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Hiu Yung Wong

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Hiu Yung Wong

Introduction
to Quantum
Computing
From a Layperson to a Programmer in 30
Steps
Second Edition
Introduction to Quantum Computing
Hiu Yung Wong

Introduction to Quantum
Computing
From a Layperson to a Programmer
in 30 Steps

Second Edition
Hiu Yung Wong
Department of Electrical Engineering
San José State University
San José, CA, USA

ISBN 978-3-031-36984-1 ISBN 978-3-031-36985-8 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36985-8

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
AG 2022, 2024
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Paper in this product is recyclable.

To my Family
Preface to the Second Edition

I need to thank Charles B. Glaser, Editorial Director of Springer, for encouraging

me to publish the second edition of this book. Since the book was published less
than one year ago, it has created certain impacts. Firstly, a few universities have
contacted me for supporting materials for their introductory quantum computing
classes. This book will be used as the textbook or supplementary reading materials
in their classes. Secondly, in 9 months, more than 300 hard copies have been sold,
and there are nearly 60 thousand chapter downloads (equivalent to 2000 softcopies)
from the official webpage. Thirdly, because of this book, I was invited to give a
tutorial at the ISQED conference, 2023, a public seminar for FormFactor, Inc. with
more than 300 attendees, and quantum computing talks in companies such as Fujitsu
Research of America, eBay, Inc., and Synopsys, Inc. and online study groups around
the world. These show that there is a strong demand in learning quantum computing
as a layperson.
However, what I am proud of the most is the ability to write down my self-study
and learning experience of quantum computing as an electrical engineer. At the
time of writing, ChatGPT has been published and shaken the world. What is the
value of writing a book? A book won’t be useful nowadays if it is just a collection
of materials, particularly only the existing materials on the Web. Therefore, I feel
that the most valuable thing of this book is that I wrote it based on my learning
experience in which I highlighted the pitfalls that I expected the readers would
face. Indeed, I have received some encouraging feedback from the readers (with
corrections to the typos):
I must say this book is the only book I have seen so far which can help someone to get
a clear concept of quantum computing even if the person doesn’t have a background in
quantum physics or mechanics.

I am a self-learner...your approach to teach the topic is extremely rewarding and I was able
to finally understand some important topics in quantum computing such as the Quantum
Fourier transform.

vii
viii Preface to the Second Edition

I must tell you that they are very nice and for someone like me, new to this field, they are
indeed of significant value.

Your explanations of the reasoning behind quantum computing are so simple and straight-
forward.

It is lucky to have encountered your book at the beginning of my Ph.D. It is so comprehen-

sible that I got the answer to my questions since I self-studied quantum computing by using
the book of “Nielsen” and online materials.

Just found this book, and so many concepts have become infinitely clearer! I forced myself to
read Nielsen and Chuang, and while it is a comprehensive book, I found your presentation
way easier to digest.

In the second edition, teaching videos have been added to each chapter. I have
fixed more than 50 typos so it is more readable. In the last chapter, I also included
a discussion of the HHL algorithm and its code. Teaching slides, answers to the
chapter problems, and teaching videos are documented in the Appendix. Finally,
more than 100 more sophisticated questions (grouped into about 40 question sets)
and their answers are included in this second edition. I hope you will enjoy reading
it.
For any comments and questions, please send an email to intro.qc.wong@gmail.
com.

San José, CA, USA Hiu Yung Wong

March 2023
Preface to the First Edition

Quantum computing sounds fancy but also scary. Is it possible to learn quantum
computing rigorously without years of training in mathematics, physics, and
computer science? This book tries to address this question. For any serious learner
who has some basic training in science or engineering at the junior level, they should
find this textbook useful to prepare themselves to start a serious quantum computing
journey within a few months.
This book is based on an introduction to quantum computing class I teach at San
José State University. The target audiences are senior and master’s students who do
not have a strong background in linear algebra and physics. I designed the course
materials by working backward from the final goal, namely being able to understand
the nuts and bolts, derive the equation, and perform numerical substitution in
common algorithms such as the Quantum Phase Estimation algorithm and Shor’s
algorithm. The materials are derived until some basic matrix and vector operations.
This book is suitable for self-study or as a textbook for a one-semester or one-
quarter introduction class at senior or master’s level. After spending 60–90 hours
of reading, students are expected to be able to understand the critical concepts of
quantum computing, construct and run quantum computing circuits, and interpret
the results. For self-study students, it is recommended to read the book and do the
exercise for 3–4 hours per week for about 20 weeks (about 1–2 chapters per week).
There are two parts in this book. Part I teaches linear algebra with an emphasis
on quantum computing applications. Part II teaches quantum computing gates and
algorithms. If the readers have not been exposed to quantum computing and do
not have a very strong background in linear algebra, it is recommended to read
from the first chapter to the final chapter in sequence. Part I is “entangled” with
Part II. Many important quantum computing concepts are introduced in Part I. It
is not recommended to start with Part II even if the readers already have some
background in linear algebra. Part I of this book can also be used to enhance the
students’ understanding of linear algebra as standalone teaching material.
A few didactic approaches are used throughout the book. First, fundamental
concepts are repeated when it is used. Such an “immersion” approach helps
emphasize the critical aspects of the concepts. For example, the concept of basis,

ix
x Preface to the First Edition

which is the main source of confusion in most calculations, is repeated throughout

the book to remind the readers about the importance of knowing which basis is being
used in the calculations. Second, background knowledge is introduced only when it
is really needed. For example, the Bloch sphere and the general unitary gate are
only introduced right before the quantum phase estimation, almost at the end of the
book. Third, numerical examples are used throughout the book and the calculations
are explained clearly to avoid ambiguities. For readers who are not well trained in
abstract linear algebra, numerical substitution is the best way to make sure they
understand the meaning of each equation. Fourth, real quantum computers (IBM-Q)
are used to implement some of the algorithms, and students are encouraged to write
their own simple simulator using Google Co-lab. Fifth, I try to use many analogies
to help the readers understand better the absurd concepts in quantum computing.
Finally, do not get scared by the lengthy equation blocks. Most equation blocks can
be written in just one or two lines, but I deliberately show the tiny steps to help the
readers follow the flow.
For schools that do not have the resources to create materials to start an
introduction to quantum computing class, teaching material can be created by
following the flow of this textbook.
Finally, I need to acknowledge the students in my EE225 class in Spring 2020
and Fall 2021 for taking my class seriously.
For any comments, please send an email to [email protected].

San José, CA, USA Hiu Yung Wong

January 2022
Contents

Part I Linear Algebra for Quantum Computing

1 The Most Important Step to Understand Quantum Computing . . . . . . 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 How to Learn Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 First Impression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 What Is Quantum Computing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3 Basis, Basis Vectors, and Inner Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 A Romantic Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Vectors in Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4 Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5 Inner Products of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.6 Higher Dimensional Vector Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.7 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4 Orthonormal Basis, Bra–Ket Notation, and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 Orthonormal Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

xi
xii Contents

4.3 Bra–ket Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4.4 Quantum Mechanical State, Superposition, and Measurement . . . . 28
4.5 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5 Changing Basis, Uncertainty Principle, and Bra–Ket Operations . . . . 33
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2 Basis and Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.3 More Bra–Ket Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.4 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.5 More About Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6 Observables, Operators, Eigenvectors, and Eigenvalues I . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.2 Observables and Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.4 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Finding and Phase Factor . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.5 Remarks on Eigenvectors, Basis, and Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.6 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7 Pauli Spin Matrices, Adjoint Matrix, and Hermitian Matrix . . . . . . . . . 53
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2 Pauli Spin Matrices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.3 Commutation and Anti-commutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.4 Spin Operator in Arbitrary Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.5 Relationship Between Spin Direction and Real 3D Space . . . . . . . . . 60
7.6 Adjoint and Hermitian Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.7 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8 Operator Rules, Real Eigenvalues, and Projection Operator. . . . . . . . . . 63
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.2 Operator Rules in the Bra-ket Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8.3 Eigenvalues of Hermitian Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.4 Copenhagen Interpretation/Born Rule and Projection Operator . . . 67
8.5 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Contents xiii

9 Eigenvalues II, Matrix Diagonalization and Unitary Matrix . . . . . . . . . . 73

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.2 Eigenvalues and Matrix Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.3 Unitary Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.4 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
10 Unitary Transformation, Completeness, and Construction of
Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.2 Unitary Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
10.3 Construction of Unitary Transformation Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
10.4 Completeness of Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10.5 Construct Operator from Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . 88
10.6 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
11 Hilbert Space, Tensor Product, and Multi-Qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.2 Hilbert Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
11.3 Expansion of Hilbert Space and Tensor Product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
11.4 Multi-Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11.5 More About Tensor Product in Hilbert Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
11.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12 Tensor Product of Operators, Partial Measurement, and
Matrix Representation in a Given Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
12.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
12.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
12.2 Tensor Product of Vectors in General Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
12.3 Tensor Product of Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
12.4 Partial Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
12.5 Matrix Representation in a Given Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
12.6 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
xiv Contents

Part II Quantum Computing: Gates and Algorithms

13 Quantum Register and Data Processing, Entanglement, the
Bell States, and EPR Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
13.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
13.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
13.2 Quantum Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
13.3 Quantum Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
13.4 Entanglement and Bell States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
13.5 Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
13.6 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
14 Concepts Review, Density Matrix, and Entanglement Entropy . . . . . . . 123
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
14.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
14.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
14.2 Concepts Review Using Entanglement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
14.3 Pure State, Mixed State, and Density Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
14.4 Measurement of Entanglement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
14.5 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
15 Quantum Gate Introduction: NOT and CNOT Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.2 Basic Quantum Gate Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
15.3 NOT (X) Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.3.2 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
15.3.3 Circuit and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
15.4 XOR (CNOT) Gate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
15.4.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
15.4.2 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
15.4.3 Circuit and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
15.5 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
16 SWAP, Phase Shift, and CCNOT (Toffoli) Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
16.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
16.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
16.2 SWAP Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
16.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
16.2.2 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Contents xv

16.2.3 Circuit and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

16.3 Phase Shift Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
16.3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
16.3.2 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
16.3.3 Circuit and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
16.4 Controlled Phase Shift Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
16.4.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
16.4.2 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
16.4.3 Circuit and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
16.5 Toffoli (CCNOT) Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
16.5.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
16.5.2 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
16.5.3 Circuit and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
16.6 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
17 Walsh–Hadamard Gate and Its Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
17.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
17.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
17.2 Walsh–Hadamard Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
17.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
17.2.2 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
17.2.3 Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
17.3 Properties of the Hadamard Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
17.3.1 Inverse of Hadamard Gate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
17.3.2 Multiple-Qubit Hadamard Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
17.3.3 Properties of n-Qubit Hadamard Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
17.4 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
18 Two Quantum Circuit Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
18.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
18.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
18.2 Quantum Circuit for Rotating Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
18.2.1 Run on IBM-Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
18.3 Quantum Circuit for Implementing a SWAP Gate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
18.3.1 Run on IBM-Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
18.4 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
19 No-Cloning Theorem and Quantum Teleportation I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
19.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
19.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
19.2 No-Cloning Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
xvi Contents

19.3 Quantum Teleportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

19.3.1 A Simplified Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
19.3.2 Measurement in the |+ / |− Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
19.3.3 Run on IBM-Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
19.4 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
20 Quantum Teleportation II and Entanglement Swapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
20.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
20.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
20.2 Quantum Teleportation: The Full Version. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
20.2.1 Run on IBM-Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
20.3 Entanglement Swapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
20.3.1 Run on IBM-Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
20.4 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
21 Deutsch Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
21.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
21.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
21.2 Deutsch Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
21.2.1 The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
21.2.2 Classical Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
21.2.3 Quantum Computing Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
21.2.4 The Quantum Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
21.2.5 Run on IBM-Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
21.3 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
22 Quantum Oracles and Construction of Quantum Gate Matrices . . . . . 211
22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
22.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
22.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
22.2 Quantum Oracle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
22.2.1 XOR Quantum Oracle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
22.2.2 Phase Quantum Oracle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
22.3 Construction of Quantum Gates and Oracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
22.4 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
23 Grover’s Algorithm: I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
23.1.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
23.1.2 Teaching Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
23.2 Grover’s Algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
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