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OPERATING
SYSTEM
CONCEPTS
7(17+(',7,21
OPERATING
SYSTEM
CONCEPTS
ABRAHAM SILBERSCHATZ

:BMF
6OJWFSTJUZ

PETER BAER GALVIN

$BNCSJEHF
$PNQVUFS
BOE
4UBSGJTI
4UPSBHF

GREG GAGNE

8FTUNJOTUFS
$PMMFHF

7(17+(',7,21
Publisher Laurie Rosatone
Editorial Director Don Fowley
Development Editor Ryann Dannelly
Freelance Developmental Editor Chris Nelson/Factotum
Executive Marketing Manager Glenn Wilson
Senior Content Manage Valerie Zaborski
Senior Production Editor Ken Santor
Media Specialist Ashley Patterson
Editorial Assistant Anna Pham
Cover Designer Tom Nery
Cover art © metha189/Shutterstock

This book was set in Palatino by the author using LaTeX and printed and bound by LSC Kendallville.
The cover was printed by LSC Kendallville.

Copyright © 2018, 2013, 2012, 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted
under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Silberschatz, Abraham, author. | Galvin, Peter B., author. | Gagne,

Greg, author.
Title: Operating system concepts / Abraham Silberschatz, Yale University,
Peter Baer Galvin, Pluribus Networks, Greg Gagne, Westminster College.
Description: 10th edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, [2018] | Includes
bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2017043464 (print) | LCCN 2017045986 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119320913 (enhanced ePub)
Subjects: LCSH: Operating systems (Computers)
Classification: LCC QA76.76.O63 (ebook) | LCC QA76.76.O63 S55825 2018 (print)
| DDC 005.4/3--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017043464

The inside back cover will contain printing identification and country of origin if omitted from this page. In
addition, if the ISBN on the back cover differs from the ISBN on this page, the one on the back cover is
correct.
Enhanced ePub ISBN 978-1-119-32091-3
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To my children, Lemor, Sivan, and Aaron
and my Nicolette

Avi Silberschatz

To my wife, Carla,
and my children, Gwen, Owen, and Maddie

Peter Baer Galvin

To my wife, Pat,
and our sons, Tom and Jay

Greg Gagne
Preface
Operating systems are an essential part of any computer system. Similarly, a
course on operating systems is an essential part of any computer science edu-
cation. This field is undergoing rapid change, as computers are now prevalent
in virtually every arena of day-to-day life—from embedded devices in auto-
mobiles through the most sophisticated planning tools for governments and
multinational firms. Yet the fundamental concepts remain fairly clear, and it is
on these that we base this book.
We wrote this book as a text for an introductory course in operating sys-
tems at the junior or senior undergraduate level or at the first-year graduate
level. We hope that practitioners will also find it useful. It provides a clear
description of the concepts that underlie operating systems. As prerequisites,
we assume that the reader is familiar with basic data structures, computer
organization, and a high-level language, such as C or Java. The hardware topics
required for an understanding of operating systems are covered in Chapter 1.
In that chapter, we also include an overview of the fundamental data structures
that are prevalent in most operating systems. For code examples, we use pre-
dominantly C, as well as a significant amount of Java, but the reader can still
understand the algorithms without a thorough knowledge of these languages.
Concepts are presented using intuitive descriptions. Important theoretical
results are covered, but formal proofs are largely omitted. The bibliographical
notes at the end of each chapter contain pointers to research papers in which
results were first presented and proved, as well as references to recent material
for further reading. In place of proofs, figures and examples are used to suggest
why we should expect the result in question to be true.
The fundamental concepts and algorithms covered in the book are often
based on those used in both open-source and commercial operating systems.
Our aim is to present these concepts and algorithms in a general setting that
is not tied to one particular operating system. However, we present a large
number of examples that pertain to the most popular and the most innovative
operating systems, including Linux, Microsoft Windows, Apple macOS (the
original name, OS X, was changed in 2016 to match the naming scheme of other
Apple products), and Solaris. We also include examples of both Android and
iOS, currently the two dominant mobile operating systems.
The organization of the text reflects our many years of teaching courses
on operating systems. Consideration was also given to the feedback provided
vii
viii Preface

by the reviewers of the text, along with the many comments and suggestions
we received from readers of our previous editions and from our current and
former students. This Tenth Edition also reflects most of the curriculum guide-
lines in the operating-systems area in Computer Science Curricula 2013, the most
recent curriculum guidelines for undergraduate degree programs in computer
science published by the IEEE Computing Society and the Association for Com-
puting Machinery (ACM).

What’s New in This Edition

For the Tenth Edition, we focused on revisions and enhancements aimed at
lowering costs to the students, better engaging them in the learning process,
and providing increased support for instructors.
According to the publishing industry’s most trusted market research firm,
Outsell, 2015 represented a turning point in text usage: for the first time,
student preference for digital learning materials was higher than for print, and
the increase in preference for digital has been accelerating since.
While print remains important for many students as a pedagogical tool, the
Tenth Edition is being delivered in forms that emphasize support for learning
from digital materials. All forms we are providing dramatically reduce the cost
to students compared to the Ninth Edition. These forms are:
• Stand-alone e-text now with significan enhancements. The e-text format
for the Tenth Edition adds exercises with solutions at the ends of main
sections, hide/reveal definitions for key terms, and a number of animated
figures. It also includes additional “Practice Exercises” with solutions for
each chapter, extra exercises, programming problems and projects, “Fur-
ther Reading” sections, a complete glossary, and four appendices for legacy
operating systems.
• E-text with print companion bundle. For a nominal additional cost, the
e-text also is available with an abridged print companion that includes
a loose-leaf copy of the main chapter text, end-of-chapter “Practice Exer-
cises” (solutions available online), and “Further Reading” sections. Instruc-
tors may also order bound print companions for the bundled package by
contacting their Wiley account representative.
Although we highly encourage all instructors and students to take advantage
of the cost, content, and learning advantages of the e-text edition, it is possible
for instructors to work with their Wiley Account Manager to create a custom
print edition.
To explore these options further or to discuss other options, contact your
Wiley account manager (http://www.wiley.com/go/whosmyrep) or visit the
product information page for this text on wiley.com

Book Material
The book consists of 21 chapters and 4 appendices. Each chapter and appendix
contains the text, as well as the following enhancements:
 Preface ix

• A set of practice exercises, including solutions

• A set of regular exercises
• A set of programming problems
• A set of programming projects
• A Further Reading section
• Pop-up definitions of important (blue) terms
• A glossary of important terms
• Animations that describe specific key concepts

A hard copy of the text is available in book stores and online. That version has
the same text chapters as the electronic version. It does not, however, include
the appendices, the regular exercises, the solutions to the practice exercises,
the programming problems, the programming projects, and some of the other
enhancements found in this ePub electronic book.

Content of This Book

The text is organized in ten major parts:
• Overview. Chapters 1 and 2 explain what operating systems are, what
they do, and how they are designed and constructed. These chapters dis-
cuss what the common features of an operating system are and what an
operating system does for the user. We include coverage of both tradi-
tional PC and server operating systems and operating systems for mobile
devices. The presentation is motivational and explanatory in nature. We
have avoided a discussion of how things are done internally in these chap-
ters. Therefore, they are suitable for individual readers or for students in
lower-level classes who want to learn what an operating system is without
getting into the details of the internal algorithms.
• Process management. Chapters 3 through 5 describe the process concept
and concurrency as the heart of modern operating systems. A process is
the unit of work in a system. Such a system consists of a collection of
concurrently executing processes, some executing operating-system code
and others executing user code. These chapters cover methods for process
scheduling and interprocess communication. Also included is a detailed
discussion of threads, as well as an examination of issues related to multi-
core systems and parallel programming.
• Process synchronization. Chapters 6 through 8 cover methods for process
synchronization and deadlock handling. Because we have increased the
coverage of process synchronization, we have divided the former Chapter
5 (Process Synchronization) into two separate chapters: Chapter 6, Syn-
chronization Tools, and Chapter 7, Synchronization Examples.
• Memory management. Chapters 9 and 10 deal with the management of
main memory during the execution of a process. To improve both the
x Preface

utilization of the CPU and the speed of its response to its users, the com-
puter must keep several processes in memory. There are many different
memory-management schemes, reflecting various approaches to memory
management, and the effectiveness of a particular algorithm depends on
the situation.
• Storage management. Chapters 11 and 12 describe how mass storage and
I/O are handled in a modern computer system. The I/O devices that attach
to a computer vary widely, and the operating system needs to provide a
wide range of functionality to applications to allow them to control all
aspects of these devices. We discuss system I/O in depth, including I/O
system design, interfaces, and internal system structures and functions.
In many ways, I/O devices are the slowest major components of the com-
puter. Because they represent a performance bottleneck, we also examine
performance issues associated with I/O devices.
• File systems. Chapters 13 through 15 discuss how file systems are handled
in a modern computer system. File systems provide the mechanism for on-
line storage of and access to both data and programs. We describe the clas-
sic internal algorithms and structures of storage management and provide
a firm practical understanding of the algorithms used—their properties,
advantages, and disadvantages.
• Security and protection. Chapters 16 and 17 discuss the mechanisms nec-
essary for the security and protection of computer systems. The processes
in an operating system must be protected from one another’s activities.
To provide such protection, we must ensure that only processes that have
gained proper authorization from the operating system can operate on
the files, memory, CPU, and other resources of the system. Protection is
a mechanism for controlling the access of programs, processes, or users
to computer-system resources. This mechanism must provide a means
of specifying the controls to be imposed, as well as a means of enforce-
ment. Security protects the integrity of the information stored in the system
(both data and code), as well as the physical resources of the system, from
unauthorized access, malicious destruction or alteration, and accidental
introduction of inconsistency.
• Advanced topics. Chapters 18 and 19 discuss virtual machines and
networks/distributed systems. Chapter 18 provides an overview of
virtual machines and their relationship to contemporary operating
systems. Included is a general description of the hardware and software
techniques that make virtualization possible. Chapter 19 provides an
overview of computer networks and distributed systems, with a focus on
the Internet and TCP/IP.
• Case studies. Chapter 20 and 21 present detailed case studies of two real
operating systems—Linux and Windows 10.
• Appendices. Appendix A discusses several old influential operating sys-
tems that are no longer in use. Appendices B through D cover in great
detaisl three older operating systems— Windows 7, BSD, and Mach.
 Preface xi

Programming Environments

The text provides several example programs written in C and Java. These
programs are intended to run in the following programming environments:
• POSIX. POSIX (which stands for Portable Operating System Interface) repre-
sents a set of standards implemented primarily for UNIX-based operat-
ing systems. Although Windows systems can also run certain POSIX pro-
grams, our coverage of POSIX focuses on Linux and UNIX systems. POSIX-
compliant systems must implement the POSIX core standard (POSIX.1);
Linux and macOS are examples of POSIX-compliant systems. POSIX also
defines several extensions to the standards, including real-time extensions
(POSIX.1b) and an extension for a threads library (POSIX.1c, better known
as Pthreads). We provide several programming examples written in C
illustrating the POSIX base API, as well as Pthreads and the extensions for
real-time programming. These example programs were tested on Linux 4.4
and macOS 10.11 systems using the gcc compiler.
• Java. Java is a widely used programming language with a rich API and
built-in language support for concurrent and parallel programming. Java
programs run on any operating system supporting a Java virtual machine
(or JVM). We illustrate various operating-system and networking concepts
with Java programs tested using Version 1.8 of the Java Development Kit
(JDK).
• Windows systems. The primary programming environment for Windows
systems is the Windows API, which provides a comprehensive set of func-
tions for managing processes, threads, memory, and peripheral devices.
We supply a modest number of C programs illustrating the use of this API.
Programs were tested on a system running Windows 10.

We have chosen these three programming environments because we

believe that they best represent the two most popular operating-system
models—Linux/UNIX and Windows—along with the widely used Java
environment. Most programming examples are written in C, and we expect
readers to be comfortable with this language. Readers familiar with both the
C and Java languages should easily understand most programs provided in
this text.
In some instances—such as thread creation—we illustrate a specific con-
cept using all three programming environments, allowing the reader to con-
trast the three different libraries as they address the same task. In other situa-
tions, we may use just one of the APIs to demonstrate a concept. For example,
we illustrate shared memory using just the POSIX API; socket programming in
TCP/IP is highlighted using the Java API.

Linux Virtual Machine

To help students gain a better understanding of the Linux system, we pro-
vide a Linux virtual machine running the Ubuntu distribution with this text.
The virtual machine, which is available for download from the text website
xii Preface

(http://www.os-book.com), also provides development environments includ-

ing the gcc and Java compilers. Most of the programming assignments in the
book can be completed using this virtual machine, with the exception of assign-
ments that require the Windows API. The virtual machine can be installed and
run on any host operating system that can run the VirtualBox virtualization
software, which currently includes Windows 10 Linux, and macOS.

The Tenth Edition

As we wrote this Tenth Edition of Operating System Concepts, we were guided by
the sustained growth in four fundamental areas that affect operating systems:
1. Mobile operating systems
2. Multicore systems
3. Virtualization
4. Nonvolatile memory secondary storage
To emphasize these topics, we have integrated relevant coverage throughout
this new edition. For example, we have greatly increased our coverage of the
Android and iOS mobile operating systems, as well as our coverage of the
ARMv8 architecture that dominates mobile devices. We have also increased
our coverage of multicore systems, including increased coverage of APIs that
provide support for concurrency and parallelism. Nonvolatile memory devices
like SSDs are now treated as the equals of hard-disk drives in the chapters that
discuss I/O, mass storage, and file systems.
Several of our readers have expressed support for an increase in Java
coverage, and we have provided additional Java examples throughout this
edition.
Additionally, we have rewritten material in almost every chapter by bring-
ing older material up to date and removing material that is no longer interest-
ing or relevant. We have reordered many chapters and have, in some instances,
moved sections from one chapter to another. We have also greatly revised
the artwork, creating several new figures as well as modifying many existing
figures.

Major Changes
The Tenth Edition update encompasses much more material than previous
updates, in terms of both content and new supporting material. Next, we
provide a brief outline of the major content changes in each chapter:

• Chapter 1: Introduction includes updated coverage of multicore systems,

as well as new coverage of NUMA systems and Hadoop clusters. Old
material has been updated, and new motivation has been added for the
study of operating systems.
• Chapter 2: Operating-System Structures provides a significantly revised
discussion of the design and implementation of operating systems. We
have updated our treatment of Android and iOS and have revised our
 Preface xiii

coverage of the system boot process with a focus on GRUB for Linux
systems. New coverage of the Windows subsystem for Linux is included
as well. We have added new sections on linkers and loaders, and we now
discuss why applications are often operating-system specific. Finally, we
have added a discussion of the BCC debugging toolset.
• Chapter 3: Processes simplifies the discussion of scheduling so that it
now includes only CPU scheduling issues. New coverage describes the
memory layout of a C program, the Android process hierarchy, Mach
message passing, and Android RPCs. We have also replaced coverage of
the traditional UNIX/Linux init process with coverage of systemd.
• Chapter 4: Threads and Concurrency (previously Threads) increases the
coverage of support for concurrent and parallel programming at the API
and library level. We have revised the section on Java threads so that it
now includes futures and have updated the coverage of Apple’s Grand
Central Dispatch so that it now includes Swift. New sections discuss fork-
join parallelism using the fork-join framework in Java, as well as Intel
thread building blocks.
• Chapter 5: CPU Scheduling (previously Chapter 6) revises the coverage of
multilevel queue and multicore processing scheduling. We have integrated
coverage of NUMA-aware scheduling issues throughout, including how
this scheduling affects load balancing. We also discuss related modifica-
tions to the Linux CFS scheduler. New coverage combines discussions of
round-robin and priority scheduling, heterogeneous multiprocessing, and
Windows 10 scheduling.
• Chapter 6: Synchronization Tools (previously part of Chapter 5, Process
Synchronization) focuses on various tools for synchronizing processes.
Significant new coverage discusses architectural issues such as instruction
reordering and delayed writes to buffers. The chapter also introduces lock-
free algorithms using compare-and-swap (CAS) instructions. No specific
APIs are presented; rather, the chapter provides an introduction to race
conditions and general tools that can be used to prevent data races. Details
include new coverage of memory models, memory barriers, and liveness
issues.
• Chapter 7: Synchronization Examples (previously part of Chapter 5,
Process Synchronization) introduces classical synchronization problems
and discusses specific API support for designing solutions that solve
these problems. The chapter includes new coverage of POSIX named and
unnamed semaphores, as well as condition variables. A new section on
Java synchronization is included as well.
• Chapter 8: Deadlocks (previously Chapter 7) provides minor updates,
including a new section on livelock and a discussion of deadlock as an
example of a liveness hazard. The chapter includes new coverage of the
Linux lockdep and the BCC deadlock detector tools, as well as coverage
of Java deadlock detection using thread dumps.
• Chapter 9: Main Memory (previously Chapter 8) includes several revi-
sions that bring the chapter up to date with respect to memory manage-
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Southern
Literary Messenger, Vol. II., No. 4, March, 1836
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Southern Literary Messenger, Vol. II., No. 4, March, 1836

Author: Various

Release date: July 30, 2022 [eBook #68653]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: T. W. White, Publisher and

Proprietor, 1836

Credits: Ron Swanson

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER, VOL. II., NO. 4, MARCH,
1836 ***
THE
SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER:
DEVOTED TO

EVERY DEPARTMENT OF

LITERATURE AND THE FINE

ARTS.

Au gré de nos desirs bien plus qu'au gré des vents.

Crebillon's Electre.

As we will, and not as the winds will.

RICHMOND:
T. W. WHITE, PUBLISHER AND PROPRIETOR.
1835-6.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME II, NUMBER 4

SKETCHES OF THE HISTORY and Present Condition of Tripoli, with some
accounts of the other Barbary States (No. XI.): by R. G.
BAI

THE CLASSICS

A LOAN TO THE MESSENGER No. I: by J. F. O.

LIFE a brief history, in three parts, with a sequel: by William Cutter

READINGS WITH MY PENCIL, No. II: by J. F. O.

HALLEY'S COMET

EPIMANES: by E. A. Poe

TO HELEN: by E. A. P.

ON THE POETRY OF BURNS: by James F. Otis

CHANGE

MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS: by E. F. Stanton

SONG OF LEE'S LEGION

NATURAL BRIDGE OF PANDI, IN COLOMBIA, SOUTH AMERICA

LINES, on the Statue of Washington in the Capitol

EPIGRAM

FALL OF TEQUENDÁMA, IN COLOMBIA, SOUTH AMERICA

LIONEL GRANBY, Chapter IX: by Theta

THE PATRIARCH'S INHERITANCE: by T. H. S.

AMERICANISMS: by H.

TO RANDOLPH OF ROANOKE: by Hesperus

ADDRESS: by Henry St. George Tucker

AUTHORS

MR. MAXWELL'S SPEECH

AN ADDRESS, on the Influence of the Federative Republican System

of Government upon Literature and the Development of Character:
by Thomas R. Dew

CRITICAL NOTICES
EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN VIRGINIA: by Francis L. Hawks, D.D.
PHRENOLOGY: by Mrs. L. Miles
MAHMOUD
GEORGIA SCENES: by a native Georgian
TRAITS OF THE TEA PARTY

SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER.

VOL. II. RICHMOND, MARCH, 1836. NO. IV.

T. W. WHITE, PROPRIETOR. FIVE DOLLARS PER ANNUM.

SKETCHES OF THE HISTORY

AND PRESENT CONDITION OF TRIPOLI, WITH SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE

OTHER BARBARY STATES.

NO. XI.—(Continued.)
The inertness of the French since their rupture with Algiers, had
induced Hussein to treat their threats with contempt, and he by no
means anticipated the extreme measures to which they were about
to resort. The certainty of their intentions to attack him, however,
effected no change in his resolve to maintain the position which he
had assumed; all offers of mediation or intercession were rejected,
and the approach of the storm only rendered him the more
determined to brave its violence. He was left to meet it alone. The
mission of Tahir Pasha was the only effort made by the Sultan in his
behalf; Great Britain had in vain offered its mediation to both Parties,
and did not appear disposed to interfere farther between them; the
other European Powers remained neutral. The Sovereigns of Tripoli
and Tunis were summoned to aid in defending the common cause of
Islamism; but the appeal was in both instances vain; Yusuf dreaded
the vengeance of the French, on account of the support which he
had unwillingly afforded to the accusations against their Consul, and
was by no means inclined to give them additional cause for enmity,
or to involve himself in expenses from which he could anticipate no
immediate benefit. The Bey of Tunis had long been devoted to the
interests of France; far from aiding the Dey, he had agreed to furnish
his enemies with provisions, and even if required to make a diversion
in their favor, by invading the Algerine Province of Constantina which
lay contiguous to his own dominions.

Hussein was thus reduced entirely to his own resources; an

examination of the means at his disposal will show that he was
unable to make any effectual resistance, and that without the
interposition of some occurrence beyond the control of man, "the
well defended city" must have fallen into the hands of the French.

The Algerine territory extends in length on the Mediterranean, about

six hundred miles; its breadth or the distance between that Sea and
the Desert no where exceeds one hundred miles, and is generally
much less. Shaler gives sixty as the average breadth, which would
make the superficial extent of the country about thirty-six thousand
square miles. A considerable portion of this territory consists of
rugged and almost inaccessible mountains, many of which are
covered with eternal snow; there are however vast tracts of the finest
land, which with proper attention would be rendered very productive,
and even the rude and careless mode of cultivation pursued by the
inhabitants enabled them frequently to export great quantities of
wheat to Europe. One of these tracts in the immediate vicinity of
Algiers called the plain of Metija is said to be of unparalleled fertility;
it is not less than a thousand square miles in extent, and is covered
with springs which by a judicious direction of their waters, might be
made the sources of health and plenty, instead of producing as they
now do only useless and insalubrious marshes.

The country was divided into three provinces, separated by lines

drawn from points on the coast southwardly to the Desert; each of
these divisions was governed by a Bey who though appointed from
Algiers, was almost absolute within his own territories. The Eastern
province bordering on Tunis was the largest and the most populous;
it took its name from its capital Constantina, the ancient Cirta, a
strong town situated about sixty miles from the Sea, and said to have
more inhabitants than Algiers. The principal ports of this district are
Bugia and Bona; upon its coast near Bona were the African
Concessions which in part led to the difficulties with France. Tittery
the middle province is the smallest, its surface not being more than
sixty miles square; it however contains the capital, and is more
populous in proportion to its extent, than any other part of the
Regency. The Western province lying contiguous to Morocco has
been called Oran, Tlemsen and Mascara, accordingly as its Bey
resided in either of the principal cities which bear those names. In
1830 the seat of government was Oran or more properly Warran, a
seaport town near the frontiers of Morocco which possesses a fine
harbor and may be rendered very strong; the other ports of this
province Arzew, Mostaganem and Shershell though nearly deserted,
are well situated both for commerce and defence. Indeed the
western territories of Algiers are considered the most delightful and
the richest of Northern Africa; in addition to their grain, fruits and
mines, they are also famous for the beauty and spirit of their horses
which are sent in great numbers to the East, as well as to Spain and
the South of France. The population appears likewise to be of a
better character than that of other parts of the Regency; there are
fewer Arabs or Kabyles, and a great portion of the inhabitants are
the descendants of that noble race of Moors, who were expelled
from Spain in the fifteenth and two succeeding centuries.

It is difficult to form any estimate of the number of inhabitants in the

Algerine territories. Shaler in 1824 considered it less than a million;
from the results of the latest inquiries made by the French it
amounted in 1830 to seven hundred and eighty thousand, who were
thus classed.

Moors, the industrious and most civilized class, inhabiting

the cities or engaged in agriculture, 400,000
Kabyles or Berbers who probably descend from the
aboriginals of the country; they are still a wild and
intractable race, living in the mountains and frequently
plundering or levying contributions on the industrious part
of the population, 200,000
Arabs who live in tents, on the borders of the Desert from
the produce of their flocks and herds, or are employed in
transporting goods through the country, 120,000
Turkish Soldiers, generally from the coasts and islands of
the Archipelago, 8,000
Koul-ogleis or children of Turks by native women. 32,000
780,000

Assuming this estimate as correct, it will be found by comparison

with the tables of population of other countries, that the Algerine
Dominions did not probably contain more than a hundred and twenty
thousand men capable of bearing arms; and when it is considered
that these are spread over an extensive territory, which is
mountainous and almost destitute of roads, it would be unreasonable
to expect that more than half that number could be collected at any
one point, even supposing the existence of universal patriotism and
devotion to the Government. Such feelings may have operated on
the Moors, but they could scarcely have produced much effect on
the Kabyles and Arabs, who according to the estimate form more
than two-fifths of the population; and although promises of high pay
and the prospect of plunder might induce many from each of those
classes and from among the wanderers of the Great Desert, to aid in
the defence of the country, yet little dependance could be placed
upon these irregular bands, when opposed to the disciplined troops
of France.

Hussein's experience may probably have led him to some such

conclusions, but every act of his reign served to shew that they
would have been ineffectual towards inducing him to make
concessions, even were it not too late. After the rejection of the
overture which had been wrung from him by his friend Halil, nothing
less than an immense pecuniary sacrifice on his part would have
contented the French; and policy as well as pride forbade this
sacrifice, for he was well aware that a peace purchased on such
terms would have cost him his life. Moreover he was evidently a
thorough fatalist; two expeditions against Algiers had already failed
completely, although taking into consideration its defences at the
several periods, the chances of its fall were in both those cases
greater than under the existing circumstances. "God is great and
good, and the Sea is uncertain and dangerous," was his observation
to the Captain of the British frigate Rattlesnake; a storm such as
occurs on that coast in every month of the year, might in a few hours
have dissipated the forces of his enemies, or have thrown so large a
number of them into his hands as prisoners, that their restoration
would have been deemed an equivalent for peace.

On the 14th of May an incident took place which was calculated to

confirm the Dey in such expectations. During a violent gale from the
northeast, the Aventure and the Siléne two brigs which formed part
of the blockading squadron were on that night driven ashore near
Cape Bengut, about sixty miles east of Algiers. The officers and
crews of these vessels in number about two hundred persons,
finding escape impossible, and conceiving that any attempt at
defence would only insure their destruction, determined to march
along the coast towards Algiers, and to surrender themselves as
prisoners of war to the first party with which they might meet. They
were soon observed and surrounded by a troop of Kabyles whom
they however induced to believe that they were English, and that a
large sum would be paid for their safe delivery at Algiers. Under this
persuasion the Barbarians were conducting them towards the city,
when their course was arrested by the sudden rise of a river which it
was necessary to cross; during the delay thus occasioned, it was
discovered that they were French, and the greater part of them were
immediately sacrificed to the fury of the Kabyles. The heads of one
hundred and nine of these unfortunate persons were brought into
Algiers on the 20th of May, which having been purchased by the Dey
at the regular price, were exposed on the walls of the Casauba; they
were however afterwards surrendered for burial. The survivors,
eighty-nine in number, were confined in the dungeons of the castle;
they were in other respects treated by Hussein with as much lenity
as the circumstances would permit, and they received the kindest
attentions from the Consuls of Foreign Powers who remained in the
place.

Hussein did not however trust entirely to Providence for the safety of
his capital; on the contrary he made every preparation in his power
for its defence. In the city and its environs every man was enrolled,
and the slightest expression indicative of fear or mistrust as to the
result of the contest, was punished by death. From the Provinces,
the Beys were ordered to bring to Algiers all whom they could enlist
or force into the service, and immense sums from the public treasury
were placed at their disposal for the purpose. By these means he
speedily assembled a very large force, the exact amount of which it
is impossible to ascertain; the French historians state it to have been
seventy-two thousand; other accounts perhaps equally worthy of
credit make it much less. The number of what may be termed regular
troops appears to have been precisely twenty-two thousand, viz. five
thousand Turks or Janissaries, seven thousand Koul-ogleis, and ten
thousand Moors; to these the French accounts add ten thousand
Kabyles, and forty thousand others, principally Arab horsemen.
Major Lee the Consul of the United States, who made very particular
observations and inquiries on the subject, and whose statements
appear to be entirely free from prejudice, does not consider that the
irregular forces exceeded thirty thousand. Whatever may have been
the fact with regard to the whole number of the Algerine troops, it is
certain that a large and important portion were never brought into
action in the open field, having been necessarily retained to garrison
the city and the fortifications in its immediate vicinity.

When the preparations of the French had removed all doubts as to

their views with regard to Algiers, apprehensions were entertained
by the Governments of Christian nations for the safety of their
Consuls and citizens in the country, who, it was feared, might in a
moment of excitement be sacrificed to the fury of the inhabitants.
Ships were accordingly sent by several Powers for the purpose of
bringing away their respective agents and others who might be thus
endangered; but the commander of the blockading squadron having
been strictly ordered to allow no communication with Algiers
prevented several of these vessels from entering the harbor. An
Austrian frigate and a Spanish brig were thus ordered off, and the
latter afterwards shewing some disposition to enter was fired on. A
Sardinian frigate was permitted to send a boat on shore, to bring off
the family of the Consul who had protected the interests of France
during the difficulties between the two countries, and several other
vessels contrived to enter and leave the port unnoticed. Commodore
Biddle who commanded the squadron of the United States in the
Mediterranean, sent the sloop of war Ontario to Algiers to bring off
the American Consul General and his family, in case they should be
inclined to go. The Ontario appeared at the entrance of the bay on
the 4th of April, accompanied by the frigate Constellation whose
captain it is said was ordered to engage any French ship which
should attempt to oppose their entrance. As no such attempt was
made, it is needless to inquire whether these instructions were really
given, or to examine whether they would have been in concordance
with the received usages of national intercourse. Major Henry Lee
the American Consul General, with his family and the Vice Consul,
determined to remain; the ladies of the Neapolitan and Spanish
Consuls were however at his request received on board the Ontario
and carried to Mahon.

Before the departure of the American ships the British frigate

Rattlesnake arrived, bringing despatches to the Consul Mr. St. John,
who had been ordered by his Government to remain; on leaving the
harbor she was spoken by one of the blockading ships and her
captain was informed that he would not be permitted again to enter.
This fact having been communicated to the Consul, the Rattlesnake
sailed for Malta whence she soon returned bearing a letter from
Admiral Malcolm to the French Commander, in consequence of
which she was allowed to enter Algiers on condition however that
her stay should be limited to a week.

The Consuls who remained in Algiers found it necessary to adopt

measures for their own safety. The representative of Great Britain
having a large country house at a short distance from the city, out of
the probable line of operations, determined merely to retire to it on
the approach of the conflict: those of the United States, Denmark,
Spain and Naples agreed to establish themselves together at a villa
situated on a height overlooking the place, and capable of being
rendered sufficiently strong, to resist such attacks as might have
been expected. The Dey afforded them every facility in his power, for
the fortification and defence of their residence; they were allowed to
enlist some Janissaries, and the other Christians with some Jews of
the town having joined them, they mustered nearly two hundred men
who were tolerably well supplied with arms and ammunition. They
accordingly removed on the 26th of May to the Castle as it was
termed, on which the flag of the United States was immediately
hoisted, Major Lee having by unanimous vote, been elected
Commander-in-Chief.

On the 3d of June a part of the fleet which conveyed the French

army of invasion was seen off the coast near Algiers. An immediate
attack was anticipated, and the Dey prepared to resist it, although
not more than half the troops which he expected had then arrived.
The fortifications on the bay were well provided and manned, so that
the place might be considered secure on that side; the batteries of
the Mole were directed by the younger Ibrahim the Minister of the
Marine, and the charge of the Emperor's Castle had been committed
to the Hasnagee or Treasurer in whom Hussein placed the utmost
confidence. The Dey remained secluded within the walls of the
Casauba, from which his messengers were seen constantly flying in
every direction. As it was anticipated that the landing would be
attempted on the shore west of Algiers, the Aga Ibrahim marched out
with a part of his forces and encamped on a plain near the sea,
distant about ten miles in that direction. A violent gale from the
eastward however dispersed the French ships, and nothing more
was seen of them for some days; at length information was brought
from a certain source that the whole fleet had retired to Palma.

On the 9th, Achmet Bey of Constantina who had been anxiously

expected, made his appearance with his troops principally Arabs and
Kabyles; the contingents of Oran and Tittery did not however arrive
until some days afterwards, and the whole force at that time under
Ibrahim's immediate command probably amounted to twenty
thousand, of whom at least one half were Arab horsemen.

On the morning of the 13th the sea near Algiers was again covered
with ships under the white flag of France. The sky was cloudless, a
fresh breeze from the northeast permitted the vessels to move at
pleasure along the coast, and as they passed majestically almost
within gun shot of the batteries, the Algerines felt that the day of trial
was come.

In order to understand the operations of the French against Algiers,

some knowledge of the surrounding country and of the relative
bearings and distances of important points, is necessary. It is
however difficult to convey such information without the aid of maps;
our geographical language is limited, and wants precision, and even
where it may be sufficient for the purpose, few readers are disposed
to study the details with the care requisite to comprehend them fully.

In the account of Lord Exmouth's attack upon Algiers in 1816, the

city was described as standing on the western shore, and near the
entrance of a bay about fifteen miles in diameter; it must now be
considered as situated on the north-eastern side, and near the
extremity of a tongue of land, which projects from the African
continent northwardly into the Mediterranean. This tongue is about
twelve miles in its greatest breadth, where it joins the continent, and
ten in length from north to south; the surface of its northern portion is
irregular, and in some places rugged, traversed by ridges and
ravines, and rising in the centre into a lofty peak, called Jibbel
Boujereah; southward from this mountain the inequalities gradually
disappear, and the extensive plain of the Metijah succeeds.

The northernmost point or termination of the tongue is a bold

promontory called Ras Acconnatter, or Cape Caxine, which is four
miles west by north of Algiers; following the shore nine miles south-
west from this cape, we find a small peninsula, rather more than a
mile in length, and less than a mile in breadth, extending westwardly
into the sea. This peninsula is high and rocky at its extremity, but low
and sandy at the neck which unites it to the main land; the sea
around it affords safe anchorage for vessels, and its shores as well
as those in its vicinity, present a clear beach, free from rocks or other
impediments to approach. On its highest point stood a small fort,
called by the Spanish traders Torreta Chica, or the little tower, on
which were mounted or rather placed, four light pieces of cannon
more curious from their antiquity than useful. Against the tower was
built a Marabout or chapel, containing the tomb of Sidi Ferruch, a
saint held in great veneration by the Algerines, and from whom the
peninsula takes its name. A battery of stone with twelve embrasures
had been also erected on the shore near the end of the peninsula, in
order to prevent hostile vessels from anchoring, but on the approach
of the expedition it was dismantled and abandoned.

Eastwardly from Sidi Ferruch the land rises almost imperceptibly for
three miles, presenting a sandy plain partially covered with aloes,
cactus, and evergreen shrubs, at the termination of which is an
irregular plateau called Staweli, where the shepherds of the country
were in the habit of encamping. Farther on a valley called Backshé-
dere separated this plateau from the south-western side of Jibbel
Boujereah, along which a road originally formed by the Romans
conducted to the walls of the Emperor's castle, within a mile of
Algiers. The whole distance by this way from Sidi Ferruch to the city
is twelve miles, over a country "gently undulating and perfectly
practicable for artillery or any species of carriage," which is also
abundantly supplied with fresh water from numerous springs.

These and other circumstances had induced Shaler1 in 1825 to

recommend Sidi Ferruch as the most advantageous point for the
disembarkation of a force destined to act against Algiers; and
although the intentions of the Commander in Chief of the French
expedition were kept profoundly secret, yet it was generally
supposed, even before his departure from Toulon, that he would
attempt a landing there.
1 Sketches of Algiers, political, historical, and civil, &c. by William Shaler, American
Consul General at Algiers. Boston: 1826.

Our country has produced few works displaying greater originality and soundness of
views than this; its subject has caused it to be overlooked in the United States, but in
France when circumstances gave value to all information relative to Algiers, its merits
were soon recognized, and it was translated by order of the Government for the
benefit of the officers engaged in the expedition. His remarks on the power,
resources, and policy of the Algerine Government, or rather upon its weakness, its
want of means, and the absurdity of its system, were calculated to dispel many of the
illusions with regard to it which the mutual jealousy of the great European nations had
so long contributed to maintain; and it is impossible to examine his observations as to
the proper disposition of a force destined to act against the city, in conjunction with
the statement of the plans pursued by the French, without conceiving that in all
probability those plans were the result of his suggestions. At page 51 he says:

"The several expeditions against Algiers, in which land forces have been employed,
have landed in the bay eastward of the city; this is evidently an error, and discovers
unpardonable ignorance of the coast and topography of the country, for all the means
of defence are concentrated there. But it is obvious that any force whatever might be
landed in the fine bay of Sidi Ferruch without opposition; thence by a single march
they might arrive upon the heights commanding the Emperor's castle, the walls of
which, as nothing could prevent an approach to them, might be scaled or breached by
 a mine in a short time. This position being mastered, batteries might be established
on a height commanding the Casauba, which is indicated by the ruins of two wind-
mills, and of a fort called the Star, which the jealous fears of this Government caused
to be destroyed for the reason here alleged, that it commanded the citadel and
consequently the city. The fleet which had landed the troops would by this time
appear in the bay, to distract the attention of the besieged, when Algiers must either
surrender at discretion or be taken by storm."

Many other passages might be quoted in illustration of Mr. Shaler's sagacity; so many
of his speculations respecting the future destinies of Barbary have been already
confirmed, that we are warranted in entertaining hopes of the fulfilment of his
prediction, that it will again be inhabited by a civilized and industrious race.

The French ships after their dispersion by the storms of the first days
of June retreated to Palma where they remained until the 10th. On
that day the first and second divisions of the fleet again sailed for the
African coast; the third division composed almost entirely of
merchant vessels, containing the battering artillery, provisions and
materials which would not be needed until the disembarkation had
been effected, was to have sailed on the 12th, but it was detained
until the 18th by adverse winds.

As the distance between Palma and Algiers is only two hundred

miles, and the wind was favorable at an early hour on the 13th of
June, the first divisions of the armament, with all the troops on board,
were collected in front of the city, and every eye was fixed on the
Admiral's ship, in anxious expectation of the signal which was to
indicate the scene of the first operations. The Algerines, although
they expected that their enemies would land at some point westward
from the city, yet did not choose to subject themselves to the hazard
of a surprise, by leaving the place undefended; the batteries which
lined the bay were therefore all manned, and the greater part of the
moveable forces were disposed in their vicinity, so as to resist any
sudden attack. At eight o'clock, the signal was given by the French
Admiral, and his ships were soon under full sail towards the west;
they rounded Cape Caxine, and then changing their course to the
southward, no doubt was left respecting the intention of the
commander to attempt a landing at Sidi Ferruch.

As the fleet drew near the spot which had been selected for the
disembarkation of the troops, preparations were made for immediate
action in case it should be necessary. The heavy armed ships
advanced in front, slowly and in order of battle, ready to pour a
destructive fire upon any forces or works of their opponents as soon
as discovered within its reach. At ten o'clock, they were opposite the
extremity of the peninsula, and it became evident that no precautions
had been taken by the Algerines, which were likely to prove effectual
in preventing the descent. No fortifications had been erected on Sidi
Ferruch, in addition to the shore battery near the point, and the turret
on the hill, both of which were deserted; indeed nothing less than the
strongest works and the most scientific defence could have rendered
it tenable, when surrounded by such a fleet. On the main land, a
division of the Algerine army, supposed to consist of twelve thousand
men, were encamped near a spring of water about two miles from
the neck of the peninsula; between them and the sea were erected
two batteries,2 armed with nine pieces of cannon and two howitzers,
which had been removed from the fort on Sidi Ferruch. Arab
horsemen enveloped in their white cloaks were seen collected in
groups on the beach, or galloping among the bushes on the plain
between it and the encampment. Nothing however betokened any
disposition on the part of the Africans, to meet the invaders at the
water's edge.
2 Any fortification defended by artillery, and even the spot occupied by artillery, is
called a battery. These temporary defences are formed by throwing up earth to the
height of three or four feet, so as to form a wall or parapet for the protection of the
cannon and men; where this cannot be done, logs, barrels or sacks filled with earth,
&c. are employed. At New Orleans the American lines of batteries were principally
formed of bales of cotton.

In order to protect an army from sudden attacks, entrenchments are made on the side
on which they are apprehended; they consist of ditches, the earth from which is
thrown up within.