and interest in vehicle-to-grid
capable vehicles .................................................................................. 28
4. Surveyed countries and EU aggregated results & incentives overview
................................................................................................................. 30

5. BEVs and recharging infrastructure in Europe ................................... 36

6. Annex I: Consumer monitoring methodology & approach ................ 38

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1. The 2023 European EAFO consumer monitor: key

findings & conclusions

The European Green Deal aims for a 90% reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions for transport by 2050. Different policies are in place to achieve this
goal, including standards on CO2 vehicle emissions, public procurement rules,
or the recently adopted Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Regulation (AFIR)1, 2, 3.
Nevertheless, in 2019, the transport sector was responsible for around one-
quarter of the EU’s total CO2 emissions, 60.6% of which were emitted by
passenger cars. The passenger car is still the main transport mode and has
continued to increase its share since the year 20004. Replacing existing fleets
with zero-emission vehicles is one of the key measures identified for this
purpose. Important efforts have been made to promote electric cars, and
therefore, identifying the main hurdles and needs of (potential) battery electric
drivers can support the design and implementation of tailored strategies,
policies and solutions to stimulate the demand for this type of vehicle.

For more than a decade, three main barriers have been identified regarding the
mass up-take of passenger battery electric vehicles (BEVs): purchase price,
driving range and availability of recharging infrastructure. There have been
significant advances: battery costs have dropped by 90%, vehicle range has
increased from 100-150 km up to 400+ km, and the recharging infrastructure
network is expanding. Nevertheless, BEVs represent only 1.68% of the total
passenger cars fleet in the EU, and the recharging infrastructure coverage is
still limited in some countries and urban areas5,6.

This report highlights the main findings of the 2023 EAFO Consumer Monitor
survey and presents the results for Europe (aggregated for the twelve surveyed
countries).

Taking these barriers and developments into account, the key findings of the
2023 EAFO consumer monitor are:

37% of the non-BEV European drivers are interested in BEVs, and 29% are
(very) familiar with these. 33% of the non-BEV driver participants

1 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:5e601657-3b06-11eb-b27b-
01aa75ed71a1.0001.02/DOC_1&format=PDF
2 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2019/1161/oj
3 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/1804/oj
4 https://www.europarl.europa.eu/topics/en/article/20190313STO31218/co2-emissions-from-cars-facts-and-

figures-infographics
5 Van Mierlo, J., Berecibar, M., El Baghdadi, M., De Cauwer, C., Messagie, M., Coosemans, T., Jacobs, V. A., &

Hegazy, O. (2021). Beyond the State of the Art of Electric Vehicles: A Fact-Based Paper of the Current and
Prospective Electric Vehicle Technologies. World Electric Vehicle Journal, 12(1),1-26.
6 https://alternative-fuels-observatory.ec.europa.eu/

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consider buying a BEV in a time frame of 0-5 years. The most important
BEVs’ advantage is that they are considered better for the climate (no
tailpipe CO2 emissions).
For European drivers, the BEVs’ cost is by far the main disadvantage of
driving electric cars. The BEVs’ price is also the number one challenge in
the twelve surveyed countries. The European participants are willing to
pay 20,000 € (median value) for a BEV (used or new), whereas for 40%
of the European BEV drivers, the purchase price paid was between
20,000 € and 39,999 €. 2% paid less than 10,000 €, 11% paid between
10,000 € and 19,999 €, 46% paid 40,000 € or more, and 1% did not
know or did not want to indicate the purchase price.
BEVs’ range is also considered a limitation, even though it is not as
important as its price. A minimum desired range between 300 km to 500
km was the choice of 34% of all European drivers surveyed. 500 km and
more would be the preference of 47%. On the other hand, 6% of the
European BEV drivers indicated a factory range until 200 km, 41%
between 201 km and 400 km, and 53% of more than 401 km. For 84% of
the BEV drivers, the factory range of their vehicle was usually or always
enough.
96% of European BEV drivers use their vehicles daily or several times a
week. Their BEV is mostly new (74%) and privately owned (69%).
Limited recharging private and public slow options are also considered a
disadvantage. To a lesser extent, survey respondents indicated that
having too few public fast recharging points can also be a problem.
44% of the European BEV drivers know what vehicle-to-grid (V2G) is and
68% are interested in buying a V2G-capable vehicle.

The EAFO Consumer Monitor 2023 results also provide further insights
concerning the three main barriers identified and the measures that could
support non-BEV and BEV drivers:

1. European non-BEV drivers are typically characterised as a 35 to 55+-

year-old female, living in an apartment, with a middle income (2,000-
3,999 €) and secondary education level. On the other hand, a 35 to
55-year-old male, living in a detached house, with a middle income
(2,000-3,999 €) and a high education level represents BEV drivers.
2. 57% of the surveyed non-BEV European drivers would consider
buying a BEV in the short, medium, or long term. In contrast, 18% do
not know if they would buy a BEV and 25% would not buy such a
vehicle.
3. When both non-BEV and BEV European drivers were asked about
different governmental incentives to support electric driving, a

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subsidy to purchase a new BEV was the incentive with the highest
perceived impact.
4. For all surveyed European drivers, the most relevant information to
have a clear opinion about electric driving is to have information
about the cost comparison with fossil fuel cars and batteries and/or
driving range, and a test drive.
5. The second-hand and leasing options at an affordable price need to
be further considered. 26% of the European BEV drivers bought a
second-hand BEV, while 20% indicated that they lease a car
(privately or for business purposes), for which 59% pay less than 500
€ per month.
6. When comparing factory range to BEV range satisfaction, 80% of the
BEV driver respondents whose vehicle has a factory range between
201 and 400 km indicated that this was usually or always enough.
This was also the case for 80% of the respondents whose vehicle
has a factory range between 301 and 400 km.
7. European BEV drivers responded that the most used location to
recharge is a recharging station or wallbox at home (used 55% of the
time daily or several times a week). On a daily or weekly basis, public
slow and fast recharging points are less often used (18% and 10%
respectively).
8. For European BEV drivers, important characteristics of a public
recharging session are a fully operational recharging station when
arriving, short or no waiting time to access a recharging point, and
clear and transparent price information. An integrated cable was
considered less important.
9. When surveyed European BEV drivers were asked about the longest
waiting time at a public recharging point, 31% never wait when this is
occupied (they leave without recharging), while 32% waited for 15
minutes or less. Still, 31% waited between 15 minutes to 1 hour, and
6% waited for 1 hour or more.
10. Most European BEV drivers know which recharging connector or
plug is compatible with their car, know how much time it will take to
fully recharge their vehicle, and have a clear overview of the
recharging points in their vicinity.
11. For European BEV drivers, the main problems encountered when
travelling abroad were the range of their BEV and having few
recharging stations along the way. On the other hand, 60% found
their experience when recharging abroad easy or very easy.

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12. The most important criteria to eventually buy a V2G compatible BEV
are being able to use the battery of the V2G capable BEV to power
their home (e.g., for heating, appliances, etc.) and having a similar
purchase price to their current BEV. Solar panels are the most
common Renewable Energy Device (RED) among BEV drivers.

The European Alternative Fuels Observatory (EAFO) supports the adoption of

alternative fuels in EU transport. It provides key information for the development
of relevant strategies and policies, by providing information on the evolution of
alternative fuel vehicles and recharging/refuelling infrastructure at the EU level
and per country. The EAFO also includes a dedicated section for policymakers
and consumers, addressing a wide range of stakeholders including different
government levels, vehicle manufacturers, other e-mobility industry companies,
automobile organisations, etc.

As part of the EAFO consumer section7, and for the second year in a row, a
survey was launched in October 2023 in twelve EU countries8,9 to better
understand consumers’ intentions to adopt battery electric vehicles (BEVs),
their e-mobility and recharging behaviour, and the challenges they perceive or
encounter in this sense. The EAFO Consumer Monitor focuses on electric road
transport, in particular passenger vehicles. It supports policymakers and other
key stakeholders by identifying trends, needs and opportunities in the transition
towards zero-emission mobility. Detailed information on the survey methodology
is available in Annex I.

The EAFO Consumer Monitor survey was performed as follows:

An online survey was conducted by a closed panel to have a representation

of the general population including non-BEV and BEV drivers10.
To improve the relevance of the analysis of the BEV drivers alone, an
identical online survey was openly disseminated through the EAFO
partner AVERE and other external contributors, including FIA members
ANWB in the Netherlands and Touring Belgium, the Ministries of
Transport from Luxembourg and Lithuania, and the Swedish Energy
Agency.

7 https://alternative-fuels-observatory.ec.europa.eu/consumer-portal
8 The twelve countries surveyed were: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden.
9 The results for BEV drivers in Lithuania, Luxembourg and Spain are not representative due to the small sample size

(29, 38, and 37 BEV drivers respectively). Nevertheless, these are included to indicate trends in BEV driving, mobility
behaviour and the recharging infrastructure.
10 For this report, non-BEV drivers are identified as those driving a vehicle having an internal combustion engine

(diesel, petrol, CNG or LPG, hybrid or plug-in hybrid car). BEV drivers refer to those driving a vehicle with no internal
combustion engine and with the battery of the electric motor being recharged by the means.

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The total number of valid responses is 19,080 respondents, of which 17,034

were filled out by non-BEV drivers and 2,046 by BEV drivers.

Following Section 1 on key findings and conclusions, Section 2 presents the

surveyed European participants’ attitude, interest, and the information that could
support BEV (potential) drivers. Section 3 focuses only on BEV drivers,
providing an insight into the European BEV drivers’ e-mobility and recharging
behaviour. Section 4 provides an overview of the results using key indicators for
the twelve countries surveyed and the EU aggregated results. Finally, section 5
includes a summary of the 2023 situation in the European Union (27 Member
States) in terms of passenger BEVs and recharging infrastructure based on the
most recent data from EAFO.

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2. Consumer monitoring results: general population

views on driving full-electric vehicles

This section presents the results of the merged datasets of the surveyed
European (EU) non-BEV and BEV drivers: 19,080 valid responses from BEV
(2,046) and non-BEV drivers (17,034). It focuses on their attitude, interests and
information that could support them to further drive BEV cars.

2.1. Socio-demographics

Based on the survey results, the EU BEV driver is represented by a 35 to 55-

year-old man living in a detached house with a middle income and a high
education level. The main differences when compared to European non-BEV
drivers’ representation are the percentage of female drivers, the age group, and
the education level.

Table 1 – Socio-demographic results from the survey

BEV Driver Non-BEV driver

Female 22% 53%

Gender
Male 78% 47%

-35 17% 22%

Age 35-55 51% 38%

55+ 32% 40%

< 800 € 1% 7%

800-1,999 € 11% 30%

Income 2,000-3,999 € 35% 38%

4,000-5,999 € 31% 18%

≥ 6,000 € 22% 7%

None - -

Primary education 1% 5%

Education Secondary education 38% 57%

University or other higher
education (e.g., college, 61% 38%
polytechnic, academy, etc.)
Apartment/studio 21% 44%

Housing Attached house 9% 13%

Semi-detached house 10% 9%

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BEV Driver Non-BEV driver

Detached house 59% 33%

Other 1% 1%

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

Although most BEV drivers surveyed live in a detached house, 21% live in an
apartment or studio. Both EU BEV and non-BEV drivers indicated that they can
park at a private parking on their driveway or garage (multiple answers were
possible).

1. Figure: EU (aggregated) drivers identified parking options (multiple answers

were possible).

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40% BEV driver

Non-BEV driver
30%

20%

10%

0%
Designated public Non-designated Private parking Private parking Private parking Public parking
on-street parking public on-street spot on the road on your own spot in a shared place in a public
spot parking spot driveway or garage or parking garage or parking
garage terrain terrain

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

There are also differences between EU surveyed participants when it comes to

Renewable Energy Devices (RED), as more BEV drivers indicated having
access to a source of renewable energy (multiple answers were possible).

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2. Figure: EU (aggregated) drivers’ Renewable Energy Devices (RED) possession

(multiple answers were possible).

70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
BEV driver
20%
Non-BEV driver
10%
0%
Solar panels Home battery Heat pump Others (e.g., I don’t have a
geothermal source
power) of renewable
energy

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

2.2. Attitude and motivation towards battery electric

vehicles

29% of the non-BEV driver respondents in Europe specified that they are (very)
familiar with battery electric driving and 37% are interested in this. The main
BEVs’ advantage is that these are considered better for the climate (no tailpipe
CO2 emissions).

2. Table: Opinion and views on battery electric vehicles

Results

(Very) familiar with BEV driving (non-BEV

29%
drivers)

Interest in BEVs (non-BEV drivers) 37%

Better for climate (no tailpipe CO2 emissions)

Top three advantages BEVs (all surveyed Driving characteristics (quiet, comfortable,
drivers) fast, etc.)

Economical to use

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

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2.3. Main barriers and opportunities to adopt battery

electric vehicles

EU surveyed participants were asked to choose the five most relevant

disadvantages of driving battery-electric vehicles (multiple answers were
possible). As previously reported, these include the price of BEVs, limited
recharging options (either private or public), and BEVs’ range.

3. Figure: EU (aggregated) drivers’ top 5 identified disadvantages of battery

electric vehicles (multiple answers were possible).

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
The cars are too I don’t have any way There are too few The driving range is There are too few
expensive to recharge the car public slow still insufficient public fast recharging
privately recharging points points

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

2.4. Time frame to buy a battery electric vehicle

25% of the EU non-BEV driver respondents do not consider buying a battery

electric vehicle. 33% expect to do so in a time frame of 0-5 years.

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4. Figure: EU (aggregated) non-BEV drivers’ time frame to buy a battery electric

vehicle.

10%
18%

I don’t know
Not buying a BEV
Yes, but without time frame in mind
33%
Yes, within 0-5 years
25%
Yes, within 5-10 years

14%

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

2.5. Willingness to pay and desired range of a battery

electric vehicle

The median price that all EU respondents are willing to pay for a new or used
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle (ICEV) is 15,000 € while for a new or used
BEV is 20,000 €.

In the EAFO consumer monitor survey, desired range was described as the
number of kilometres that can be driven with a full battery without recharging. A
minimum desired range between 300 km to 500 km was the choice of 34% of all
EU drivers surveyed. 500 km and more would be the preference of 47%.

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5. Figure: EU (aggregated) drivers’ desired driving range of a battery electric

vehicle.

9%
3%
27%
7% I don’t know
Min. 200 km
Min. 200-300 km

13% Min. 300-400 km

Min. 400-500 km
Min. 500-600 km
More than 600 km
20%

21%

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

The current BEV market consists of a considerable amount and variety of

models (115 individual models, and 286 model variations) with a range between
300 and +600 km (models’ variance in March 2024 according to the EAFO). On
the other hand, there are only thirteen BEV models available with a purchase
price between 20,000 € to 35,000 € (representing 5% of the total BEV models in
the market). These have an average range of 217 km (min 135 km, max 300
km), and include mostly cars in the A and B segments (supermini, e.g., city
cars), with a couple of models in the C segment (compact, e.g., small family
cars).

2.6. Support and governmental incentives to drive a

battery electric vehicles

EU drivers were asked about what they would value the most to have a clearer
opinion about electric driving. Cost comparison with fossil fuel cars, more
information about batteries and/or driving range, and a test drive were the most
relevant support measures.

In addition, they also indicated the impact of different governmental incentives

on the decision to drive an electric vehicle. A subsidy to purchase a new BEV
and road tax exemptions are the incentives with the highest perceived impact.

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6. Figure: Perceived impact of governmental incentives on EU (aggregated)

drivers’ decision to drive a full-battery electric vehicle.

Exemption (road tax) – international péage 24% 18% 20% 16% 22%

Higher tax deduction/ Lower addition (for a company car) 22% 9% 18% 16% 35%

Purchase subsidy for wallbox (recharging station at home) 17% 16% 17% 22% 28%

Purchase subsidy used electric car 20% 12% 16% 18% 34%

Purchase subsidy new electric car 37% 13% 23% 14% 13%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

High impact Low impact Medium impact No impact NA

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

Interestingly, in a separate question, 33% of the surveyed European drivers

indicated that they are not aware of any subsidies for electric driving, even if in
most of the surveyed countries a subsidy scheme was in place in 2023.

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3. Consumer monitoring results: Mobility and

recharging behaviour of battery electric drivers

3.1. Mobility behaviour and vehicle ownership

This section focuses on BEV EU drivers (2,046 valid responses). The European
(EU) aggregated results of the EAFO 2023 survey give an insight into the
mobility behaviour of EU BEV drivers. Results on recharging behaviour are also
presented.

96% of the BEV EU drivers surveyed use their vehicle several times a week or
daily. Most BEVs (when it is the main household vehicle) are new privately
owned cars (although company cars are well represented). Most EU BEV
drivers have less than one to 3 years of experience as a BEV driver.

3. Table: Mobility behaviour and vehicle ownership.

Results

< 1 year to 3 years as BEV driver 68%

3 years to 5 years or longer as BEV driver 32%

km driven per year (median) 17,000

km driven per day (median) 70

BEV drivers using their vehicle daily to several 96%

times a week

For shopping/errands (e.g., bringing and picking

BEV ownership (BEV as main car) up the children, doctor visits, administration), and
leisure activities.

Leased BEV (business) 4%

Leased BEV (private) 16%

BEV company car (if employee) 11%

Privately owned BEV 69%

New vs. second-hand BEVs (BEV as main car)

New BEV 74%

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Results

Second-hand BEV 26%

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

3.2. Purchase and lease price paid by BEV drivers

Surveyed BEV EU drivers indicated the purchase price paid when their BEV is
the main vehicle. For 40% this was between 20,000 € and 39,999 €. 2% paid
less than 10,000 €, 11% paid between 10,000 € and 19,999 €, 46% paid 40,000
€ or more, and 1% did not know or did not want to indicate the purchase price.

7. Figure: EU (aggregated) BEV drivers’ purchase price for their battery electric
vehicle.

100%
5% 1%
90%
21%
80%
I don’t know / don’t wish to tell
70% More than €75.000
20% €50.000 - €74.999
60%
€40.000 - €49.999
50%
€30.000 - €39.999
40% 23%
€20.000 - €29.999
30% €10.000 - € 19.999

17% Less than €10.000

20%

10%
11%
2%
0%
Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

On the other hand, 20% of the EU BEV driver participants responded that their
first car was leased (privately or for business purposes). 59% pay less than 500
€ per month, while 31% pay more than 501 €.

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8. Figure: EU (aggregated) BEV drivers’ lease fee for their battery electric vehicle.

100%
9% 2%
90%
3%
80% 6%
3% I don’t know / don’t wish to tell
5%
70% More than €1000
13%
60% €901 - €1000
€801 - €900
50%
€701 - €800
40% €601 - €700
30% 59% €501 - €600
Less than €500
20%

10%

0%
Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

3.3. Factory range and range satisfaction of full-electric

cars used by BEV drivers

Factory range refers to the kilometres a new BEV can drive with the available
vehicle battery after running a World Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure
(WLTP) test cycle. 6% of the European BEV drivers indicated a factory range
until 200 km, 41% between 201 km and 400 km, and 53% of more than 401 km
The factory range of the first car was usually or always enough for 84% of the
surveyed EU BEV drivers. When comparing factory range to BEV range
satisfaction, 80% of the BEV driver respondents stated that a factory range
between 201 and 300 km was usually or always enough. This was also the
case for 80% of the respondents with a factory range between 301 and 400 km.

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9. Figure: Factory range and range satisfaction according to EU (aggregated)

BEV drivers.

More than 700 km 6% 11% 83%

601 – 700 km 4% 96%

1%
501 – 600 km 6% 93%
1%
401 – 500 km 10% 89%
2%
301 – 400 km 18% 80%

201 – 300 km 4% 16% 80%

Until 200 km 6% 28% 66%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

This is never or usually not enough This is sometimes enough, sometimes not This is usually or always enough

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

3.4. BEV drivers recharging according to battery level

and waiting time at public recharging points

Surveyed BEV EU drivers were asked what the longest waiting time was to use
a public recharging point. 31% never wait when this is occupied (they leave
without recharging), while 32% waited for 15 minutes or less. Still, 31% waited
between 15 minutes to 1 hour, and 6% for more than an hour. Furthermore,
51% responded that they recharge their BEV when the battery level reaches a
certain threshold.

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10. Figure: EU (aggregated) BEV drivers’ waiting times when using a public
recharging point.

100%
6%
More than 1 hour
90%
13%

80%
More than 30 minutes but not
70% 18%
more than 1 hour

60%
More than 15 minutes but not
50% more than 30 minutes
32%
40%
15 minutes or less
30%

20% I never wait when a

31% recharging point is occupied, I
10% leave without recharging.

0%
Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

3.5. Recharging location and frequency of use by BEV

drivers

For BEV EU drivers a private recharging station or wallbox at home is the most
frequently used location. Public slow recharging stations on the street or public
parking and public fast recharging stations are not that often used (18% and
10% respectively).

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11. Figure: Recharging location and frequency use be EU (aggregated) BEV

drivers.

Semi-public recharging station 74% 16% 10%

Recharging station/ wallbox at workplace 70% 10% 20%

Public slow recharging station on street

63% 19% 18%
or public parking

Public fast recharger 67% 23% 10%

Private recharging station/ wallbox at home 33% 12% 55%

Normal household socket at home 66% 9% 25%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

(Almost) never A couple of times a month Often (daily or multiple times a week)

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

3.6. Important characteristics of a public recharging

session for BEV drivers

EU BEV driver respondents were asked to indicate the most important

characteristics of a public recharging session. A fully operational recharging
station when arriving, short or no waiting time to access a recharging point, and
clear and transparent price information were considered the most important
ones. An integrated cable was considered less important.

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12. Figure: Important characteristics for EU (aggregated) BEV drivers of a public

recharging session.

2% 2%
The recharging station should be fully
8% 22% 66%
operational when I arrive
2% 2%
Short/no waiting time to access the
8% 33% 55%
recharging point, to avoid queuing
4% 6%
Recharging speed / power output of
the recharging point, so I can get the 13% 36% 41%
quickest possible recharge
6% 5%
Possibility to pay per kWh only
21% 24% 44%
(instead of per minute or per session)
3% 6%
Possibility to do something else while
your car recharges/amenities on site 19% 46% 26%
(food, coffee, toilets, etc)
9% 10%
Integrated cable, thanks to which you
don’t 23% 31% 27%
need to get the cable out of the trunk
3% 4%
Easy access and payment via my
14% 31% 48%
recharging subscription (pass/app)
8% 7%
Convenient on the spot payment
22% 29% 34%
options (eg. debit/ credit card)
3% 3%
Clear and transparent price information,
so I know how much I will be 10% 25% 59%
charged for my recharging session

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Not important at all Somewhat unimportant Neutral Somewhat important Very important
Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

3.7. BEV drivers’ opinion and payment options at public

recharging points

Most EU BEV drivers know which recharging connector or plug is compatible

with their car, know how much time it will take to fully recharge their vehicle, and
have a clear overview of the recharging points in their vicinity. On the other
hand, they mostly do not know the origin of the electricity at public recharging
points.

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13. Figure: Public recharging points opinions of EU (aggregated) BEV drivers.

9% 7%
There are sufficient facilities
(food, coffee, toilets, shelter,
23% 24% 37%
etc)
at highway recharging stations
2% 2%
I know which recharging
connectors/
8% 9% 79%
plugs are compatible with my
car

I know the origin of the

electricity 33% 12% 24% 12% 19%
(e.g. renewable, green energy)

I know in advance whether a

recharging point
13% 11% 17% 24% 35%
will be available for use or
occupied
7%
7%
I know how much time it will
take to fully
13% 24% 49%
recharge my car at any given
recharging point

I have sufficient choice between

different
16% 13% 20% 21% 30%
operators of recharging point /
mobility service providers
8% 7%

I have a clear overview of the

public 12% 25% 48%
recharging points in my vicinity

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

(Strongly) Disagree Somewhat disagree Neutral/Not Applicable Somewhat agree (Strongly) Agree

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

In all public and semi-public recharging stations, a charging card or app is the
most used payment option.

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14. Figure: Payment options used at recharging stations by EU (aggregated) BEV

drivers (multiple answers were possible).

80%
70%
Charging card/app
60%
50%
40% Payment on the
30% spot (e.g. credit
20% card, debit card,
10% cash)
0% Not applicable (e.g.,
Public slow recharging Public fast recharger Recharging station/ Semi-public recharging free of charge,
on-street wallbox at workplace (stores, restaurants, other means of
parking lots, etc.)
payment)
Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

3.8. Main problems encountered by BEV drivers when

travelling abroad

40% of the EU BEV drivers responded that they have travelled multiple times
abroad with their BEV, 17% have travelled once, and 43% have never used
their BEV to travel abroad. When they were asked to indicate the main
problems encountered when travelling abroad, the range of their BEV and few
recharging stations along the way was the main issue identified.

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15. Figure: European(aggregated) BEV drivers’ opinions regarding travelling

abroad with a BEV.

There are too few recharging stations along the way 25% 13% 21% 21% 20%

I find it overly burdensome to plan my trip in function of my

42% 12% 14% 16% 16%
recharging needs

I find it complicated or prohibitively expensive to pay for my

31% 11% 24% 16% 18%
recharging abroad (roaming issue)

I don't think I can recharge my car at my travel destination 34% 13% 22% 16% 15%

I don't have enough information about where to recharge

32% 13% 18% 18% 19%
while on the road

Due to the slow and therefore long recharging times, I

36% 10% 17% 17% 20%
would lose too much time for recharging my car

Due to the limited range of my electric car, I would have to

35% 10% 17% 16% 22%
stop too often to recharge my car along the way

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

(Strongly) Disagree Somewhat disagree Neither agree nor disagree Somewhat agree (Strongly) Agree

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

Nevertheless, when looking at their recharging experience when travelling

abroad, 60% specified that it was (very) easy, while 10% considered it as (very)
difficult.

4. Table: BEV drivers experience when recharging abroad.

Results

Very easy 30%

Easy 30%

Not easy, but not difficult either 22%

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Results

Difficult 8%

Very difficult 2%

Not applicable (did not 8%

recharge my car abroad)
Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

3.9. Future trends: BEV drivers’ awareness and interest

in vehicle-to-grid capable vehicles

Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) refers to the interaction between Electric Vehicles and the
power grid. The basic idea of V2G is to use EV batteries as intermediate
storage facilities for providing services to the electric power system when BEVs
are parked. For example, giving energy back to the grid when the car is not in
use. EU BEV drivers were asked if they were aware of this technology. 34%
had never heard of it, while 34% indicated being aware and having knowledge
about this.

5. Table: BEV drivers V2G awareness

BEV driver V2G awareness Results

No, never heard of it 34%

Yes, heard of it, but know nothing/just a little bit 22%

about it
Yes, heard of it and know quite a bit/a lot about it 44%

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

Moreover, 68% of the EU BEV drivers stated that they are interested in buying a
vehicle with the V2G functionality. The most important criteria to eventually buy
such a vehicle are being able to use the battery of the V2G capable BEV to
power their home (e.g., for heating, appliances, etc.) and having a similar
purchase price to their current BEV car.

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16. Figure: EU (aggregated) BEV drivers’ willingness to buy a V2G-capable BEV

(multiple answers were possible).

70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Being able to use Similar purchase price Pre-determined Government Sufficient V2G charging
the battery of my to earnings model grants/subsidies infrastructure
vehicle to power my your current electric
home (appliances, vehicle
heating, etc.)

Source: EAFO Consumer Monitor and Survey 2023.

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4. Surveyed countries and EU aggregated results &

incentives overview11

The number one BEV driving disadvantage identified in all cases is the
purchase price of the vehicle.

57% of European BEV drivers consider buying a BEV in the short, medium or
long term. A subsidy to buy a new BEV is the most important government
incentive to drive this type of car. Most of the BEVs are new and privately
owned. 32% of the European BEV drivers indicated a waiting time of 15 minutes
or less. Half of the European BEV drivers consider the level of their vehicle
battery before recharging. The reported use of public slow and fast recharging
infrastructure is of 18% and 10% respectively.

11 The results for BEV drivers in Lithuania, Luxembourg and Spain are not representative due to the small sample
size (29, 38, and 37 BEV drivers respectively). Nevertheless, these are included to indicate trends in BEV driving,
mobility behaviour and the recharging infrastructure.

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6. Table: Barriers and opportunities BEV driving

% BEV potential
High impact
drivers (time
Main government
Country frame Existing financial incentive (end 2023) 9
disadvantage incentive to
considering
drive BEV
buying a BEV)

Flanders to offer 5,000 € EV grants in 2024 (no subsidies in 2023), reduced annually till 2027. Zero-emission
vehicles get tax exemptions, with BEVs 100% company tax deductible till 2026. BIK (benefit-in-kind) rates are
Belgium 44%
CO2-based, and Brussels offers LEZ replacement subsidies for commercial vehicles and plans to ban diesel by
2030.
Denmark offers no direct purchase subsidies for EVs but provides significant tax incentives (more than 10k € in
contrast to ICE cars). BEVs enjoy a full exemption from registration taxes, and PHEVs benefit from reduced rates.
Denmark 62%
The country supports public and private EV recharging infrastructure through financial subsidies, tax exemptions,
and mandatory installation regulations in new buildings.
France offers up to 7,000 € ecological bonus for EVs and 6,000 € for trade-ins, with tax benefits like 50%
France 46%
registration fee exemption for EVs and BIK (benefit-in-kind) reductions for company EVs until December 2024.
Subsidy
buying a new Germany ended its EV subsidies in December 2023, with manufacturer discounts until Mar 2024. Tax benefits for
Germany 55% EV EV company cars continue, and EVs remain exempt from the annual circulation tax until 2025. The focus has
BEVs are too
shifted to vehicles with proven climate benefits, with a 130 € billion investments in sustainable mobility.
expensive
Hungary offers a 79 € million subsidies for company BEVs from February 2024 (no subsidy in 2023), with grants
up to 10,500 € based on vehicle price and battery capacity. Green plate vehicles enjoy numerous tax exemptions
Hungary 67%
including registration, vehicle, and transfer taxes. Additional benefits include corporate tax credits for energy
efficiency, deductible costs for electric charging stations, and free municipal parking for green plate vehicles.
Current incentives go up to a maximum of 5,000 € with respect to emission class and if you scrap an old polluting
car. New incentives (from mid-2024) will go up to a maximum of 13,750 € with respect to income (<30k €) and for
Italy 65% BEVs: however, incentives are active, even if lower, for other emission classes, including ICE. Benefits include a
five-year tax exemption, reduced VAT for people with disabilities, and incentives for charging installation.
Lombardy provides regional subsidies, enhancing support for a cleaner vehicle transition.
Subsidy In 2024, Lithuania offers up to 4,000 € for new BEVs, 2,500 € for used EVs, and tax incentives, since the 1st of
Lithuania 55% buying a used January 2023, VAT deductions apply on EV purchases up to 50,000 €.
EV

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% BEV potential
High impact
drivers (time
Main government
Country frame Existing financial incentive (end 2023) 9
disadvantage incentive to
considering
drive BEV
buying a BEV)

Purchase subsidy of 8,000 € for new BEVs and FCEVs (Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle) with less than 7 seats and
Subsidy
under 18 kWh/100 km consumption; 3,000 € if above this threshold. Up to 1,000 € for electric motorcycles and
Luxembourg 51% buying a new
quadricycles, covering up to 50% of the cost, extended until March 2024. The government halved administrative
EV
tax for BEVs, and applied CO2-based tax incentives, aiming for 49% new EVs by 2030.
Dutch EV incentives include purchase subsidies (2,950 € new, 2,000 € used), and tax emptions until 2024 on
BPM (Belasting van personenauto’s en motorrijwielen or tax on private motor vehicle and motorcycle charged
Road tax once for each car registered) and MRB (Motorrijtuigenbelasting, a vehicle tax based on fuel, emissions and weight,
Netherlands 52%
exemptions paid monthly or quarterly from the date of car registration on the name of the owner). Entrepreneurs enjoy
additional tax benefits, although the MIA/Vamil scheme is being phased out. Energy tax for recharging stations is
reduced, indirectly lowering costs.
Slovenia offers up to 6,500 € subsidy for new EVs under 35,000 € retail price, for individuals, and various subsidies
Slovenia 43% for legal entities on new EVs up to 65,000 € retail price. Zero benefit-in-kind for company cars, VAT deductions
on EV purchases up to 80,000 €, and subsidized Eco Fund loans promote EV adoption.
Spain's MOVES programs offer significant EV subsidies, with up to 7,000 € for new BEVs under conditions like
vehicle scrappage. MOVES III extends till July 2024 with a 400-800 € million budgets. Incentives include major
Spain 70% Subsidy tax reductions, VAT exemptions, and enhanced recharging point installation aids, promoting broader EV adoption
buying a new across the nation. These benefits are complemented by local exemptions from road taxes and special privileges
EV like toll and parking exemptions for electric vehicles.
No purchase subsidies for personal EVs post-November 2022, but a new 'climate premium' for light electric trucks
Sweden 62% from February 2024 (30% of cost difference, capped at 4,300 €. Ongoing support includes minimal road tax (SEK
360 or 31 €), tax benefits for electric company cars, and funding for electric vehicle supply equipment projects.
EU 12 Financial support through grants and loans.
57%
countries

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7. Table: BEV cars’ ownership model & new/second-hand market

Ownership
model & EU-12
Belgium Denmark France Germany Hungary Italy Luxembourg Lithuania Netherlands Slovenia Spain Sweden
new/used countries
BEV

Leased BEV 7% 0% 2% 5% 13% 4% 0% 0% 4% 1% 0% 6% 4%

(business)
Leased BEV 5% 4% 31% 22% 6% 10% 16% 7% 14% 15% 14% 25% 16%
(private)
BEV 39% 1% 5% 12% 11% 2% 6% 7% 16% 13% 3% 16% 11%
company car
(if employee)
Privately 49% 95% 62% 61% 70% 84% 78% 86% 66% 71% 83% 53% 69%
owned BEV

New BEV 79% 73% 77% 86% 51% 89% 84% 26% 76% 75% 92% 67% 74%

Second-hand 21% 27% 23% 14% 49% 11% 16% 74% 24% 25% 8% 33% 26%
BEV

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8. Table: Recharging behaviour of BEV drivers

% time using % time using Most important Most used Most used
BEV drivers
slow public fast public characteristic payment option payment option
Waiting time 15 recharging
Country recharging recharging public at slow fast public
min or less considering
point daily/per point daily/per recharging recharging recharging
battery level
week week session points points

Short or no
waiting time to Charging card or
Belgium 31% 46% 23% 16%
access a app
recharging point
Fully operational
Payment on the
Denmark 26% 47% 42% 32% recharging station
spot
at arrival
Clear and
France 42% 44% 15% 8% transparent price
information
Fully operational
Germany 26% 64% 12% 7% recharging station
at arrival Charging card or
app
Fully operational
Hungary 28% 67% 9% 6% recharging station
at arrival Charging card or
Fully operational app
Italy 15% 51% 33% 18% recharging station
at arrival
Fully operational
Lithuania 10% 45% 17% 10% recharging station
at arrival
Fully operational
Luxembourg 24% 42% 11% 8% recharging station
at arrival

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% time using % time using Most important Most used Most used
BEV drivers
slow public fast public characteristic payment option payment option
Waiting time 15 recharging
Country recharging recharging public at slow fast public
min or less considering
point daily/per point daily/per recharging recharging recharging
battery level
week week session points points

Short or no
waiting time to
Netherlands 38% 54% 20% 8%
access a
recharging point
Fully operational
Slovenia 31% 52% 11% 5% recharging station
at arrival
Short or no
waiting time to
Spain 16% 70% 57% 46%
access a
recharging point
Fully operational
Sweden 40% 38% 15% 9% recharging station
at arrival
Fully operational
EU 12 countries 32% 51% 18% 10% recharging station
at arrival

35
5. BEVs and recharging infrastructure in Europe

EU Member States have implemented different incentives, including tax

benefits, VAT exemptions and subsidies to support the uptake of electric
vehicles and recharging infrastructure (an overview of these can be found in
EAFO incentives & legislation European Union).

Across the European Union, member states have adopted a range of incentives
to encourage the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) as part of a broader
commitment to reduce carbon emissions and promote sustainable
transportation. These measures include financial subsidies, tax reductions, and
support for infrastructure development, tailored to reflect each country's
economic and environmental priorities. For instance, Germany transitioned from
government subsidies to manufacturer-led incentives after the end of 2023,
while Spain's MOVES III plan, extending into 2024, offers up to 7,000 € for new
BEVs with conditions such as scrapping older vehicles. France and Italy provide
targeted subsidies that vary based on the buyer's income, emphasising
accessibility and environmental impact. In contrast, Denmark leverages tax
exemptions rather than direct purchase subsidies to promote EVs, including
significant exemptions on registration and ownership taxes with a planned
gradual phase-out by 2035. Additionally, countries like Hungary and Belgium
focus on corporate fleet upgrades and tax benefits for company cars to
accelerate EV adoption. Infrastructure support is also a key component, with
nations like Sweden and Portugal investing in both private and public charging
facilities to support the growing number of EVs.

Additionally, the EU has launched a call for proposals under the Connecting
Europe Facility (CEF) for Transport Programme's Alternative Fuels
Infrastructure Facility (AFIF), making 1 € billion available to support the
deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure along the Trans-European
Network of Transport (TEN-T). This second phase (2024-2025) aligns with new
regulations for publicly accessible electric recharging and hydrogen refuelling
stations in key transport corridors and hubs, as well as ReFuelEU aviation and
FuelEU maritime regulations. Eligible projects include infrastructure for road,
maritime, inland waterway, and air transport, including Megawatt recharging
stations for heavy-duty vehicles, and electricity and hydrogen supply at airports
and ports. Proposals must be submitted electronically via the Funding &
Tenders Portal by specific deadlines in 2024 and 2025. Evaluations will be
conducted by the European Commission and CINEA, with decisions made
within 4 months and agreements signed within 9 months. Since 2014, CEF has
supported over 1,450 projects with 36.3 € billion.

36
17. Figure: Evolution of the total BEV passenger vehicles in the European Union

5 000 000

4 500 000 4 370 096

4 000 000

3 500 000
3 080 913
3 000 000

2 500 000
2 049 970
2 000 000

1 500 000 1 142 144

1 000 000
628 244
381 519
500 000

0
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Source: EAFO portal.

For the year 2023, there were 4,370,096 BEVs, representing 1.68% of the total
passenger vehicles fleet in Europe.

18. Figure: Evolution of alternating and direct current (AC or slow and DC or fast)
recharging points in the European Union

600 000
550 517

500 000

403 208
400 000

300 000 275 935 EU27 - AC

EU27 - DC
200 000 156 850

81 737
100 000 44 637
14 773 23 211
0
2020 2021 2022 2023
Source: EAFO portal.

Moreover, the public recharging infrastructure network has considerably grown

in the last few years. According to the EAFO portal, by the end of 2023, there
were 550,517 (AC) slow public recharging points, and 81,737 (DC) fast public
ones.

37
6. Annex I: Consumer monitoring methodology &
approach
For the 2023 launch of the EAFO consumer monitor survey, twelve countries12
were selected. The survey was conducted using a panel on the general
population of each of the surveyed countries. To improve the analysis of BEV
drivers, a purposeful sample was collected through AVERE and external
contributors, including FIA members ANWB in the Netherlands, Touring
Belgium, the Ministries of Transport from Luxembourg and Lithuania, and the
Swedish Energy Agency. The same survey was used for both the panel and the
BEV sample.
The survey campaign was launched at the end of October 2023. The aim was
to reach 17,750 panel responses. The survey was open for one month. As BEV
drivers are difficult to reach, their survey campaign was closed at the beginning
of February 2024 in all surveyed countries.
The datasets were subjected to validation tests, including:
• Respondents should have completed the survey by the end and should
have agreed to the terms and conditions of the survey.
• Respondents who specified not owning a driver’s license were excluded.
• Respondents who filled out the survey in one-third (or less) of the time
median for all respondents were excluded from the survey, as it was
deemed impossible to fill out the survey thoroughly and in its entirety in
such a short time.
• Respondents who indicated unusually high values to open questions with
continuous variables (kilometres driven in a day, kilometres driven in a
year, purchase price of a BEV and purchase price of an Internal
Combustion Engine Vehicle) were excluded from the results.
• Respondents who came up with nonsensical patterns of answers to open
questions were excluded.
The validation of all the datasets was finalised in mid-February 2024. To
improve the relevance of the analysis of the BEV drivers alone, the survey
conducted on BEV drivers (from AVERE and other external contributors) was
combined with the survey conducted on the general population. The
respondents were considered BEV drivers when their first, second or third car
was a BEV. A total of 19,080 responses were considered valid for both the
panel and the AVERE and external contributors’ datasets. Out of these, there
were 17,034 non-BEV and 2,046 BEV drivers.
The validated and combined datasets of all surveyed countries were used for a
EU aggregated report.

12 The twelve countries surveyed were: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden.

38
 <Catalogue number>

Lieselot Vanhaverbeke, Dennis Verbist, Gabriela Barrera, VUB-MOBI Electromobility Research Centre,
Máté Csukas, FIER
June - 2024