PHYSICS EXAM REVISION NOTES

(GOOD MORNING REVISION )

MAGIC NOTES YOGESH SRIVASTAVA

( JA-DO 007 ) Physics

Physics help line @

MOMENT OF FORCE (TURNING EFFECT OF FORCE)

When a force is applied on a body at some distance from the axis of rotation and let the body
rotates then this tendency of rotation is called the moment of force or torque.
FACTORS AFFECTING MOMENT OF FORCE
These are as follows : Moment of force = F x OP
(i) The magnitude of force applied.
(ii) The distance of line of action of from the axis of rotation .
UNITS OF MOMENT OF FORCE
Unit of moment of force ( 𝜏 = Nm (S.I. system), kgf m (In M.K.S.) gf cm (In C.G.S.)
COUPLE
Two equal and anti parallel forces acting on a body at some distance form a couple.
Whenever large turning effect is required then couple is required.
Examples
(a) Turning a steering wheel of a car with both hands. Couples are (F, F) and (f, f) in the adjoining figure.
MOMENT OF COUPLE
It is equal to the product of either (one) force and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of both the forces.
Total moment of couple = F x d
CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM
There are two conditions for equilibrium :
1. The resultant (vector sum) of all forces acting on a body should be zero.
2. Algebraic sum of moment of forces (vector sum of torques) acting on a body about the point of rotation should be zero, i.e., anticlockwise
moment of forces must be equal to the clockwise moment of forces must be equal to the clockwise moment of forces about the point of rotation.
PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
Sum of anticlockwise moments = Sum of clockwise moments.

According to this principle, the algebraic sum of the moments of all forces acting on the body about the axis of rotation is zero. The body is in
equilibrium, i.e.,
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
A body is made up of large number of particles and each particle has some weight acting downwards.
Now there can be a point within or outside of the body where whole weight of the body can be considered
called centre of gravity.
DETERMINATION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF AN IRREGULAR LAMINA BY USING A PLUMB LINE.
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
When a body moves with a constant speed along a circular path, the motion of the body is called uniform circular motion.
( velocity of the body changes but speed remains constant) .
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Always towards the centre of circular path and this force is variable because of change in the direction but its magnitude remains constant.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
A fictitious or pseudo force which acts on a body away from the centre of circular path is called the
Centrifugal force.
Centrifugal force acts opposite to the direction of centripetal force and magnitude remains same
 MEASUREMENT OF WORK
Mathematically ( W = F . d)

Work done = (Force) . (Displacement in direction of force W=F.S

No work is done
If F = 0 or s = 0 or both F and s are zero, then W = 0
Force and displacement are vector quantities while work is a scalar quantity.
When Force Acts at Some Angle with the Displacement ( W = F. s . cos𝜽 )
Case (i) : If θ = 0 i.e.force is in the direction of displacement W = F s cos 0o
o
W = F s Maximum
Example
Wrk done by gravitational force in free fall of a body W = mgh

Case (ii)
If 𝜃 = 90o (force is perpendicular to the displacement then) W = F s cos 90o ( W = 0) Min
Examples
(a) When a coolie moves on platform after carrying load on his head, work done is zero, as the
angle between the angle between the load and displacement is 90 o . Therefore no work is done.
(b) No work is done by a centripetal force on a body moving along a circular path, reason is angle between
centripetal force and the displacement is 90o.
Case (iii) : If 𝜃 = 180o W = F s cos 180o W = - F. s
Examples
(a) Work done by the force of friction.
(b) Work done by the gravitational on a body thrown in upward direction. [W = mg (-h)

UNITS OF WORK
[A] S.I. Unit The S.I. unit of work is joule. W=F.s 1 joule = 1 Newton x 1 metre
One joule is work done by a force of one Newton in displacing a body by one metre.
[B] C. G. S. Unit The C. G. S. unit of work is erg 1 erg = 1 dyne x 1 cm
One erg is the work done by a force of 1 dyne in displacing a body by a displacement of one centimeter.
Relation between joule and erg
1 J = 1 N x 1 m = 105 dyne 100cm = 105 dyne x 102 cm = 107 dyne x cm = 107 erg
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝑊) 𝑊
POWER Rate of doing a work is known as power 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃) = (𝑃 = )
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡) 𝑡
FACTORS ON WHICH POWER DEPENDS
(i) The amount of work done by the source.
(ii) Time taken by the source.
If a constant force F is applied on a body and it displaces the body by a distance s (in the direction of force) in
𝑊 𝑠
time t , work done W=FxS P= P=Fx P=Fxv
𝑡 𝑡
Power is scalar quantity.
UNITS OF POWER
𝑊 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 1J
[A] S.I. Unit 𝑃= = = = 1 watt
𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 1 sec
If one joule work is done by a source in one second, its power is one watt.
Other units : (i) kilowatt (kw = 103 watt) (ii) megawatt (MW = 106 watt) (iii) microwatt(𝜇W = 10-6 watt)
-3
(iv) milliwatt(mW = 10 watt) Horse Power ( 1 H.P. = 746 watt)
If 746 joule work is done by a source in one second, its power is one H.P.
ENERGY
When a body is capable to do or perform work that means energy is possessed by the body. This capacity to perform work is kno wn as energ
Whenever work is done on the body there is gain in the energy of the body and when work is done by the body, there is loss of energy. Therefore wo
and energy are inter-related.

UNITS OF ENERGY (i) S.I. units is joule and C.G.S. unit is erg 1 J = 107 erg , Wh = 3600 J
 (ii) Kilowatt hour is also a unit of energy 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J
(iii) Calorie : 1 cal = 4. 186 J or 1 cal = 4.2 J Kcal = 4.186 x 103 J
-19
(iv) Electron volt : 1 eV = 1.6 x 10 J

DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY

MECHANICAL ENERGY ( M.E = K.E + P.E = constant )
1
[A] Kinetic energy, (𝐾= m𝑣 2 ) [B] Potential energy. ( P.E = mgh )
2
where m is mass, h is hight and v is velocity of the body.
Momentum ( p=m.v ) unit = kgms-1
Relation between kinetic Energy and Momentum 𝑝 = √2𝑚 . 𝐾
1 1
WORK ENERGY THEOREM [𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 2 - m𝑢2 ]
2 2
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
According to this law, energy remains conserved i.e., neither it can be created nor it can be destroyed. It can be converted from one form to anoth
form.
VARIATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY WITH THE HEIGHT FROM THE EARTH

MACHINE
A machine is a device by which we can either overcome a large resistive force or load at some point by applying a small force or effort at a
convenient point and in a desired direction or by which we can obtain gain in speed.
FUNCTIONS OF MACHINE
Functions of a machine are as follows in four different ways :
(i) As force multiplier : We can lift a heavy load by applying less effort.
Example (a) Lifting a heavy load with the help of pulleys. (b) Lifting a vehicle (car) by using a jack.
(c) Use of inclined plane to shift a load higher level. (d) Lifting a heavy load by using a bar.
(ii) In change the direction of effort to a convenient direction.
Example Lifting of a bucket full a water with a single fixed pulley by applying a force in downward direction.
(iii) speed multiplier. When a pair of scissor is used to cut the cloth, its blades move longer on cloth while its handles move less.
LIMITATION OF A MACHINE
A machine cannot be used as force multiplier as well as speed multiplier simultaneously.
TECHNICAL THINGS RELATED TO A MACHINE
Load ( L ) It is a resistive or opposing force to be overcome by a machine. It is denoted by L.
Effort ( E ) It is force applied on the machine to overcome the load. It is denoted by E.
Mechanical Advantage ( M.A. ) It is the ratio of the load and the effort. It is denoted by M.A. ( There is no unit of M.A. as it is a ratio.)
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐿)
𝑀. 𝐴 =.
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐸)

Case (i) : When M.A.> 1 i.e., L>E Then machine works as a force multiplier.

Case (ii) : When M.A. < 1 i.e., E>L Then machine given in speed.

Case (iii) : When M.A. = 1 i.e., L = E Then, it generally changes the direction of effort and there is no gain in force and speed.
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝑉𝐸 )
Velocity Ratio ( V.R.) It is ratio of velocity of effort and velocity of load. It is denoted as 𝑉. 𝑅 = ( It also has no unit)
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑉𝐿)
If load and effort move 𝑑𝐿 and 𝑑𝐸 distances in same interval of time, then
𝒅𝑬 /𝒕 𝒅𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹. = =
𝒅𝑳 / 𝒕 𝒅𝑳

Case (i) : if 𝑑𝐿 > 𝑑𝐸 means V.R. < 1 Then gain in speed.

Case (ii) : If V.R. > 1 i.e., 𝑑𝐿 < 𝑑𝐸 Then machine words as force multiplier.
Case (iii) : If V.R. = 1 i.e., 𝑑𝐿 = 𝑑𝐸 . Than machine generally changes the direction of effort.

Winput = Work done by the effort = E x 𝑑𝐸

Work Input
 Woutput = Work done by the load =L x 𝑑𝐿
Work Output
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency It is he ratio of useful work done by the machine to the work done by the effort on the machine. It is denoted by ŋ. (ŋ = )
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
It is generally expressed in percentage. 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
( it has no unit ) ŋ= 𝑥 100%
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
PRINCIPIE OF MACHINES Output work = Input work
Ideal Machine
The machine in which there is no loss of energy.
Actual Machine
The machine in which output energy is less than input energy. The loss in energy is mainly due to friction between the different parts of body,
elasticity and rigidness of parts of machine.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EFFICIENCY (ŋ), MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE(M.A.) AND VELOCITY RATION (V.R.)

𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐿 𝑥 𝑑𝐸 𝐿/ 𝐸 𝑀. 𝐴.
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (ŋ) = = ŋ=
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸 𝑥 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸 / 𝑑𝐿 𝑉. 𝑅.
ŋ=1
For ideal machine,
∴ ( ŋ = 1) M.A. = V.R.
For actual machine, M.A. < V.R. (ŋ<1)

REFRACTION OF LIGHT

REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT PLANE SURFACES

LAWS OF REFRACTION The refraction of light follows two laws :

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence are lying in the same plane.

2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction for a pair of medium is constant .
sin 𝑖
This law is also known as snell’s law. = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = refractive index (n) = 𝒂𝒏 g = refractive index of glass with respect to air.
sin 𝑟

DEFINITION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐 𝑐
Or 𝑎𝑛 g = = (𝑛= )
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣 𝑣

QUANTITES AFFECTED OR CHANGED DUE TO REFRACTION

1. Speed of light : 2. Direction of light : 3. Wavelength of light : 4. Frequency :

FACTORS AFFECTING THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A MEDIUM

1. Density of transparent homogeneous medium : 2. Temperature of medium : 3. Wavelength or colour of light :

PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBLITY OF LIGHT

1 1 2
1n
2
= Examples (a) if 𝑎𝑛 g = 3/2 than 𝑔𝑛 a = =
2𝑛 1 3/2 3

LATERAL DISPLACEMENT OF LIGHT

MULTIPLE IMAGES IN THICK MIRROR OR GLASS SLAB

 PRISM

I + e = A +𝛿
Type equation here.

DEPENDENCE OF ANGLE OF DEVIATION

[A] Angle of incidence (i). [B] Angle of prism (A) . [C] refractive index of the material of prism. [D] Wavelength of light or colour.

REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

FACTORS ON WHICH APPARENT SHIFT DEPENDS

(i) Refractive index of the medium. (ii) Thickness of the denser medium.

(iii) Wavelength or colour of light.

The apparent shift increases with refractive index and also with thickness of the medium. Apparent shift increases with decreases in the
wavelength.

Some Phenomenon caused due to Refraction of Light

1. A swimming pool appears shallow 2. A star appears twinkling in the sky.

3. Sun is seen few minutes before it rises above the horizon in the morning and in the evening few minutes longer after it sets.

4. A finger kept in a glass of water appears in a bending shape 5. A print of book appears to be raised when a glass block is placed it.

CRITICAL ANGLE
It is that angle of incidence in denser medium for which corresponding angle of refraction is 90 oin the rarer medium. Using Snell’s law for
critical angle,
1
Or 𝑅𝑛 D =
sin 𝑖𝑐
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
When light travels from a denser to a rarer medium, the refracted ray deviates away from the normal and increases further with angle of
incidence and becomes 90o with an angle called critical angle (in denser medium). If angle of incidence is further increased (I > 𝑖𝑐 ) i.e., more than
critical angle than the entire light reflects in the same medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

Differences between Total Internal Reflection from a Prism and Reflection from a Plane Mirror
Total Internal reflection from a prism Reflection from a plane mirror

It takes place when light travels from denser to rare medium. It takes place in any medium.

It takes place when angle of incidence is more than critical angle It takes place at any angle.

It does not need a smooth surface or polished surface. It requires a smooth or polished surface.

There is no loss of energy There is loss of energy.

The image is brighter. The image is faint.

 REFRACTION THROUGH LENSES

LENS
[A] CONVEX LENS
(i) Equi-convex or double-convex lens or bi-convex lens or convex
(ii) Plano-convex lens
(iii) concavo-convex lens

[B] CONCAVE LENS

(i) Double-concave or bi-concave or equi-concave
(ii) Plano-concave lens
(iii) Convexo-concave lens

ACTION OF LENS

TERMS RELATED TO A LENS

(i) Centre of curvature : The centre of the sphere whose part is the lens surface, is called centre of curvature as shown below.
(ii) Radius of curvature : The radius of the sphere whose part is the lens, is called radius of curvature. P 1C2 and P2C1are the radii of curvature
of convex lens and P1C2,P2C1 are the radii of curvature of concave lens in previous diagram.
(iii) Optical centre : It is a point through which a ray passes with .out any deviation (if lens is thin),. Point is optical centre.
(iv) Principal axis : It is a line passing through centre of curvatures and optical centre of the lens (AB).
(v) Principal foci : It is a pair of focal point equidistant from the optical centre.
First Focal Point of Convex Lens
It is a point on the principal axis at which a convergent beam of light appears to meet and becomes
parallel after refraction through the concave lens.
First focal length : It is the distance between the optical centre and first focal point. (OF1 = f1).
Focal plane : It is a plane passing through focal point (F1 or F2) and perpendicular to the principal axis. (AB is focal plane).
Second Focal Point of Convex Lens It is the point on the principal axis at which a beam of light parallel to the principal axis passes through it
after refraction through the lens.
Second Focal point of Concave LensIt is the point on the principal axis which a parallel beam of light falling on lens diverges after refraction
and appears to come from this point.

Differences between Convex and Concave Lenses

S. No. Convex lens Concave lens

1. Thick in middle part. Thin in middle part.

2. It has convergence nature. Its nature is detergency.

3. Its focal length is positive. Its focal length is negative.

4. It has a real focus. Its focus is virtual.

5. It forms real and virtual images. It forms only virtual images.

FORMATION OF IMAGES BY A CONVEX LENS

(i) When object ‘O’ is at infinity(∞) : image
formed is :(a) real (b) inverted,(c) diminished and is formed at F2
(ii) When object is placed between 2F1 and infinity : When object is placed between infinity and 2F1, image
formed is :
(a) real (b) inverted (c) diminished and is formed between F2 and 2F2.
(iii) When object is placed at 2F1 : When object is placed at 2F1, its image is :
(a) real, (b) inverted (c) same size and is formed at 2F2.
(iv) When object is placed between 2F1 and F1 : Its formed image is :
(a) real (b) inverted, (c) enlarged and is formed between 2F2 and ∞ (beyond 2F2).
(v) When object is placed at F1 : Image formed is (a) real (b) inverte (c) formed at infinity and biggest out of real images.
(vi) When object is placed between F1 and optical centre of the lens : Its image is :
(a) virtual,(b) magnified,(c) erect and formed towards same side of the object.
FORMATION OF IMAGES BY A CONCAVE LENS
(i) When object is placed at infinity : Its image is :
(a) virtual (b) highly diminished (c) formed at main focus (F2) or in focal plane as shown below
(ii) When object is placed at any finite distance : Its image is
(a) virtual (b) diminished (c) formed between F2 and optical centre of the lens.

POWER OF A LENS
It is the power to deviate a beam of light after refraction through the lens. 𝟏
The lens which deviates rays more power and vice-versa. Power (in D) = 𝑭𝑶𝑪𝑨𝑳 𝑳𝑬𝑵𝑮𝑻𝑯 (𝒊𝒏 𝒎 )
Unit of power of a lens is D ( dioptre ) provided focal length is in metre
Examples
1
(a) Focal length of a convex lens is 20 cm. Its power is p = 20 = +5𝐷
𝑚
100
1
(b) Focal length of a concave lens is 10 cm. Its power is P = 10 = −10 𝐷.
− 𝑚
100

SIMPLE MICROSCOPE (MAGNIFYING GLASS)

𝐷
The mathematical value of magnifying power is given by M = 1 + .
𝑓
Applications of Lenses
1. These are used in optical devices or instruments like :
(i) telescope (ii) compound microscope
(iii) simple microscope (iv) Galilean telescope
(v) achromatic doublet (vi) camera and projectors

SPECTRUM

DEVIATION PRODUCED IN R AY OF LIGHT BY A PRISM

∴ Total deviation
𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM
According to Newton’s concept, white light consists seven colors in the order of violet, indigo, blue, green,
yellow, orange and red (VIBGYOR).
Dispersion of Light
The phenomenon of splitting of white light by a prism into seven colours is called dispersion of light (as
shown in the figure).
Spectrum
The beautiful pattern of sever colours after passing a white light through a prism is called sperctrum.
Cause of Dispersion
 Speed of light in a medium depends on refractive index, refractive index depends on the colour or wavelength and hence different colours trave
the different speeds which is the main reason for splitting .
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Electromagnetic Spectrum in Ascending Order of Wavelength
S. No. Wave Wavelength(nm) Source Detector Uses

1. Gamma rays 𝜆 <0.01 nm Radioactive Electronic detector Treatment of cancer,

material Radiography.

2. x-rays 0.1 – 100 x-ray tube Electronic detector Medical science, in

Engineering.

3. Ultraviolet rays 100 – 4000 Sun, electric arc, Electronic detector Sterilizing food, detect

Mercury lamp Quartz prism, finger prints.

Silver-chloride

4. Visible light 4000 – 8000 Sun (not objects) Eyes and electronic Seeing, photography,
photosynthesis.
Detector

5. Infrared rays 8000 - 107 Sun Electronic detector, Heating treat for

Skin ,rock-salt prism, muscular strain

thermopile

6. Microwaves 107 – 1011 Electronic devices Radio aerial (antina) In communication

7. Radio waves Above than 1011 Radio and T.V. Radio aerial T.V. telephones, rader.

transmitters

CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

1. Electromagnetic waves do not require medium.
2. Travel with uniform speed 3 x 108 ms-1.
3. Frequency remains same during refraction and reflection.
4. these are not deflected in electric and magnetic field.
5. These are transverse in nature.
6. These waves are generated are generated when electric charge is accelerated.
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
1. Gamma rays : they have high penetrating power, easily pass though human body and cause immense biological damage.
2. X- rays : affect the photographic plate, causes fluorescence with zin sulphide, penetrate human body except bones.
3. Ultraviolet radiations : Travel with speed of light, scattered by the dust, affect photographic plate, produce
florescence and obey laws of reflection and refraction, excessive is harmful for human body.
4. Visible light :
(i) Speed is x 108 ms-1 (ii) They obey laws of reflection and refraction (iii) They affect ordinary photographic plate
5. Infrared rays :
(i) Speed is 3 x 108 ms-1 (ii) Obey the laws of reflection and refraction (iii) These can be easily absorbed by the glass Absorbed by glass but transm
by rock-salt. (vi) High does of these radiations is harmful.
6. Microwaves :
(i) These are used in radar for aircraft navigation (ii) These are often used in cooking.(iii) These are useful in communication.
7. Radio waves (i) These are the longest waves (ii) Travel with speed of light. (iii) They have all properties of light.
 SOUND

REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES

REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES

When sound waves fall on any rigid surface then they returned back to the same medium, called reflection of sound waves. These waves also
obey laws of reflection and do smooth surface is required, the only one requirement is that size of the reflecting surface or obstacle should be
greater than the wavelength of sound wave.
ECHO The sound heard after reflection from a surface (like a cliff, a hill side, wall of a building etc.)After the original sound has ceased is called
echo.
Echo can only be heard if interval between the original sound and reflected sound is 0.1 second. Therefore, certain minimum gap or distance
should be there between the sound and the reflection.
If the gap between the observer and the obstacle is d, speed of sound is v then total distance travelled by sound waves is 2d.
2𝑑
𝑡=
𝑣
𝑣. 𝑡 340 𝑥 0.1
𝑑= = ≈ 17 m.
2 2
Thus, minimum distance between observer and obstacle is about 17 m for an echo to be heard by the observer. If the distance is lesser than 17 m
from the observer then original sound mixes up with the reflected sound and due to repeated reflections, the sound gets prolonged. This effect is
called reverberation.
CONDITIONS FOR ECHO
1. The minimum distance between source of sound and reflecting surface must be ≈ 17 m or the
interval of time should be 0.1 second.
2. Size of the reflecting surface should be greater than the wavelength of sound wave.
3. Reflected sound should be audible.
𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝐷𝐼𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐶𝐸 2𝑑
DETERMINATION OF SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR V= =
𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸 𝑇
USES OF ECHO
1. By bats , dolphins and fisherman: 2. Use of echoes by SONAR : 3. In RADAR 4. Echoes in medical science :
FREE, DAMPED AND FORCED VIBRATIONS
FREE OR NATURAL VIBRATIONS
The periodic vibrations of body in absence of any external force on it are called free or natural vibrations,
The amplitude of the vibrating body should be constant for free vibrations but due to the presence of dissipative force like air resistance, the
amplitude decreases gradually.
Examples
(a) Vibrations of simple pendulum (neglecting air resistance).
(b) Vibrations of a loaded spiral spring. (neglecting air resistance)
(c) Vibrations of a tuning fork struck against a hard rubber pad. (neglecting air resistance)
(d) Vibrations of a stretched string. (neglecting air resistance)
DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPH FOR NATURAL OR FREE VIBRATION

DAMPED VIBRATIONS

Examples (a) A trucked tuning fork vibrates with damped vibrations.

(b) Motion of simple pendulum (on considering friction or air resistance).
(c) Vibrations of metallic strip fixed at one end other end is plucked.
(d) Vibrations of branch of a tree.
FORCED VIBRATIONS Vibrations of a body which take place under the action of an external force to compensate the loss in energy due
to resistive forces are called forced vibrations. When to resistive forces are called forced vibrations.
Examples (a) Vibrations of a table top when a vibrated tuning fork is pressed on top of the table.
(b) Vibrations of diaphragm of a microphone due to speech of a person.
(c) Vibration developed in guitar by a player by pushing it by fingers.
(d) Vibration of air in sound box of a sonometer with pressed tuning fork.
RESONANCE
It is a case of forced vibrations in which the frequency of an externally applied force on a body is equal to natural frequency and body vibrates
with a large amplitude. This phenomenon is called resonance.
Examples of Resonance
(a) Resonance in a bridge :(b) Resonance in machines:(e) Resonance in monometer :(f) Resonance in radio and T.V. receivers
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
[A] LOUDNESS
It is the property by virtue of which a loud sound can be distinguished from a faint sound, even when both have the same pitch and
quality.

Factors on which Loudness Depends

1. It is proportional to the square of the amplitude. ( Intensity of Sound I ∝ 𝑎2 )
2. It depends upon the surface area of the sound source (vibrating body)
3. It depends upon the density of medium i.e., more is the density, more is the loudness.
4. It also depends upon the presence of resonant bodies i.e., presence of resonant bodies increases the loudness.
[B] PITCH OR SHRILLNESS AND FREQUNCY
It is that characteristic of sound by which an shrill sound
can be distinguished from a grave or flat sound.

[C] QUALITY OR TIMBRE

It is that characteristic of sound which distinguishes the
two sounds of same loudness and same pitch but emitted by two different sources of sound.
As shown in the two diagrams.
NOISE POLLUTION

MUSIC NOISE
It is a pleasant, continuous and uniform sound It is a non-periodic, irregular and discontinuous disturbance.
produced by regular by regular and periodic vibrations.

Electric Current

Electric Current: The amount of flow charge through any cross-sectional area of a conductor in unity time is called Electric Current. It is
represented by ‘I’
I = Q/T

Unit of Electric Current: It is CS-1 (coulomb per second) or Ampere (A). Electric Current is a scalar quantity. It is measured by an
ammeter. Direction: The direction of conventional current (or practical current) is opposite to the flow of electrons.

Electric Potential Electric field is called Electric Potential difference. It is known as a voltage which is equal to the work done per unit
charge between two points against the static electric field.
VAB = VA – VB = WAB/Q Electric Potential difference is measured by a voltmeter.

Ohm’s Law: According to this law “Under the constant physical condition the potential difference across the conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through the conductor.”
V∝I V = IR …[Where R is proportionality constant called resistance of conductor]
⇒ I = V/ R R depends upon nature, geometry and physical condition of the conductor.

The heat generated by electric current: The potential difference between two points in an electrical field is equal to the work done in
moving a unit charge from one point to another.
Then, work is done, W = VQ and Q = I × t
W=V×I×t From Ohm’s Law, we know that
V = IR W = IR × I × t = I2.Rt
Since heat produced by the electric current is equal to work done, W
H=W ⇒ H (heat) = I2Rt Joule.
 Resistance: Ratio of the applied voltage to the current flowing in the conductor is called resistance of the conductor.
⇒ R = V/I S.I. Unit of resistance is VA-1 or ohm (Ω).
Resistance is the opposition offered by the conductor in the flow of current.
Practically it is
R ∝ L (L is the length of a conductor)
R ∝ 1/A (A is the area of a conductor)
So, R ∝ L/A
R = ρ L/A …[Where p is proportionality constant called specific resistance of conductor
It only depend upon nature (material) and temperature of conductor.

Specific resistance or Resistivity = ρ = R ( A /L )

It’s S.I. Unit is Q/m

Combination of resistance:

In this combination the current across every component is same but potential across every component is different.
R = R1 + R2 + R3

The parallel combination of resistance:

In this combination the current across every component is different. But potential across every component is the same.
1/R=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3

Electric Energy is amount of work done to maintain the continuous flow of electric current in the circuit.
Its S.I. unit is joule (J)

Electric power (P): The electric work done per unit time is called electric power.
Electric Power = Electric work done/Time taken or P = W/t
Electric power is also defined as the electric energy consumed per unit time.
P = Et
S.I. unit of electric power is Watt. When one joule of energy is used for one second, electric power is equal to one watt.

Derivation of formula for electric power:

We know that electric work done, W = V × I × t or P = Vit
P = VI Electric power in watts = Volts × ampere
P = (VR)2 × R = V2 / R Watt
The maximum value of electric current that can pass through an electric appliance without damaging electric appliance is called current
rating of electric appliance
Electromagnet

Right-hand thumb rule/ Maxwell’s corkscrew rule

If one holds a current-currying wire in the right hand such that the thumb is pointing in the direction of the current, then
the direction in which the other finger encircles the wire will give the direction of the produced magnetic field lines
around the wire.
Corkscrew rule
If one drives a corkscrew in the direction of the current, then the direction in which the handle is turned is the direction
of the magnetic field on the magnetic field lines.

The magnitude of the field lines produced by a circular loop at its centre is

directly proportional to the amount of current inversely proportional to the radius of the loop

The strength of the magnetic field produced by a current carrying a solenoid

1. is directly proportional to the number of turns in the solenoid

2. is directly proportional to the strength of the current in the solenoid
1. When an electric current flows through a wire, it behaves as a magnet. This is called the magnetic effect of electric
current
2. Electric bell works on the principle of magnetic effect of electric current.
3. A compass needle shows deflection when brought near a current carrying wire.
4. An iron nail behaves as a electromagnet when a current is allowed to flow through a wire, which is wrapped around the nail.
5. Magnet is used to separate iron objects from a heap of garbage.
6. Types of electromagnet : Bar-shaped or I-shaped electromagnet and Horse-shoe or U-shaped electromagnet
7. An electric bell works on the principle of electromagnetism.
A current carrying the rod experiences a force when placed between two poles of strong magnets. The direction of force
exerted on the rod is related with the direction of current.
Magnitude of magnetic force depends upon three factors:

(1) F∝ I (current I flowing in the rod) (2) F∝B (Strength of magnetic field B) (3) F ∝ l (length of the rod l)

where K is a constant and its value in SI unit is 1.

So, F = I Bl
Fleming’s left-hand rule

If the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the left hand are stretched in such a way that they are mutually
perpendicular to each other and the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger
in the direction of the current, then the thumb will point in the direction of the force acting on the conductor.

Fore finger = Magnetic field

Middle finger = Current

Thumb = Force on conductor

Application - Electric motor

An electric motor is a rotating device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Motor principle: The basic principle on which the electric motor works is the magnetic effect of current. A current
carrying rectangular coil starts rotating when placed in a magnetic field. Simple electric motor
Electromagnetic induction
The phenomenon of the generation of induced current in a conductor by changing the magnetic field or by moving a
conductor in the magnetic field is known as electromagnetic induction.
E (induced e.m.f.)= change in magnetic flux in each turn × number of turn in the coil time in which the magnetic flux change

The direction of induced e.m.f is given by Lenz's law according to which the direction of induced e.m.f. (or induced
current) is such that it opposes the cause which produces it.

Difference between A.C. and D.C.

Direct Current (D.C.) Alternating Current (A.C.)

Magnitude of current varies periodically
Current of constant magnitude
with time
Always flow in one direction Direction of current reverses periodically
Can be obtained from cell or Can be obtained from A.C. generator
battery

The working of a transformer is based on the phenomenon of mutual induction.

 HEAT AND ITS MEASUREMENT

UN I TS O F H E A T
It is a form of energy and its Si. unit is Joule. Calorie and kilocalories are some other popular units.
Ca lo rie
One calorie is the amount of heat required to raise temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5'C-15.5'C through 10C.
Relation between calorie and Joule is
1 calorie = 4.186 joule or 1 cal = 4.2 J

FACTORS ON WHICH QUANTITY OF HEAT DEPENDS

1. mass of the body or substance.
2. nature of material of the substance.
3. rise or decrease or change of temperature.
DEFINITION OF HEAT CAPACITY OR THERMAL HEAT CAPACITY
It is the amount of heat required to raise temperature of a body (whole mass) by 1°C or 1K.
Unit of thermal capacity is cal/°C or joule/°C or joule/K or it may be kilo-calorie/K.

SPECIFIC HEAT OR SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

It is the amount of heat required to raise temperature of unit mass of a body by 1°C or 1K.
UNIT- -
RELATION BETWEEN HEAT CAPACITY OR THERMAL HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC HEAT
CAPACITY
Heat capacity c' = Mass (m) x Specific heat capacity C

Comparison between Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

CHANGE IN VOLUME IN BOILING
All liquids expand on boiling due to vaporisation or phase change, like 1 cc water converts 1760 cc of
steam at 100"c.

Effect of Pressure on Boiling Point

Boiling point of a liquid increases with pressure and decreases with decrease in pres sure. Reason is clear when pressure increases, more
work is to be done by the molecules to move in vapour phase a nd more heat energy is required and hence boiling point increases
with increase in pressure.
Effect of Impurities on the Boiling Point
Boiling point of a liquid increases by adding impurities like by adding salt in water, boiling point becomes more than 100°C and
cooking becomes easier and faster.

LATENT HEAT
We have seen during the change of state from solid to liquid or liquid to vapour, temperature remains same in spite of
heat given (heat absorbed) and it converts from vapour to liquid or liquid to solid, heat is rejected again temperature is
constant therefore it is clear that some amount of heat is required or liberated during the change of phase, called latent heat.

Specific Latent Heat

it is also heat required or liberated per unit mass. Q = mL
i.e., amount of heat absorbed or liberated = m L.
PRINCIPLE OF CALORIMETER
When two bodies of different temperatures (hot and cold) are mixed or placed in contact, heat energy passes from hot to cold
body until both attains the same temperature. If there is no heat loss due to any process (conduction, convection or radiation) then,
Heat energy lost by the hot body = Heat energy gained by the cold body
NATURAL PHENOMENA AND CONSEQUENCE OF HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF WATER
Water has highest specific heat capacity 4.2 x 10 3 J/kg K. Some of its consequences are as follows :
1. Water is considered as a large store house of heat due to its high specific heat capacity. Hot water is used for
internal heating in cold countries.
2. Due to high specific heat capacity it is used for fomentation and water provides heat for a long period of time, as it
does not loose heat very quickly.
3. Water is used as a coolant in automobile's radiators and thermal power station due to its high absorbing ability
of heat.
 4. Farmers, fill their fields of crops by water in the evening in winter when temperature is below 0°C in the night to save
the crop from damage (bursting the veins due to increase in volume of water when changes into ice). Since field is
filled with water (high specific heat capacity) and it will not allow to fall temperature below 0°C.
5. All plants and animals have high content of water in their bodies because due to high specific heat capacity of
water, animals maintain their body temperature in all seasons.
6. Water is used as a heat reservoir for wine and juice bottles to avoid freezing due to high specific heat of water.
7. Climate near the seashore is moderate. Specific heat capacity of water is nearly five times than sand (land)
therefore with same change in temperature more (five times) heat is required for water than sand. Similarly a certain
mass of water gives heat five times to land for the same fall in the temperature. Thus a large temperature difference
is developed between land and sea due to which cold air blows land to sea during night (land breeze) and during day
cold air blows from sea towards land (sea breeze). These breezes make the climate moderate near the seashore.
Some Examples of High Thermal Capacity
(a) The base of an electric iron is made thick and heavy to increase its thermal capacity and it remains hot for a long duration even after the supply
is disconnected.
(b) The base of cooking pan is made thick to increase its thermal capacity and it gets heated slowly and gives enough heat at slow rate to the
food for its proper cooking.
Example of Low Thermal Capacity
Calorimeter is made of a thin copper sheet to decrease its mass and thermal capacity both and copper has low
specific heat capacity also, therefore it takes negligible amount of heat from its contents to attain its temperature.
Melting and Freezing
The change from solid to liquid is melting and liquid to solid is called freezing (both at constant temperature, called melting
point and freezing point respectively).
Vaporization and Liquefaction
The change from liquid to vapour is called vaporisation and vapour to liquid is known as liquefaction or condensation (both
at constant temperature, called boiling point).

Sublimation and Solidification

The direct change from solid to vapour is called sublimation and vapour to solid is called solidification (both at constant
temperature).
Heat energy is supplied or absorbed during melting, vaporisation and sublimation while heat energy is rejected during
freezing, condensation and solidification.
HEATING AND COOLING CURVE

CHANGE IN THE VOLUME

When a substance is heated its volume increases in most of the cases but volume of ice on heating decreases when it
changes into water.
Effect of Pressure on Melting Point
The melting point of the substances which contract on melting (like ice) decreases by increasing pressure. On the other hand
the melting point of the substances which expand (like wax, lead etc.) on melting, increases by increasing pressure.
Effect of Impurities on the Melting point
Melting point of the substances decreases by the presence of impurities like melting point of ice decreases from 0°C to —
22°C on mixing salt to it in proper proportion.

NATURAL CONSEQUENCES OF HIGH SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE

1. Snow in mountains melts slowly in the summer because every kilogram requires 3.36 x 105 J of heat energy (latent heat of
melting) to convert into water at 0°C. Thus, it prevents flood in rivers during summer.
2. Water in lake and ponds does not freeze suddenly due to high specific latent heat of ice. Moreover when freezing starts,
a large quantity of heat energy is liberated in the atmosphere which keeps the surrounding moderate.
3. It is colder after the hail storm rather than during or before the hail storm because after hail storm ice absorbs heat
from the surroundings to melt. Thus, temperature of the atmosphere falls down.
4. Drinks are generally cooled by adding ice pieces at 0°C rather than using ice -cold water at 0°C. because ice at
0°C need 3.36 x 10' J of heat per gram to melt from the drink and makes it cool.
5. The temperature of atmosphere falls down when ice in a frozen lake starts melting and absorbs hear from the
surrounding and thus temperature falls and it becomes severely cold.
 Radioactivity
Atomic Model
An atom is electrically neutral, and therefore, the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is equal tothe number of electrons
revolving around the nucleus of the atom.

Atomic Number
It is the number of protons or electrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Mass Number
It is the total number of nucleons, i.e. number of protons and neutrons, in the nucleus of an atom.The atom is specified by the
symbol A X , where X is the chemical symbol for the element.
Z

Isotopes
The atoms belonging to the same element with the same atomic number Z but differing in their mass number A are called isotopes.

Isobars
The atoms of different elements which have the same mass number A but differ in their atomic number Z are called isobars.

Isotones
The atoms with different number of protons but the same number of neutrons, i.e. different Z and A,but same A − Z, are called
isotones. They have different number of electrons.

Radioactivity as Emission of Alpha, Beta and Gamma Radiations

Rutherford experimentally found that on subjecting the radiations given out by a radioactive substance to a magnetic field in a direction
perpendicular to their path, they separate out into three distinct constituents.

Alpha Emission
If an unstable nucleus contains more neutrons than the number of protons, then it may emit two protons and two neutrons tightly bound together
particle. A stream of α-particles is called α-rays.

Beta Emission
In emitting a β-particle, the number of nucleons in the nucleus remains the same, but the number ofneutrons is decreased by one and the num

In other words, by the emission of a β-particle, the mass number A does not change, but the atomicnumber Z is increased by one.

Gamma Emission
The γ-rays take no mass and no electric charge from the nucleus, i.e. no neutrons or protons are lost, and hence, the nucleus does not decay in
change in the mass number A and atomic number Z of the nucleus in gamma emission.

Uses of Radioactivity Radio Isotopes

Medical Use
• Diseases such as leukaemia and cancer are cured by radiation therapy. Radiations from cobalt-60 (~Co) are used to treat cancer by
killing the cells in the malignant tumour of the patient.
• The salts of weak radioactive isotopes such as radio-sodium chloride, radio-iron and radio-iodine are used for diagnosis. Such radio
isotopes are called tracers.
• γ-rays emitted by radio isotopes are used to sterilise bandages, dressings, syringes and other equipment to make them free of germs.
This method is quicker, more reliable and cheaper than sterilisation by heat.
 Scientific Use
• Alpha particles emitted from radio isotopes are used as projectiles for nuclear reactions. The scattering of alpha particles from the
nucleus helps in estimating the size of the nucleus and in understanding the nature of nuclear forces.
• The radioactive tracers are used in agricultural science to study the growth of plants with respect tothe chemical manure used.
• The age of rocks and hence buried plants is estimated by the study of the rate of decay of 14C in the 6
remains of dead plants. The process is called carbon dating.
Industrial Use
• Radio isotopes are used as fuel for atomic energy reactors.
• Radio isotopes are used by engineers in factories to avoid the accumulation of charge on moving partsdue to friction.
• The ionising effect of radiations from radio isotopes is used in making certain luminescent signs.
• The thickness of paper, plastic and metal sheets is controlled during manufacture when thepenetrating power of β-radiations
emitted from radio isotopes is known.

Harmful Effects and Safety Precautions of Radiation

Harmful Effects of Radiation

Radioactive fallout from nuclear plants and other sources
Disposal of nuclear waste
Biological Effects of Nuclear Radiations are of Three Types
• Short-term recoverable effects such as diarrhoea, sore throat, loss of hair and nausea
• Long-term irrecoverable effects such as leukaemia and cancer
• Genetic effects
Safety Rules for Handling Radioactive Materials
• Personnel should put on special lead-lined aprons and lead gloves.
• They should handle radioactive materials with long lead tongs.
• The safety limit for each type of radiation is known; therefore, care must be taken so that no one isexposed beyond the
safety limit in any case.
• Radioactive substances must be kept in thick lead containers with a narrow opening, so as to stopradiations coming out
from other directions.
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