ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Engineering geology is the application of the geology to engineering study for the
purpose of assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction,
operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and accounted for. Engineering
geologists provide geological and geotechnical recommendations, analysis, and design
associated with human development and various types of structures. The realm of the
engineering geologist is essentially in the area of earth-structure interactions, or investigation of
how the earth or earth processes impact human made structures and human activities.

Engineering geology studies may be performed during the planning, environmental

impact analysis, civil or structural engineering design, value engineering and construction phases
of public and private works projects, and during post-construction and forensic phases of
projects. Works completed by engineering geologists include; geological hazard
assessments, geotechnical, material properties landslide and slope stability, erosion,
flooding, dewatering, and seismic investigations, etc. Engineering geology studies are performed
by a geologist or engineering geologist that is educated, trained and has obtained experience
related to the recognition and interpretation of natural processes, the understanding of how these
processes impact human made structures (and vice versa), and knowledge of methods by which
to mitigate hazards resulting from adverse natural or human made conditions. The principal
objective of the engineering geologist is the protection of life and property against damage
caused by various geological conditions.

History
Although the study of geology has been around for centuries, at least in its modern form,
the science and practice of engineering geology only commenced as a recognized discipline until
the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first book titled Engineering Geology was published
in 1880 by William Penning. In the early 20th century Charles Berkey, an American trained
geologist who was considered the first American engineering geologist, worked on several
water-supply projects for New York City, then later worked on the Hoover Dam and a multitude
of other engineering projects. The first American engineering geology textbook was written in
1914 by Ries and Watson. In 1921 Reginald W. Brock, the first Dean of Applied Science at the
University of British Columbia, started the first undergraduate and graduate degree programs in
Geological Engineering, noting that students with an engineering foundation made first-class
practising geologists. In 1925, Karl Terzaghi, an Austrian trained engineer and geologist,
published the first text in Soil Mechanics (in German). Terzaghi is known as the parent of soil
mechanics, but also had a great interest in geology; Terzaghi considered soil mechanics to be a
sub-discipline of engineering geology. In 1929, Terzaghi, along with Redlich and Kampe,
published their own Engineering Geology text (also in German).
The need for geologist on engineering works gained worldwide attention in 1928 with the
failure of the St. Francis Dam in California and the death of 426 people. More engineering
failures which occurred the following years also prompted the requirement for engineering
geologists to work on large engineering projects.
In 1951, one of the earliest definitions of the "Engineering geologist" or "Professional
Engineering Geologist" was provided by the Executive Committee of the Division on
Engineering Geology of the Geological Society of America.

ROLE OF GEOLOGIST IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

 1. Preliminary investigation using published information and other existing data
2. A detailed geological survey of the site, possibly with a photogeology study
3. Applied geophysical surveys to provide information about the subsurface geology
4. Boring, drilling and excavation to provide confirmation of the previous results, and
quantitative detail, at critical points on the site
5. Testing of soils and rocks to assess their suitability, particularly their mechanical
properties (soil mechanics and rock mechanics), either in situ or from samples.
6. It is providing knowledge about material used for construction
7. Construction of Dams
8. Geotechnical engineered needs knowledge of this subject for digging work
9. Knowledge required about foundation of faults
10. Design of Highways and Road
11. Construction of Tunnels

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

OBJECTIVES:
The aim of this lesson is to understand the important physical properties of rocks and
their determination, geological characteristics, general characteristics, modulus properties of
rocks, building stones and their occurrences. The role of a geotechnical engineer is also
highlighted.

INTRODUCTION:
A civil engineer has deal mostly with soil, rocks, timber, steel and concrete. A majority of civil
engineering projects, soil and rocks form sites of construction directly. Engineering properties of
soils are studies under “Soil Mechanics”, rock falls, till date domain of engineering geology.
Rock mechanics has developed at fast pace during last few years. It deals essentially with
behavior of rocks under applied force field in natural as well as in laboratory conditions. It might
be understood to include discussion and practical determination of all such properties of rocks
that are relevant to engineering applications of material after their extraction from natural
place or without extraction ( in site condition).

BUILDING STONE:
 Definition: Building stones may be defined as sound rock that can be safely used in some
situation. In the construction as a massive dressed or undressed unit.
Granite and Marble – used in the form of fine dressed blocks or slabs or columns in huge and
costly buildings.
Sandstone and Limestone are used in fort, retaining wall boundary wall, and also blocks in
stone houses and bungalows are typical building stone. Slates used in roofing materials for
ordinary construction.
Stone Masonry is an engineering art that is preserved in many historical buildings in all parts of
the world. This skill used in very less place scale. Example- Taj Mahalat agra, Red fort in Delhi,
Jaganathapuri of the best known marvels of India.

Properties:
Physical, structural and other properties a rock should possess to be recommended as a building
stone will developed upon the type of construction and situation within that particular
construction. Stone used in flooring for a building need not possess all those qualities that are
must in foundation and load bearing wall.

A) Strength Characteristics:
Stone, like all other solids, fail when subjected to load beyond the strength. The failure takes
place under compressive, tension and sheer forces at different values. The unconfined
compressive strength, which is taken as the most important index property of stones.
1. Compressive strength
2. Transverse strength
3. Porosity
4. Density
5. Abrasive resistance
6. Frost and Fire resistance
1. Compressive strength is also sometimes referred as crushing strength of a stone and
may be defined as the force expressed per unit area, which a stone can withstand without
rupturing. Any force applied for beyond the compressive strength will cause failure or rupture of
the stone.
Compressive strength - Co = P/A
Where Co = compressive strength / unit area; P= Load failure, A= Area of cross section of
stone under P.

The load at failure (p) divided by the area of cross section of the sample gives the unconfined
compressive strength of the rock.

When the compressive strength is tested by a method providing a lateral support, by keeping the
specimen in a special cell (Triaxial cell) filled with liquid under pressure, the value obtained is
called a confined or triaxial compressive strength. It is generally taken into consideration in
civil engineering construction with stones.

Compressive strength of rocks depends on a number of factors such as its mode of formation,
its composition, texture and structure, its moisture content and extent of weathering it has already
suffered.

Igneous rocks being crystalline in character, compact and interlocking in a texture and uniform
in structure possess very high compressive strengths compared sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks.

Two groups abundance of planes of weakness such as bedding planes, foliation, schistosity and
cleavage affect the compressive strength

Uniaxial compressive strength range of some rocks (kg/cm2)

Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks
Granite 1000 – 2500 Sandstone 200 – 2000 Gneisses 500 – 2500
Dolerite 1500 – 3500 Limestone 200 2000 Quartzite 1500 – 3000
Basalt 1500 – 3500 Shales 50 – 150 Marble 700 - 2000

Engineering classification of Rocks

Class Type description Uniaxial compressive strength (kg/cm2)
A Very high strength More than 2240
B High strength 1120 – 2240
C Medium strength 560 – 1120
D Low strength 280 – 560
E Very low strength Less than 280

2. Transverse Strength: It is defined as the capacity of a stone to withstand bedding loads.

Transverse strength is determined as modulus of rupture using the following relationship
R= 3wl/2bd2
Where R = Modulus rupture, w = loads at which samples breaks, l = length, b= Width and d is
thickness of the specimen.

3. Porosity: is the percentage of void space in a rock. It is defined as the ratio of the volume of
the voids or pore space divided by the total volume. Porosity range values for few common types
of building stones
Granite 0.1 – Basalt 0.1 – Marble 0.5 –
0.5% 1.0% 2.0%
Sandstone 5 – 25% Limestone 5 -20% Quartzite 0.1 – 0.5
Low porosity is caused by interlocking crystals, angular grains of different sizes and uniformly
distributed cementing material in the rock. Rock have high porous if composed of spherical or
rounded grains is distributed uneven or poor cementing
Absorption value defines as the capacity of a stone to absorb moisture when the immersed in
water for 72hours or still saturation.
Absorption Values = S-W X 100
W
Where W and S gives the dry and saturated weights.

4. Density: It is defined as weight as weight per unit volume of substance, in this case of stone.
(a). Dry density: it is the weight per unit Vol of an absolutely dried rock. It includes the Vol of
the pore spaces present in the rock.
(b) Bulk density: It is density of the rock with natural moisture content. It is assumed in such
cases all the pore spaces are not filled with water.
(c). Saturated water: Rock fully saturated water
In most engineering calculation it is the bulk density that is taken into consideration. Bulk
density values in grams/cubic centimeters
Granite – 2.7, Basalt – 2.9, sandstone – 2.6, Limestone – 2.2 – 2.6

5. Abrasive Resistance: It is more a qualitative than quantitative property and may be broadly
defined as resistance, which stone offer to rubbing action of one kind to another. This quality
acquires considerable importance when stone is intended to be used in a situation where rubbing
natural or artificial causes may become routine.
Mineralogical composition of a stone plays a great role in resistance to abrasion. A stone
made up of the same mineral wear uniformly like soft – Example = Limestone and marble. It
may not wear at all if made up of hard mineral --- eg = Quartzite and sandstone.
Granite have an appealing appearance but made up of minerals in different hardness (feldspar
and Quartz) may get unevenly.
Abrasion resistance of a stone is commonly used in civil engineering laboratory using Dory’s
Abrasion Testing Machine. It consists of a revolving steel disc provided at the top with two
metallic funnel shaped projection placed at diametrically opposite ends.

6. Frost and Fire Resistance:

 Frost causes disintegration by expansion of water freezing within the pores of rocks during
winters; it’s melting during summers and the process getting repeated every year. This is called
frost action. Limestone and sandstone are very poor frost resistance
Fire resistance is determined when a stone is intended for use around stoves, heating
place and in the wall of kilns or furnaces. Examples: Granites and other coarse-grained
igneous rocks are poor in fire resistance.

(B). Geological characters:

(1). Mineralogical composition: Rock properties depend on the composition and nature of
packing in rock. It has been found made up chiefly of silica, especially quartz (sio2), free form is
strongest in many respect. Quartzites, sandstone and granite are examples of quartz dominated
strong rocks.
Carbonate rocks shows a very wide variation in their engineering properties and each
variety has to be tested thoroughly for such properties before use in construction.
(2). Texture and structure: Texture defines the shape size and mutual relationship of mineral
constituents of a rock whereas strictures. Rocks may be coarse grained, medium grained, fine
grain and equigranular and inequigranular in texture.
Structurally such features as stratification, foliation, lineation, cleavage, joints, micro-
joints and flow structures have consideration of before selection of stone for constructions.
(3). Resistance to weathering:
It is an essentially a geological character, that is determined by composition and texture
of a stone. An engineering especially a town planner has to bear in mine. The compatibility of a
stone prosed to be used in a particular environment.

C. General characters:
Cost: It is an important a consideration in the selection of a stone for building consideration as it
engineering properties or geological character.
Cost of building stone depends on its availability, accessibility and workability. Good
quality of building stone is not available for everywhere.
Workability of a stone is understood the easiness in effort and economy with which can
be extracted from its natural place of occurrence and finally given a proper shape is called
dressing.
Colour: It is property of appeal and gets importance of stone used is to be situations and exposed
in a public view. Stone use in a foundation and dams, outer plastering.
The color of a rock is a geological character and depends on the mineralogical
composition of rock.
Example: Granites, Sandstone, limestone, marbles,

Elastic properties of rocks

 The elasticity of rocks indicates their deformation under loads. The deformation is
recovered when loads are removed. It is determined in accordance with Hook’s law which states
that in elastic substances stress is directly proportional to strain.
It is expressed by the relationship
Q/E=E
Where Q= stress, E= Strain, E= Modulus of elasticity, it is also termed as young’s modulus.
It is tested for rocks by loading test specimens usually a cylinder of L/D ratio 2, Under uniaxial
compression and sometimes tension.
The axial deformation i.e. change in parallel to stress direction is determined at the
application of each increment of load using strain gauges. This process of loading and
determining the strain is continued till the specimen actually breaks.
That is the ultimate limit up to which the specimen could be deformed. The limit up to which it
remains elastic i.e. recovers the original shape when the load is removed is reached slightly
earlier.
Rocks are highly anisotropic so far as their elastic constants are concerned. They show all
varieties ranging from perfectly elastic to practically inelastic. This depends on their
composition, texture and structures. It is possible to broadly group the rocks into three
categories, based on their Modulus of elasticity.

Quasi elastic:

These are rocks in which the stress-strain relationship is expresses by almost a straight-
line till the point of failure. Such rocks include massive, densely packed uniformly structured
verities of igneous sedimentary and metamorphic groups such as Syenites, Diorites, Dolerites,
gabbros, basalts and quartzites. Quasi elastic rocks show E values ranging from 6x10 to the
power of 5 to 11x 10 to the power of 5 kg/cm2.

Semi elastic Rocks:

Are coarse, grained slightly open packed with some porosity and very minor in any
structure discontinuities. The semi elastic rock show E value range between 4x10 to the power of
5 to 6x10 to the power of 5 kg/cm2.Page 10 of 11

Coarse grained igneous rocks like granites, some massive compact sediments like Sandstones
and dolomite may often show semi elastic properties. In this group the curve indicating the
modulus of elasticity. Such a characteristic that is slope tends to decrease with increasing loads.

Non elastic Rocks:

Are those in which stress strain relationship tends to break in two zones. An initial zone of steep
slope followed by a curve of least slope. These are open textured coarse grained and rich in
structural discontinuities. Values of E obtained with such rocks are commonly of the order of
less than 4x10 to the power of 5 kg/cm2.

IMPORTANT BUILDING STONES

Any type of rock that satisfies the above considerations may be used as a building stone.
Granites, Sand stones, Limestones, Marbles and Quartzites and others like Dolerites,Syenites,
Basalts and Gneisses etc. are some of them are not available , because they do not possess all the
requisite properties.

Granites: These are the most commonly used building stones of all the igneous rocks.They
generally possess all the essential qualities of a good building stone showing very high crushing
strength, low absorption values, least porosity, interlocking texture, variety of appealing colors,
and susceptibility to perfect polish.

Indian occurrence: India has got good reserves of granite and granitic rocks. The archean group
of rocks of peninsular India are comprised chiefly of Gneisses and Granites

Sandstone: Massive sandstones consisting of closely interlocking and angular grains and free
from structural defects find extensive use of building stones. Ferruginous and calcareous
varieties should not be used for exterior work, especially in industrial towns. Argillaceous
sandstones are generally weak in character. Massive varieties with siliceous cement possess
sufficient strength and are easily workable.

Indian occurrence: India has got immense reserves of Sandstones fit for construction purposes.
The most important supplies come from two important stratigraphical systems, namely the
Vindhyan and Gondwana systems. Vindhyan sandstones are fine grained in texture and available
in abundance in a variety of colours like white, cream and deep red and grey etc. They are easily
quarried and economically workable.

These stones are available in a large area of the country for over 350,000 sq.kms
extending from Bihar to Aravallis. Many buildings of Delhi, and Agra are built of these stones.
No other rock formation of India posseses such as assemblages of characters rendering it so
eminently suitable for building or architectural work.

The gondawana formations of India have also yielded very good quality of sandstones.
The fine grained sandstones of Cuttack( known as Athgarh sandstones) have been used most
widely and famous temples of Jaganathpuri are built of them.

Lime stones: These sedimentary rocks are veryextensively used as building stones. It is not due
to their physical properties. It is due to the crushing strength. They may be weak showing values
much below 300 kg/cm2 or as strong as 1500 kg/cm2 or even more.A similar variation in other
property like absorption, specific gravity and porosity may be observed.

The use of limestones as facing stones even if they are sufficiently hard should be
avoided in situations where

a. The air is polluted with industrial gases

b. The air from sea can approach them easily.

The reason for first precaution is that sulphuric acid vapours contained in the industrial
gases react with calcium carbonate of limestone producing gypsum (calcium sulphate) crystals.
This change involves an increase in the volume and results in disintegration of the surface layer
of the rock.Salt crystals, may be formed from moist air from sea and cause dampness and
disintegration of the stone.

Indian occurrence: Lime stones occur in many geological formations of this country. i. The
cuddapah system outcropping in Andhra, Chennai, Delhi and Chattisgarh, ii) The Bijawar,
Kondalite and Aravalli groups iii) TheVindhyan system of Madhya Pradesh, vi)The hill
limestone, exposed at many places in northern India.

Marbles: These are metamorphic rocks that are used for ordinary structural work as well as for
decorative purposes.

Marbles are varying in their texture, color and composition. Their absorption value is
generally below 1% and normally they possess sufficient crushing strength.

They have been extensively used as decorative stones and this is because of their
susceptibility to brilliant polish and beautiful colors.

Indian occurrence: Most important source of commercial marbles in the crystalline formations
of Rajasthan. i) Makrana in Jodhpur-white and pink, ii) Kharva in Ajmer – green and yellow, iii)
Kishengarh and Jaipur are famous for black and dense marbles.

Slate: It is another metamorphic rock, characterized by a perfect cleavage and because of this
property it does not find any use in building stones except for paving roofing purposes.

Conclusion:
 It is a well-known fact that rocks play a vital role in constructing the structures which are
destined to be strong, appealing and economical.

 All the factors which have been considered so far give a clear guideline for an engineer to
choose the right type of naturally occurring rocks or stones to be used to build such structures.
 By choosing all the properties judiciously in conjunction with one another, it is possible to
adhere to the safety regulations prescribed in building standards. A combination of laboratory
testing of small samples, empirical analysis and field observations should be employed to
determine the requisite engineering properties.

 Engineering properties of rocks are very essential properties to be determined in every project
of civil engineering, construction engineering and structural engineering.

ROADS AND HIGHWAYS

Introduction: -

Roads and highways are always very important projects for any country and
an index of its development. Their planning, designing, construction and
maintenance are among the major duties of civil engineers the world over. As with
any other civil engineering project, geological investigations play important role in
the design, stability and economical construction and maintenance of the roads.
Such investigations are aimed at providing full details regarding topography of the
area, lithological characters of the rocks or soil and the groundwater conditions.
The influence of these geological factors on the alignment and stability of roads is
discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.

Topography: -

Topography or the landform of a region is single most important factor that

controls the selection of alignment of a road project. Topographic maps would
reveal the existence of various land features like valleys and the inflowing streams,
the hills and their undulations, the plateaus and the plains with all their varying
configuration from place to place. Obviously, knowledge of all such features is not
only important but very essential for a right alignment. Moreover, such a
knowledge world also be necessary to decide where cuttings would be required and
in which areas it would be filling that would be necessary, or where the slopes
could be left at their natural inclination and where these would have to be flattened,
protected by giving breastwalls or supported by giving retaining walls and so on.
Preliminary surveys, including aerial surveys followed by detailed surveys are
often necessary to obtain desired topographical and other details mentioned in the
following paragraphs.

Lithological Character: -

Geological surveys should invariably provide all possible details regarding

the composition, texture, structure and origin of rocks and sediments making the
ground through which the proposed alignment of the highways has to pass.

Broadly speaking, ground may be divided into two types: consolidated,

massive hard rock type and soft, unconsolidated type.
 The Massive groups of rocks include all varieties of igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks which can stand even with vertical slopes. For making
roads through them, however, these rocks require extensive blasting operations.
They cannot be simply cut out or dug out. Once cut, especially if they are free
from joints and fractures and unfavorably inclined bedding planes, these rocks
stand erect for year without much maintenance.

The unconsolidated group presents the engineer many complicated

problems. Through soil investigations regarding their mode of origin, texture,
structures, porosity, permeability, degree of compaction, consolidation
characteristics or compressibility, etc. all are required to be known within broad
limits to design safe and stable roads over them. Residual soils are generally
homogeneous and properties evaluated from selective bore hole samples might
prove sufficient. In transported type of soils, however, variation in properties both
laterally and vertically might be a rule than exception. Hence, the more
complicated nature of these soils. Presence of clay seams or layers at critical
places should be investigated as some types of these rocks often swell on coming
in contact with moisture, and create adverse situations for road stability and safety.

Geological structure: -

The structural features of rocks, especially in those of sedimentary and

metamorphic origin, have any important bearing upon the design of cuts as well as
on the stability of the road as a whole. A given rock might be quite hard and
otherwise sound for a cut as road foundation. But, if in the same rock some planes
of weakness (such as bedding planes, joints, foliation, cleavage) are present in such
a way that these are inclined towards the free side of the valley, the rock could
likely fail along these planes. Such structural features include dip and strike,
joints, fault planes and shear zones.

(a) Dip and Strike: There may be three possibilities for making a cut in the
inclined beds: it can be made parallel, at right angles or inclined to the dip
direction. The relative merits of the cut vis-à-vis its stability would be as follows,
assuming other things are favorable:
 (i) Cut is parallel to the dip direction: In such a case, the layers offer a
uniform behavior on either side of the cut and as such the risk of failure is minimal
on this account.

(ii) Cut is made parallel to the strike, that is, at right angles to the dip
direction. In such a case, strata plunge across the cut, offering different
inclinations of the layers on either side of the cut. On the dipping inside of the cut,
there is always likelihood of slips, especially when the planes are inclined steeply
and get lubricated very often due to rainwater, or groundwater movement. In some
cases where the layers dip into the hill rather than in the road, the cut is considered
quite stable.

(iii) Cut inclined to dip and strike: In such cases also, the strata will dip
across the cutting and the slope of the cutting will be unequal on both sides. Hence
such a condition would give rise to similar difficulties as encountered in cuts
parallel to strike.

When there is no alternative to cuts either parallel to or inclined to strike

(other than at right angles), special measure might become necessary to ensure
stability of slopes. Such measures would include:

(i) Enlarging of the section of the cutting, particularly on the hillside face, to
stable limits.

(ii) Provision of strong, adequately high retaining walls.

(iii) Very efficient drainage system to effectively remove water from the
affected slopes.

(b) Joints: These influence the stability of the cuts in the same way as the
bedding planes. When present in great abundance, joints reduce even the hardest
rock to a mass of loosely held up blocks on the side of a cut which could tumble
down on slight vibrations. Further, even if the joints are few, but are continuous
and inclined towards the free side of the cut, these offer potential surfaces for slips
during the presence of moisture. In major road construction programmes,
therefore, jointed rocks have to be provided artificial support by breastwalls and
retaining walls for ensuring stability.
 (c) Faults. Faulting generally leads to the crushing of the rock along the
fault planes and shear zones. Such a condition is, of course, very unfavorable for a
cut when it happens to form upper of lower slope or even base of the cut. It should
not be left untreated in any case. These are the worst type of potential failure.

Weathering: -

In some cases, when the strata along or under a cut is composed of layers of
rocks of different hardness, the softer layers get we4ather at a faster rate than the
overlying or underlying harder rocks. This generally results in undermining which
might cause slips or falls of the whole face. Sometimes, when the top layers are
weathered too heavily, the slope might experience a persistent rock fall or debris-
fall type of situation from above. In either case, the state of weathering of rocks is
of considerable significance and cuts might need better designing when these
happen to pass through weathered zones of the rocks. Cleaning of slopes from
loose debris and flattering for avoiding debris fall shall be needed. Sometimes
constructing concrete wall against the fracture zones may also be adopted
beneficially.

Groundwater conditions: -

It is always necessary to investigate thoroughly the position of water table of

the area. Not only that, water bearing qualities should also be known along the
proposed route. It is quite likely that a water bearing zone (aquifer) might be
intersecting the base or slopes of an alignment. Specific care and design would be
required for these natural water conduits. These are always to be taken as weak
and hazardous zones in the road.

GEOLOGICAL PROBLEMS AFTER ROAD CONDITIONS: -

Many of the above-discussed geological factors are to be considered prior to

road construction as these greatly influence the final alignment of the road. Two
geological problems that affect roads after their construction are frost action and
erosion of slopes along the roads.
 (a) Frost action:

In cold humid regions, road surface fails due to freezing of water

within the voids of the subsoil below. The freezing starts, in cold weather, from
surface downwards and extends from the larger voids to the capillary zone below.
The freezing of capillary water in sub in sub grade soil exerts tremendous pressure
(140 kg/cm2) on the road above and also on the particles all around and becomes
the major cause of (frost) heaving up of the solid particles which destroys the
surface layer.

In summer, thawing of the ice crystals results in surplus free water that escapes
through the cracks in the road producing what is commonly known as the frost
boils of the road.

The treatment of frost action lies in:

(i) Removing the porous soil susceptible to capillary freezing and replacing
it with non-porous, uniformly mixed soil.

(ii) Lowering down of water-table by providing adequate drainage.

(b) Erosion problems: Side slopes of the cuts and fills and drainage ditches
are most seriously affected due to erosion by flowing water. Erosion is further
enhanced if

(i) The soil of the slopes is soft and incoherent and without a vegetable
cover.

(ii) The velocity of water that rushes in the side ditch during different
periods becomes exceedingly high.

The erosion of side slopes can be prevented to a extent by providing

interception ditches that should intercept the water in definite channels and drain it
out properly without flowing over and into the body of the soil on slopes. In case
of side ditches, erosion can be prevented by reducing the velocity of the water
flowing through them by flattering their grades.
BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION: -

Definition: A bridge may be defined as a structure built over a river, a dry

valley, low land or an estuary or any depressed part of the land to provide a link
between the two opposite sides. It is essentially a communication link on a road or
railway track or a highway. Bridges, especially over major rivers and in hilly and
mountainous areas are very important civil engineering structures. Their role in
socio-economic development and defence strategies can hardly be
overemphasized.

Geological considerations: -

In most cases the location of a bridge is decided more by socio- economic

factors than by geological considerations. Thus, there are seven bridges over the
River Jhelum connecting the two parts of Srinagar city (in Kashmir) within a total
distance of 5 km. On the contrary, there is only one bridge over the River Chenab
(at Ramban, Jammu province) connecting the valley of Kashmir with rest of the
country. That may be true for most of the other big cities, states and countries of
the world. In other words, within big cities divided by rivers or streams, a bridge
has to be placed where it is needed, irrespective of the subsurface geology.
However, on highways, there is often some flexibility available in the choice of
placement of a bridge. This is unlike tunnels, where alignment is primarily and
essentially controlled by geological considerations. But, in the case of bridges
also, the design, stability and durability depend, to a great extent, on the subsurface
geological conditions that must be properly investigated and cautiously interpreted.

In any major bridge construction project, the designer is keen to place the
bridge abutments and piers on as sound, strong and stable rock foundation below
as possible. This being so, the geological characters that need to be investigated
and thoroughly established are:

a) The depth to the bed rock.

b) The nature of the bed rock.

c) The structural disposition of rocks.

Depth to Bed Rock: -

In most cases, the river bed below the water is covered by varying
thickness of unconsolidated natural deposits of sand, gravels and boulders.
Such loose materials are not safe as foundations for bridge piers for at least
two reasons:

Firstly, piers placed directly on them would be unstable.

Secondly, the cover material is liable to be removed due to scouring

by river water.

As such, the pier must be placed on stable foundations, preferably of

rock, under a suitable thickness of cover material so that it is safe from scour
by river water.

The height of pier from under the span to the foundation level,
therefore, depends on the ‘depth of the bed rock’ below the river water.

Such sound bed rocks might be available within a depth varying from 5 to
20 meters below a river bed or they might not at all be available even up to 100
meter or more. All that depends on the local geology which has to be investigated
and understood. To achieve this, drill holes are made all along the centre line of
the proposed bridge, even on the right or left of it, till they reach the sound rock
sequence or up to a reasonable depth. Utmost care is needed not to mistake
isolated big boulders buried underneath the river bed as the bed rock. Boulders are
rocks but they are not bed rocks and cannot be trusted as foundations for bridge
piers.

Nature of bed rock: -

The very first rock encountered below the bed cover material may be
suitable as a foundation. It should be kept in mind that three types of loads are to
be borne by a bridge pier foundation:

 The compressive, vertical loads due to the weight of the bridge span
and that of pier material.
  The horizontal loads due to the thrust of the water flowing above as
transmitted directly and through the pier.

 The dynamic, complex load, often inclined and shearing in character,

due to heavy traffic on the bridge.

Consequently, the bed rock selected as foundation for the pier must be
strong enough to bear the sum total of all these loads, not temporarily, throughout
the proposed life of the bridge.

The nature of the bed rock is commonly determined through study of

petrological characters and engineering properties, especially the strength values,
using the core samples obtained during drilling of test bore holes. In fact complete
and very useful geological profiles could be prepared all along the centre line of
the proposed bridge from the study of such core logs. These (profile) would depict
complete sequence (and even structural disposition) of the rock formations existing
below the surface material up to a desired depth. A decision to place the pier on a
particular rock at a particular depth is then matter of judgement and design
requirements.

Most igneous and massive type of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are
quite strong, stable and durable as foundations for bridge piers and abutments. The
group of weak rocks which might behave badly in the presence of water includes
such types as cavernuous limestones, chalk, friable sandstones especially with
clayey cements, shales, clays, slates, schists and the layers of peat and
compressible organic material. Many of them are amenable to treatment by
artificial methods.

Structural Disposition: -

Ideally, the horizontal attitude and uniformly massive structure with depth
are desirable characters in the foundation rock as these offer inherent resistance
against failure. However, even inclined rocks in a confined situation under the
bridge piers are considered quite safe if these possess normal strength values.
Folding and faulting might cause some uncertainty in establishing a perfect
geological profile but are not otherwise negative factors. Acute fracturing and
profuse jointing is, however, undesirable at the foundation levels as these might
cause settlement beyond the allowable limits.

When the bridge sites are located in the zones of seismic activity, the
foundations are required to be designed for additional seismic loads as specified in
the codes of respective areas.

In the glaciated areas, special care must be taken to establish the existence of
drowned or buried valleys that might be filled by secondary material of most
heterogeneous characters. In such cases a bed rock may be encountered only at
great depth and it may be desirable to reach it through piles. In fact, occurrence of
drowned valleys is considered on of the major complications in bridge foundations
that limits the options of a design engineer.

Similarly, the factor of scour must never the overlooked. Riverbed materials
and rocks under them at shallow depths are liable to removal by scouring. The
scour itself is a function of river velocity and direction of the currents on the one
hand and nature and degree of consolidation of the rocks on the other hand.

DAMS AND RESERVOIRS

INTRODUCTION

A Dam may be defined as a Solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river
valley with a view of impounding water flowing through that river. Dams are constructed for
achieving any one or more of the following objectives:
i. Generation of hydropower energy
ii. Providing water for irrigation facilities
iii. Providing water supply for domestic consumption and industrial uses
iv. Fighting droughts and controlling of floods
v. Proving navigations facilities

Additional benefits coming from dams are development of fishers and recreation
facilities in the reservoirs created by them and the overall greenery effect all along the
reservoirs.

In a country like India where rainfall in erratic and depends considerably on the vagaries
of seasonal winds – The monsoons, importance of dams can hardly by reservoirs created by
around four thousand minor and major dams spread throughout the country have been
responsible, to a great extent, for making India self-sufficient in food production.

TYPES OF DAMS

Although no two dams are exact copy of each other, it has been practicing classifying
these structures based on

a) Design of construction, whether the load of the body of the dam is transmitted on the
foundations or to the abutment rocks, such as gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams
etc.
b) Material of construction, such as concrete, rockfill or earthfall dams.
c) Size of the construction, such as small dams and large dams.
The well-known main types of dams ate the gravity dams, the arch dams and the embankment
dams.

GRAVITY DAMS

A Gravity dams is a solid masonry or concreate structure. Generally, of a triangular

profile, which is so designed that it can safely stand against a precalculated volume of water by
virtue of its weight. All the fours arising in such a dam – as due to the thrust of impounded water
and the massive weight strength of the foundation rocks is the most critical factor in, he their
design (Fig 23.1)

A Gravity dam, when properly designed and carefullly constucted, is considered amoung
the safest types.

Many derrived types of gravity dams have also been constrcuted with advantage, the Buttress
Dam is such a type in which a thin concrete alsb is supported frim the downstream side by
buttresses thereby saving considerable construction materrial. The upstream face in a garvity
dam may be vertical or incliend. Similiarly, the axis of the dams are narrow, heavily loaded
structures which tahe most of the load from the dam and trasnmist the dame to isolated
foundations under them. Hence rocks most be exceptionally strong under the buttresses

ARCH DAMS

An Arch dam, as the name implies, is an arch-shaped solid structure mostly of concrete,
which is designed in such a way that a major part of the thrust forces acting on the dam are
transmitted mainly by the arch action, (and also cantilever action at the base) on the abutment
rocks, that is, rocks forming the left and right sides of the stream valley. Hence such dams can
build even on those sites where the hey hello foundation Hey rock may not be sufficiently
strong. 2 main types of Arc dams are:

The constant radius is down in which the radius of curvature throughout the structure is
constant and upstream faces vertical.

arch dams are better suited for narrow valleys hey with strong and uniformly sloping
walls or abutments. Hey in ideal situations offer many advantages hey over the other type of
dams. Fig 23.2, Arch dams are quite thin Walled compared to gravity dams and lighter in weight
sometimes the designer mix the better points of both the gravity and arch dams and preferred to
design a mixed arched-gravity dam. A combination of series of arch dams called the multiple
Arch dams are Sometimes applied with advantages when the valley is too wide for a single arch
or gravity dam.

The Idukki Dam in Kerala is an important Arch dam of our country.

EMBANKMENT DAMS

These includes a variety on non-rigged structure which are built over wide with varying
foundation characteristics from easily available material such as earth and rock fragments.
These are generally of trapezoidal shape. In design they may be made up of a single type of
material (such as earth fill or rock fill) or a combination of more than one material. Their main
advantage over other shape of dams is that they can be constructed even on weak foundation
such as unconsolidated weak river or glacial deposits. An embankment dam is constructed as a
homogeneous construction but very commonly with a properly compacted core of an impervious
material such as clay (fig 23.3). Concrete cores with proper cover are also provided in May
embankment dams. Depending upon the type of material used embankment dams maybe earth
fill dam or rockfill dam or mixed type embankment. the clay core wall is made up of simple dug
up and cleared. Thoroughly compacted, puddled clay or rolled clay. It is followed by two or
more layers of proactive transitional layers before the actual “fill” starts (fig 23.3). The Hirakud
dam in Orissa Is one of the longest embankment dams of our country.

GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Whereas a Decision regarding placing a damn across a particular River and creating a
basin is always based on socioeconomic considerations, its design and construction are
essentially civil engineering activities involving important geotechnical parameters detailed
answers to following main questions Have to be obtained:

i. The exact location where the dam should be placed against the River along its
longitudinal profile
ii. The type of dam that will be most suitable for that site
iii. The availability, cost and quality of the materials required for the construction of
the dam.
Obviously answers to above questions would involve very systematic and through geological
investigations along the River Valley in general and in some preliminary selected areas. The
problem may be divided, for discussion purpose, into two categories: geotechnical considerations
for dam site under for reservoirs sites. the two are however intimately interlinked and both the
dam site and the reservoir area must be geologically suitable for a safe, stable and economical
project.

SELECTIONS OF SITES
The Objectives

The main object of placing a dam across the River is to impound its water behind the
dam. Naturally, this would require that

a) Topographically a place which is most suitable for the purpose is selected. ideally it
would be a narrow Gorge or a small Valley with enough catchment area available
behind so that when a damn is placed there it would easily store a Calculated volume
of water in the reservoir created upstream Fig 23.4. This should be possible involving
Significant uprooting of population, loos of cultivatable land do too submergence or
loss of existing constructions. also, strategically the location of a dam especially a
major project is too decided as to cause minimum damage to the public in case of its
destruction or failure.

b) Technically, the site should be as sound as possible: strong, impermeable and stable.
strong rocks at the site make the job of the designer much easy: he can evolve best
design. impermeable sites ensure better strong inventories. stability with reference to
seismic shocks and slop failures around the dam, especially upstream or a great relief
to the public in general and the engineer. the slips slide and slope failures around
and, in the dam, and susceptibility to shocks during an earthquake could prove highly
hazardous.
 c) In Construction the site should not be far off from deposits of materials which
would be required for its constructions. all type of major dams requires millions of
cubic meters of natural materials- Earth, sand, gravel and rock - for their construction.
Their non-availability in the adjoining areas would make the project cost too high,
may be even unfeasible.

d) Economically, the benefits arising out of a dam play placed at a particular site should
be realistic under justified in terms of land irrigated or power generated, or floods
averted, or water stored. dams are invariably costly structures and cannot be placed
anywhere and everywhere without proper an analysis of cost benefit aspects

e) Environmentally, the site where a dam is proposed to be placed and a reservoir

created, should not involve ecological disorder, especially in the life cycles of
animals and vegetarian and man. the fish culture in the stream is the first sector to
suffer a major shock due to construction of a dam. its distraction may cause indirect
effects on the population. This effect required as through analysis as for other objects.
the dam and the associated reservoir should become an acceptable element of the
ecological setup of the area

GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERS FOR INVESTIGATION

For achieving the above object thorough and systematic investigations of following
geological characters of the areas in general and of the Preliminarily selected site would have to
be carried out.

1) Geology of the Area

Pre liminary geological surveys of the entire catchment area followed by detailed
geological mapping of the reservoir area how to be conducted. these should reveal

i) Maine topographic features

ii) Natural drainage patterns
iii) general characters under structures of rock formations such as their
stratification folding and faulting and igneous in intrusions, and
iv) The trend under rate of weathering and erosion in the area

Such a study when interpreted properly, would rule out some areas for the dam
placement and help in identifying the locations that are most suitable topographically and
economically where further detailed geological investigations could be carried out. for
obtaining the above information conventional geological and geophysical surveys need to
be conducted.

2). Geology of the site

 a) Lithology. the single most important feature that must be known thoroughly at the site
and all around and below the Valley up to a reasonable depth is Lithology for example type of
the rocks that make the area. surface and subsurface studies using the conventional and the
latest techniques of geological and geophysical investigations are carried out. such studies should
reveal the type, the composition and texture of the rocks exposed along the Valley floor, in the
walls and up to the required depth at the base. rocks are inherently anisotropic materials showing
variation in properties in different directions. Yet it is of great significance to know what class of
rocks make up the area: igneous, sedimentary or Metamorphic ; and also which type under
subtype is more prevalent ; under weather is only one class of the rock existing there or more
types of the same or different classes of the rocks are found. it is possible that the entire site may
be made up of 1 type of rock. Say, for example find textured stand stones; it is also possible that
it may be have alternate layers of stand stones, shales and clays, all the
varying types complex lithology poses challenging design problems.

b) Structures. Along with lithology, the structural features of rocks of the site are also
thoroughly investigated. This involves detailed mapping of planes of weakness like bedding
planes, schistosity, foliation, cleavage, joints. Shear zones, faults and fault zones, folding and the
associated features. It is because each one of these modifies the engineering properties of the
rocks to a great extent. While mapping these features, special attention is given to recording
their attitude, spacing and nature. Joints, for instance, may not be as harmful when sparsely
developed and of a closed nature, but these may render the same rock very weak and permeable
when they profusely developed and of open type. shear zones must be searched, mapped and
treated with great caution. in some cases, this may be developed to such an extent that the rock
may necessitate extensive and intensive rock treatment (example excavation backfilling and
grounding etcetera) in still other cases their development maybe to an unmanageable scale. In
such cases cost factors may demand the abandoning of the site for a better alternative.

Following is a brief account of the influence of more important structural features of rock
on dam foundations.

DIP and STRIKE. The strength of sound unfractured stratified rock is always greater
when the stresses are acting normal to the betting planes then if applied in other directions. this
being so horizontal beds should offer best support for the weight of the dam. but as is shown in a
later section the resultant force (due to weight of the dam underthrust of the impound water) is
also inclined downstream as such gently upstream dipping layers offer best resistance to the
resultant forces in a dam. they also serve as a natural obstruction for leakage

It is also easy to understand that the easiest direction for slippage in stratified rocks is
along the bedding planes. Consequently, the most UNFAVOURABLE strike direction is the one
in which the best strike parallel to the axis of the dam and dip is downstream Fig 23.5. it
must be avoided as far as possible. Therefore, other conditions being Same beds with upstream
dips are quite favourable sites for dam foundations.
FAULTS. These structures can be source of danger to the dam in several ways thus,

i) Different types of rocks may be present on either side of a fault plane. Hence site
with fault plane great caution in calculating the design strength in various sections
of the dam. in case some fault surface or zone gets ignored or overlooked the
stability of dam gets in danger.
ii) Dam founded on beds traversed by fault zones and on major fault planes are more
liable to shocks during an earthquake compare to dams on non-faulted rocks. This
single factor is of great importance, especially when the area in which dam is
proposed happens to be seismically active. it is therefore always desirable to
avoid risk by rejecting site traverse by fault zones and shares zones for dam
foundations. But when topographic, lithological and/or economic factor do not
have a choice for an alternative site, then the nature, extent and age of the fault
should be thoroughly investigated. Generally small-scale fault zones and shear
zones can be treated effectively by grounding. But in the case of major shear
zones weak material would have to be excavated and the space backfilled with
hard material like concreate up to required depth.
 Folds. The most notable effects of folds on the rock are shattering and jointing along the
axial planes and stressing of limits. Consequently, dams aligned along axial regions of folds
would be resting on the most unsound rocks in terms of strength, similarly, in synclinal bends
dams placed on the upstream limbs would run the risk of leakage from beneath the dam. Further,
the balance of forces in the stressed limbs would be disturbed if these are opened during
construction of diversion tunnels and galleries.
Joints. No sites are totally free from jointing. Hence, sites cannot be abandoned, even if
profusely jointed. However, the detailed mapping of all the aspects and character of jointing as
developing in the rocks of proposed site must be taken up with greatest cation. The geometry of
joints, their intensity, nature and continuity with depth, all must be thoroughly established and
their effects on the site rocks Evaluated and remedial measures taken in advance. Occurrence of
micro joints must be established with still greater care as such joint system. If left untreated.,
could be source of many risks. In the Limestone rocks that foundation and abutments at salad
Dam in Jammu Kashmir, the micro joints presented considerable difficulties in direction and
treatment.

EXAMPLES OF SOME MAJOR DAMS

The Bhakra Dam (Gravity Dam)

The Bhakra Dam, which is a multipurpose gravity dam is built across River Sutlej in
district hoshiarpur of Himachal Pradesh state of India. it is completed in 1963 and is 226 metres
in height and 518 m in length at the crease about 100 metre at the base. its spillways have
discharge capacity of 8372 cubic metre per second. the reservoir called Gobind Sagar as an area
of 1,66,000 * 10 power 3 metres squared.

The Gorge in the dam area is made up of alternating layers of hard and thick better stand
stones and light red clays. the sequences have a step-down stream dip varying between 70-
degree 80 degree. in the foundations and abutment rocks large number of shear zones and fault
zones where encountered. Three types of shear zones were very abutment: bedding shear zones
(parallel to bedding planes.) Diagonal shear zones and the cross or transverse shear zones cutting
the bedding planes at right angles. These zones were treated thoroughly by conventional
methods of excavation and back filling and grounding, wherever necessary.

The question of suitability of the present site for a dam was studied as far back as 1915.
in 1925 doctor CS Fox top geologist of Geological Survey of India has summarised that
i) the rocks hey in the proposed site or somewhat crushed.

ii) there are potentialities for a landship to occur just below the North West part of
the gorge owing to step down stream inclination of the strata and their striking
across the George.

The Site is in the Foot hill of Himalayans which falls in the zone highest seismic
intensity in the country. but because of its topographic situation the dam which is one of the
highest gravity dams in the world was constructed taking all the precautions incorporating high
safety factors in its design. It has already stood the test of time for about 45 years in 2008 and
play a single role in the development of the country especially in the field of food production and
industrialization its irrigation potential is 10,000,000 acres and power generation capacity is
1200 MW

2. Idduki Dams (Arch Dam)

This is one of the major dams of Kerala state constructed over Periyar River. It is a
storage type project with an installed capacity of 780 megawatts in 6 units of 130 megawatts
each. the dam was completed in 1974 and is the only major Arch dam of the country at the close
of the 20 centuries with the height of on 169 metre about the lowest foundation under length of
366 metres.

3. Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (Masonry Dam)

The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam is named after Buddhist Savant, Acharya Nagarjuna and it is
constructed over river Krishna in Nalgonda district of Andhra Pradesh (India). The main dam is a
masonry dam, 124 m high from the deepest foundation and 1446 m long. The main dam is
flanked on either side by an earth dam. The left bank earth dam is 2554 m long and the right
bank dam 851 long. Seen in totality, the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam forms one of the longest
masonry- earth dams of the world as in 2003. It is also a multipurpose dam. The reservoir has a
gross storage capacity of 937 million-acre feet and power generation capacity of 300 MW. The
dam was inaugurated in 1967.

4. the Hirakud Dam (Earth Dam)

This is one of the longest earth dams of India constructed over river Mahanadi near
Sambalpur in Orissa state. The dam was completed in 1957 and has a length of 4800 meters and
height of 59 meters. The reservoir created by the dam has a gross storage capacity of 1841
million cum live storage capacity of 5822 million cum. It has irrigational facilities for 251
thousand hectares of land and power generation capacity of 150 MW, it is one of the oldest
multipurpose hydro power-irrigation projects of the country which has contributed tremendously
toward the food production and power generation.

5 Grand Coulee Dam (Gravity Dam -USA)

The dam is located on the Columbia River (USA) and is example of a dam constructed
safely in a glaciated area. The dam is 168 m high, has a crest length of 1270 m and is founded on
coarse grained granite that was overlain by 15 to 100 meters of silts and gravels. The dam was
completed in 1942 and is a multipurpose dam with a capacity to generate more than 2000 MW
power and reservoir extending for more than 240 km.
 6. Kariba Dam (Double Curvature Arch Dam - Zambia)

The Kariba dam has been constructed across the Zambezi river which forms frontier
between Rhodesia and Zambia in 1960. It is one of best examples of a double curvature arch
dams and has a height of 128 m. The crest length is 620 m. The site is made up of metamorphic
rocks, primally greed quartzites, the latter being highly fractured, sheared and weathered to a
great depth. The dam provides example of improving the quality of rocks to the desired extent by
artificial treatment.

7. Grand Dixence Dam (Gravity Dam - Switzerland)

The Grand Dixence Dam with a height of 285 m is certainly one of the greatest dams of
the world. It is constructed to impound water from Rhone river and is of gravity type with a
crest length of 695 m. The site rocks belong to Metamorphic group, being predominantly of the
type quartz-rich mica-schist of hard type. The dam is considered as an example of highest gravity
dam resting satisfactorily on Schists which are otherwise generally considered poor quality site
rocks. The dam has a capacity to generate 1440 MW of hydroelectric power.

8. Mangla Dam (Earth fill - Pakistan)

The Mangla Dam is an important multipurpose dam of Pakistan constructed over Jhelum
River in 1968. It has a capacity of generating 800 MW power and has created a reservoir 64 km
in length. The Mangla Dam is of an earth till type having a maximum height of 138 m, crest
length of 2450 m and a crest width of 12 m.

The dam and the reservoir are in sandstones, siltstone, clays and gravel beds of Siwalik
System, and are tectonically disturbed besides being soft and friable. Hence the dam posed lot of
geological problems during construction.

RESERVOIRS
INTRODUCTION:-
Reservoirs may broadly be defined as artificially created water storage basins with
storage capacity that may range from a few thousand cubic meters to thousands of million cubic
meters. Depending on the purpose of storage, reservoirs are classified into three main categories:
(i) Storage and conservation reservoirs, where river water is stored by creating
barriers or dams in its path and is then released from gated or ungated outlets. These feed the
canal systems for irrigation and power generation.
(ii) Flood control reservoirs which have as their main function accommodation large
volumes of surplus water during peak flow times of a river. The surplus water is released after the
flood abates. Such reservoirs are provided with large sluice ways to discharge the inflow received
by the reservoir during a flood up to a volume which could be safely accommodated in the channel
downstream, excess or surplus inflow is retained back till a desirable time.
 (iii) Distribution reservoirs are actually small storage reservoirs which hold water supplies
in a water supply system for short spells of time. Water is constantly pumped into these reservoirs,
from where it is distributed for drinking and other purposes in a regulated manner.
Many reservoirs serve more than one of the above objects and are called multipurpose reservoirs.
Most important terms related to the design of reservoirs are pool level, storage capacity and
reservoir yield.
Pool level, indicates the designed level up to which the reservoir shall be ‘full of water’ at a
particular point of time. There is, thus, the maximum pool level, the minimum pool level and the normal
pool level. No water can be stored beyond maximum pool level and no water shall be available when the
storage is below the minimum pool level.

Storage capacity of the reservoir is the single most important quality of a dam. It is expressed
by such terms as:
 Useful storage. Volume of water in cubic meters available between minimum pool level and
normal pool level;
 Dead storage. Volume of water which is not available for use and is represented by the water
stored in the reservoir below the minimum pool level;
 Surcharge storage. Volume of water which is available between the maximum reservoir level
and normal pool level.
Reservoir yield is a measure for the volume of water that can be drawn from a given reservoir in
a certain interval of time and is also expressed in terms of safe of guaranteed yield, secondary yield and
design yield etc.
GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Since reservoirs are essentially water storage basins, the area should possess such geological
characteristics that favour holding of water in the basin so created. Such characters are: topographic
suitability, ground water conditions, permeability and structural stability.
a) Topographically, the area should be a broad natural valley preferably ending in a narrow gorge
where a barrier could be placed. The valley could be a U-shaped glacial valley, or V-shaped river
valley or a broad synclinal valley. Flatlands and plains cannot make convenient places for
 reservoirs. In alluvial plains, the reservoir are has to be an extensive low-lying stretch bordered by
high-lands on flanks.
b) Ground water conditions in the proposed reservoir are must be thoroughly establish for an
approximately accurate evaluation of storage capacity of the reservoir. Any one of three
possibilities could be there:

(i) The general water table is much above the top reservoir level (TRL) in the proposed
reservoir. This is very favourable situation, as there is no risk of water loss from the reservoir to
the surrounding area.
(ii) The general water table is much below the minimum water level in the reservoir. Obviously,
depending upon the permeability of rocks along the base and the flanks of the reservoir, water
would be lost from the reservoir to the surroundings thereby effecting the total storage inventory
considerably.
(iii) The general water table of the area and the top water level of the proposed reservoir are
almost the same. This is an ideal situation ensuring a no loss no gain condition but generally
not available on a large scale.
In view of such a close relationship between water table and storage capacity of the proposed
reservoir, it is absolutely essential that water table position all along the reservoir areas, especially along
the flanks, must be thoroughly established. This may necessitate drilling test holes upto required depths
and numbering many hundreds or even thousands.
c) Permeability is a critical property in reservoir area studies, especially in those areas where
groundwater table is below the minimum water level of the reservoir. As mentioned earlier,
permeability may be of primary nature, due to inherent porous texture of the rocks, or of secondary
character, where it is caused due to structural deformations of the rocks subsequent to their
formation. Primary permeability may be extensive and all prevailing along the rock body whereas
secondary permeability is often localized and amenable to treatment.
In critical area where water loss from the proposed reservoir could be expected due to seepage
and under hydraulic head difference, permeability-values, whether primary or secondary, must be
thoroughly established. This may also require drilling of test-wells at numerous places. Such studies
then can be analysed to calculate possible loss due to expected seepage and suggest methods of
treatment of rocks in critical zones to minimize the expected loss.
 d) Structural constitution of the area of the reservoir is important to identify those zones along the
flanks which are liable to failure by sliding, creep or subsidence. The worst known dam disaster
of Vaoint, Italy that happened on October 9, 1963 was actually caused by sudden slippage of
millions of cubic meter of mass from the flanks into the reservoir creating waves as high as 270 m
above reservoir which took the form of a flash flood and killed 3000 people in a matter of
minutes. It has been established that the “disaster was entirely by dangerous geological
conditions, accentuated by groundwater changes due to the filling of the reservoir”. Such
geological setting is not unique to Vaoint, Italy; it could be found repeated at many places in the
world. Hence great precaution is necessary in selection of reservoir locations.
e) Trend and rate of weathering in catchment area is of considerable importance in determining
the age of the reservoir. If the catchment happens to be made up predominantly of weathered,
barren slopes which are broken, falling, shattered and jointed profusely, the runoff and slope wash
would contribute heavy load of sediments to the reservoir after every rain. This would obviously
decrease the effective storage capacity of the reservoir on the one hand and its total life on the
other hand. However, stable rock slopes covered with thick forests and vegetation would make
ideal catchment areas for reservoirs.
Examples
Some of the major reservoirs are created by dams already mentioned. Many of
them are multipurpose reservoirs. In table 23.1, the main features of these reservoirs are summarized
for a quick review.

STORAGE CAPACITY STORAGE CAPACITY

Million Cubic Million Cubic
NAME STATE Meters Meters
Gross Live
Govind Sagar 9621.00 7191.00
(Bhakra dam) Himachal Pradesh
Pong Reservoir
(Pong Dam) Himachal Pradesh 8570.00 7290.00
Gandhi Sagar Madhya Pradesh 7413.00 6827.00
GB Pant Sagar
(Rhind Dam) Uttar Pradesh 10800.00 9022.00
Nagarjuna Sagar Andhra Pradesh 11560.00 5733.00
Srisailam Andhra Pradesh 8722.00 7164.00
Shivaji Sagar
(Koyna) Maharashtra 2797.00 2677.00
Hirakud Dam
Sagar Orissa 8141.00 5822.00
Linganamakki Karnataka 4435.00 4294.00

SILTING OF RESERVOIRS
The problem. Sedimentation of the reservoirs with the passage of time is the most important
problem to solve in reservoir design. Uncontrolled sedimentation will lead to the indirect failure of the
project by gradually reducing the storage capacity. And removal of silt or methods of sedimentation
control may be so much time and energy and money consuming that the economy of the project is
sometimes threatened. These facts prove the complicated nature of the problem.
Streams – along with their tributaries are the major agents that contribute to the silting of
reservoirs. Their contribution is much effected by factors like their velocities, their catchment zones, the
climate of the region, its structural constitution, topographic and lithological characters and also by the
vegetation of the area.
Control. The problem has been treated in different ways in different countries. More important
of these methods of treatment include better reservoir designs, installation of check dams at the inlet
points and water-shed improvement by forestation on am extensive and intensive scale. Removal of the
silt after fixed intervals by dredging and similar methods are also practised in many cases. All these are,
however, very costly methods and any one or more of them are adopted in combination after careful
analysis of cost benefit ratio. If the rate of sedimentation is such that the safe reservoir yield would be
available up to the designed life period of the reservoir, then spending too-heavily on desilting measures
might not be advised. However, when the rate of silting threatens the storage capacity and safe yield,
effective silt control methods would have to be adopted in a proper planned manner.
GEOLOGICAL PROBLEMS AFTER DAM CONSTRUCTION
Erosion below Spillways
The problem. Reservoir water discharged over the spillway of dam generally acquires such
velocities that are capable of causing deep erosion in any type of soil or rock below the spillway. Silt,
sand, gravels and boulders are easily removed by such action whereas rocks with open joints or bedding
planes are virtually plucked out of their places gradually but surely.
Control. The aim of all methods of control of erosion below the spillways should be to
dissipate the extra energy the reservoir water gains due to increased velocity during fall below spillway.
The best method for dissipating extra energy within a limited space is to make the falling water strike
against the tail water in a properly designed manner. This would result in dissipation of extra energy in
creation of turbulence in the tailwater and not in too much affecting the base material of the river bed
below. A simple method for producing such turbulence is by creating a hydraulic jump below the
spillway. For this jump to occur, the most essential condition is a requisite depth below the jump.
So, the main problem with the dam design engineer is to obtain the required depth:
(i) Either, by constructing a small auxiliary dam below the apron or by excavating the river
bed when the depth of the tail water is insufficient to create the jump;
(ii) or, in case the water depth is more than sufficient for the birth of the jump, by providing a
sloping apron;
(iii) Or, by devising any other economic methods.
TUNNELS AND ROAD CUTS
INTRODUCTION
Tunnels may be defined as underground routes or passages driven through the ground without
disturbing the overlying soil or rock cover. Tunnels are driven for a variety of purposes and are
classified accordingly. Chief classes of tunnels are: Traffic Tunnels, hydro-power tunnels and public
utility tunnels. Tunneling has been practiced on a large scale during last two centuries in all big
countries for ensuring better and faster communications through roads and railways. At places such as
in high mountains tunneling becomes an absolute necessity for connecting two countries or two different
places of the same country. Metros which are symbolic of great progress achieved by advanced
countries are a version of tunneling and in fact may involve a good length of tunnels as their essential
component. It (tunneling) has been one of the most challenging jobs for the engineers. Excavations
below the ground for whatsoever purpose need very sound knowledge about the soil and rocks to be
excavated on the one hand and keep the excavations so created (the tunnels) safe and stable at
economically viable costs for the entire life of these projects on the other hand. Like buildings, roads,
railways and many other construction jobs, tunneling projects are included in the most important
developmental activities of the big nations. Geological information is an integral part of all the
processes involved in preparing designs, executing excavations and construction of all types of tunnels.
Traffic Tunnels:-
This group includes all tunnels which are excavated to divert the traffic load of whatsoever type
from surface to subsurface routes for a short length with a view of facilitation the flow of traffic at a
desired speed, maximum convenience and at minimum cost. The railway tunnels, the highway tunnels
and the pedestrian tunnels are main sub groups of traffic tunnels. A few navigational tunnels also fall
under this category.
A traffic tunnel is usually adopted as a convenient and cost-effective alternative to provide a
direct transportation link between two places separated by such inconvenient obstacles as mountains,
hills, water-bodies or even densely populated areas in the metropolitan cities. Traffic tunnels may vary
in length from a few meters to many kilometers and have been excavated in almost all major countries
of the world. Reduction in distance which in turn saves considerable time and hence cost drilling is the
most common and important objective in driving tunnels compared to having traffic links.
 Among the hundreds of traffic tunnels in different parts of the world, the following are just
for examples:
The Simplon Tunnel: It is a single-track railway tunnel, 19.370 km long and connects Brig in
Switzerland with Chiasso in Italy. Its construction started in 1895 and it was finally completed in 1921,
thus taking more than 25 years for the job. The Simplon Tunnel passes through complex sequence of
gneisses, limestones and shales under an average cover of 2 km in the Alps.
The Hokoriku Tunnel in Japan is a double track railway tunnel driven through sandstones and
granites. It is 13.87 km in length.
The Mont Blanc Tunnel links France and Italy and is a 12.6 km long highway tunnel passing
through complex rocks. It was completed in 1965.
Another tunnel starting in Italy and jointing it with Switzerland is the St. Bernard Tunnel which
is 6.60 km long.
The Jawahar Tunnel is a double tube highway tunnel on the National Highway in India and
allows highway traffic even during extreme winters under the snow-clad Himalayan Mountains (Pir
Panjal) at Banihal in Jammu and Kashmir, India. The tubes have lengths of 2430 meters and pass
through panjal lavas, agglometeratic slates and Triassic limestones. It was completed in 1956, and
has resulted in reducing the distance on the national Highway between Jammu and Srinagar to the tune
of 20 kms.
The Hydropower Tunnels
During twentieth century most of the tunneling has been in connection with hydropower
generation. Such tunnels are aptly called “hydropower” tunnels. In most cases these are driven through
rocks for the purpose of conveying water under gravity from one point to another, as for example, to
cross a hill. In such cases they are called discharge tunnels. The other type of hydropowers tunnels are
those which feed water under great pressure to turbines and are distinguished as pressure tunnels. In
India, till the end of 1989, more than 500 km of tunneling had been done in hydropower projects. Some
of the completed tunnels are around 15 m in diameter and 12-13 km in length. The Beas-Sutlej Link,
Yamuna-II, Konya and Balimela are few examples of hydropower tunnels.
The Public Utility Tunnels
This group includes a variety of underground excavations made for specific purposes such as
for disposal of urban waste (sewage tunnels), for carrying pipes, cables and supplies of oil, water etc.
A recent development is construction of underground parking places and storage chambers to
overcome space shortage in cosmopolitan cities. Subways and tube railways also fall in the category
of excavations but they are, in most cases, not tunnels in the strict sense because they are excavations
made in the ground and then covered from the top. This method of placing the ‘tubes’ or ‘tracks’ is
called cut and cover method and not tunneling in which, as said earlier, top cover remains undisturbed
and intact during the excavation.
Geological speaking, only two classes of tunnels are recognized: tunnels driven through rocks
(rock tunneling) and tunnels driven through soil, loose sediments or saturated ground (soft-ground
tunneling).
GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
Objects:-
Geological investigations are very essential in tunneling projects. These determine to a large
extent solutions to following engineering problems connected with tunneling:
a) Selection of Tunnel Route (Alignment). There might be available many alternate alignments
that could connect two points through a tunnel. However, the final choice would be greatly
dependent on the geological contribution along and around different alternatives: the alignment
having least geologically negative factors (discussed in latter section) would be the obvious
choice.
b) Selection of Excavation Method. Tunneling is a complicated process in any situation and
involves huge costs which would multiply manifolds if proper planning is not exercised before
starting the actual excavation methods are intimately linked with the type of rocks to be
excavated. Choice of the right method will, therefore, be possible only when the nature of the
 rocks and the ground all along the alignment is fully known. This is one of the most important
aim and object of geological investigations.
c) Selection of Design for the Tunnel. The ultimate dimensions and design parameters of a
proposed tunnel are controlled, besides other factors, by geological constitution of the area
along the alignment. Whether the tunnel is to be circular, D-shaped, horse-shoe shaped or
rectangular or combination of one or more of these outlines, is more often dictated by the
geology of the alignment than by any other single factor. Thus, in self-supporting and
strong rocks, either, D-shaped or horse-shoe shape may be conveniently adopted but these
shapes would be practically unsuitable in soft ground or even in weak rocks with unequal
lateral pressure. In those cases circular outline may be the first choice.
d) Assessment of Cost and Stability. These aspects of the tunneling projects are also closely
interlinked with the first three considerations. Since geological investigations will determine
the line of actual excavation, the method of excavation and the dimensions of excavation as also
the supporting system (lining) of the excavation, all estimates about the cost of the project
would depend on the geological details.
Similarly tunnels passing through hard and massive rocks even when left unsupported may be
regarded as stable. However, those passing through difficult grounds, although these might have been
massively strengthened by secondary support system, might still collapse or bulge at places or even
completely fail, if geological situation is not perceived properly.
e) Assessment of Environmental Hazards. The process of tunneling, whether through rocks or
through soft ground, and for whatsoever purpose, involves disturbing the environment of an
area in more than one way. The tunneling methods might involve vibrations induced through
blasting or ground cutting and drilling, producing abnormal quantities of dust and last but not the
least, interference with water supply system of the nearby areas. A correct appreciation of
geological set up of the area, especially where tunnel alignment happens to be close to the
populated zones. Hazards in a successful manner.
Methods:-
The geological information required for tunneling projects may not always be similar to that
required for other civil engineering projects. As a matter of practice, the desired geological for a tunnel
project are obtained in three stages using specific methods in each stage. These stages are: preliminary
surveys, conducted well before the actual planning of the project; detailed surveys which are conducted
almost simultaneously with planning and concurrent explorations which are undertaken during the
construction.
A. Preliminary Surveys
These are conducted by the routine geological, geophysical and geochemical methods. In
modern practice and for major tunneling projects such fast techniques as aerial photography and
seismic surveying are commonly adopted in combination with the routine surface methods.
Following geological characters are broadly established for the entire area in which the tunnel
project is to be located of preliminary surveys:
 a. The general topography of the area marking the highest and the lowest points, occurrence
of valleys, depressions, bare and covered slopes, slide areas, and in hilly regions and cold
climates, the snow-line.
b. The lithology of the area, meaning there by, the composition, attitude and thickness of rock
formations which constitute the area.
c. The hydrological conditions in the area, such as depth of water table, possibility of
occurrence of major and minor aquifers of simple type and of artesian type and the likely
hydrostatic heads along different possible routes or alignments.
d. The structural conditions of the rock, that is, extent and attitude of major structural features
such as folding, faulting, unconformities, jointing and shearing planes, if developed.
Existences of buried valleys are also established during the preliminary surveys.
In addition, such surveys would also reveal occurrence of reserves of rocks that could be
beneficially used for construction programmes (lining etc.) in the tunnel project.
It is obvious that with the help of above information, the engineers could propose a number of
alternative tunnel routes to connect the two places, and in most cases, even decide about the general
run of the tunnel.
B. Detailed Surveys
Once the general run of the tunnel has been decided, planning for its construction begins. Such
plans require fairly accurate data about the rocks or the ground to be excavated for passing through.
Such data are obtained by:
(i) Bore-hole drilling, along proposed alignments and up to desired depths; the number of
bore-holes may run into dozens, scores or even hundreds, depending upon the length of the
tunnel; rock samples obtained from bore holes are analysed for their mechanical and geo-
chemical properties in the laboratories;
(ii) Drilling exploratory shafts and adits, which allow direct approach to the desired tunnel for
visual inspection in addition to the usual advantages of drilling.
(iii) Drilling pilot tunnels, which are essentially exploratory in nature but could better be
used as a main route if found suitable by subsequent enlargement.
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN TUNNELING
Rocks may be broadly divided into two categories in relation to tunneling: consolidated and
unconsolidated or soft ground. Geological characters that have a direct bearing on a tunnel project
will differ almost in all details in these categories. Only a brief account is given below.

A. Consolidated rocks
This group includes the massive igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that very often
form major mountain ranges and sub-mountainous regions. Most tunnels in the mountains
pass through these rocks. Tunnel design, method of its excavation and stability are greatly
influenced by following geological conditions: lithology, geological structures and groundwater
conditions.
a) Lithology
 It has already been mentioned that information regarding miner4alogical composition,
textures and structures of the rocks through which the proposed tunnel is to pass is of great
importance in deciding:
(i) The method of tunneling,
(ii) The strength and extent of lining and, thus
(iii) The cost of the project.
Hard and Crystalline Rocks are the favorites with the tunnel engineers. These are excavated
by using conventional rock blasting methods (RBM) and also by tunnel boring machines (TBM) of
suitable strength. In the blasting method, full face or a convenient section of the face is selected for
blasting up to a pre-selected depth during one shooting sequence. Holes of proper size and angle and at
proper spacing are drilled by machines. These are loaded with predetermined quantities of carefully
selected explosives of known strength. The loaded or charged holes are ignited or triggered and the pre-
estimated rocks get loosened as a result of the blast. The blasting round is followed by a mucking
period during which the broken rock is hauled out of the excavations in hard and crystalline rocks are
very often self supporting so that these could be left unlined and next round of blasting in the new face
created is undertaken, ensuring better advance rate.
Rocks falling in this group include granites, diorites, syenites, gabbros, basalts and all the related
igneous rocks, sandstones, limestones, dolomites, quartzites, arkose, greywacke and the like from
sedimentary group and marbles, gneisses, quartzites, phyllites and slates from the metamorphic groups.
When any one of these rocks is stressed, such as during folding or fractured as during faulting,
tunneling in these rocks proves greatly hazardous. Rocks bursts which occur due to falling of big rock
blocks from roofs or sides due to release of stresses or falling of rock block along fractures already
existing in these rocks often cause many accidents.
Soft Rocks. This group includes shales, friable and poorly compacted sandstones, chalk and
porous varieties of limestones and dolomites, slates and phyllites with high degree of cleavage and
also decomposed varieties of igneous rocks. Their excavation cost, volume for volume, might be lower
than those in hard rocks. However, in most cases, these rocks are not self-supporting. Hence,
temporary and permanent lining becomes necessary that would involve extra cost and additional time.
Rocks like clays, shales, argillaceous and ferruginous sandstones, gypsum bands and cavernous
limestones have to be viewed specially with great caution during tunneling. Many clays (and hence
rocks in which clays are present), crumble due to swelling in the presence of water especially when
there is a release of confining pressure from around them. Such a situation may develop when they are
exposed on the sides of a tunnel, at the inverts and on the arches. In such cases sides might bulge out,
inverts pop up and roofs might cave in – all very unfavorable situations. Even slides and
subsidence might be causes.
Fissure Rocks from a category in themselves and include any type of hard and soft rock that
has been deformed extensively due to secondary fracturing as a result of folding, faulting and
metamorphic changes of shearing type. Tunneling in such rocks is always hazardous and very
challenging job for an engineer. The extend of deformation has first to be thoroughly investigated and
comprehended. A very safe (and economical) method of attack has to be planned, which would need, in
almost all cases, very careful execution to avoid otherwise sure accidents. Excavation through such
stones in tunnel alignments would require large-scale timbering for providing temporary support which
is to be followed by permanent lining. The fissured rocks are very often the zones where groundwater
would also be encountered. Sometimes the water is under considerable hydrostatic head, sufficient
enough to wash out men and machinery if not forewarned. Adequate arrangements for providing
drainage, even at a short notice, would have to be made.
b) Geological Structures
The design, stability and cost of tunnel depend not only on the type of rock but also on the
structures developed in these rocks. Following main structural features of rocks have to be fully
determined along the proposed tunnel route: dip and strike, folding, faulting, shear zones and joint
systems.
Dip and Strike. These two quantitative properties of rocks determine the attitude (disposition in
space) of the rocks and hence influence the design of excavation (tunnel) to a great extent. Three
general cases may be considered.
(i) Horizontal Strata. Such a situation is rare in occurrence for longer tunnels. When encountered
for small tunnels or for short lengths of tunnels, horizontally layered rocks might be considered
quite favorable. In massive rocks, that is, when individual layers are very thick, and the tunnel
diameter not very large, the situation is especially favorable because the layers would then
overbridge flat excavations by acting as natural beams. But when the layers area thin or
fractured, they cannot be depended upon as beams; in such cases, either the roof has to be modified
to an arch type or has to be protected by giving a lining. Sides of tunnels, however, could be left
unsupported except when the rocks are precariously sheared and jointed.

(ii) Moderately Inclined Strata. Such layers that are dipping at angles up to 45ͦ may be said as
moderately inclined. The tunnel axis may be running parallel to the dip direction, at right angles to
the dip direction or inclined to both dip and strike directions. Each condition would offer a
different set of problems.
 In the first situation, that is, when the tunnel axis is parallel to the dip direction (which
means it is at right angles to the strike direction), the layers offer a uniformly distributed load on
the excavation. The arch action where the rocks at the roof act as natural arch transferring the
load on to sides comes into maximum play. Even relatively weaker rocks might act as self-
supporting in such cases. It is a favorable condition from this aspect. However, it also implies that
the axis of the tunnel has to pass through a number of rocks of the inclined sequence while going
through parallel to dip (or across the strike) of strata.
In the second case, that is, when the tunnel is driven parallel to strike of the beds (which
amounts to same things as at right angles to the dip), the pressure distributed to the exposed layers
is unsymmetrical along the periphery of the tunnel opening: one half would have bedding planes
opening into the tunnel and hence offer potential planes and conditions for sliding into the
opening. The bridge action, through present in part, is weakened due to discontinuities at the
bedding planes running along the arch.
Such a situation obviously requires assessment of forces liable to act on both the sides and
along the roof and might necessitate remedial measures.
In the third case, when the tunnel axis is inclined to both the dip direction and the strike
direction, weak points of both the above situations would be encountered and have to be taken care
of.
(iii) Steeply Inclined Strata. In rock formations dipping at angles above 45ͦ , quite complicated
situations would arise when the tunnel axis is parallel to dip or parallel to strike or inclined to both
dip and strike directions. In almost vertical rocks for example, when the tunnel axis is parallel to
dip direction, the formations stand along the sides and on the roof of the tunnel as massive girders.
An apparently favorable condition, of coarse, provided all the formations are inherently sound and
strong when considered individually also.
 Conversely, in tunnels running parallel to strike of vertical beds, it is more than likely that
a number of bedding planes (which are planes of weakness) are intersected at the roof and along
the arch so that natural beam action or arch action gets considered weakened.

Folding:
Folds signify bends and curvatures and a lot of strain energy stored in the rocks. Their influence
on design and construction of tunnels is important from at least three angles:
 Firstly, folding of rocks introduces considerable variation and uncertainty in a sequence of rocks
so that entirely unexpected rocks might be encountered along any given direction. This situation
becomes especially serious when folding is not recognized properly in preliminary or detailed surveys
due either to its being localized or to misinterpretation.

Secondly, folding of rocks introduces peculiar rock pressures. In anticlinal fold, loads of rocks at
the crest are transferred by arch action to a great extent on to the limbs which may be highly strained.
These conditions are reversed when the folds are of synclinal types. In such cases, rocks of core
regions are greatly strained. Again, the axial regions of folds, anticlinal or synclinal, having suffered
the maximum bending are more often heavily fractured. The alignment of a tunnel passing through a
folded region has to take these aspects in full consideration. When excavations are made in folded
rocks, the stain energy is likely to be released immediately, soon after or quite late to tunneling
operations, very often causing the dreaded rock bursts. Very slow release of small amounts of strain
energy might cause bulging of walls or caving in of roofs or popping up of floors.
Thirdly, folded rocks are often best storehouses for artesian water and also ideal as aquifers.
When encountered during tunneling unexpectedly, these could create uncontrollable situations. The
shattered axial regions being full of secondary joint systems are highly permeable. As such effective
drainage measures are often required to be in readiness when excavations are to pass through folded
zones.
Faulting:
Faults, as defined earlier, are surfaces along which rock movement has occurred in the past;
these are also potential surfaces for future movements of the rocks. This definition clearly brings
about significance of intersection of fault planes, fault zones and shear zones with the tunnel axis. Not
only that, faults may bring rocks of entirely different nature to come to lie in contact with each other.
Similarly, fault zones and shear zones are highly permeable zones, likely to form easy avenues
for ground water passage. Inclined fault planes and shear zones over the roof and along the sides
introduce additional complications of rock pressure on the one hand and of rock strengths on the other.
This discussion leads to a general conclusion: wherever tunnel is intersected by fault planes or shear
zones, it is to be considered as passing through most unsafe situations and hence designed accordingly
by providing maximum support and drainage facilities.
Joint systems:
Joints are cracks or fractures developed in rocks due to a variety of causes. Although all types
of joints tent to close with depth (due to load of overburden), their presence and orientation has to be
investigated. Joints are planes of weakness and must always be suspected when the rocks are folded and
faulted. Even originally closed joints may become reactive and open up in the immediate vicinity of
tunnel excavation. Jointed rocks cannot be considered as self-supporting although these might belong to
massive category

In many cases problems created by jointing in such rocks can be rectified by grouting. In other acute
cases, lining of the tunnel in the fractured zones might have to be applied.
c) Ground Water Conditions
Determination of groundwater conditions in the region of tunnel project is not to be under-
estimated at any cost. In fact groundwater level vis-à-vis tunnel axis is a major factor governing
computations of overhead loads on tunnels and also in the choice of method of tunneling.
Groundwater conditions effect the tunnel rocks in two ways:
Firstly, through its physic-chemical action, it erodes and corrodes (dissolves) the susceptible
constituents from among the rocks and thereby alters their original properties constantly with the
passage of time. It might have already done much of this type of job when the tunnel is excavated
through such water-rich rocks.
Secondly, it effects the rock strength parameters by its static and dynamic water heads. Such an
action may become highly pronounced when an artesian acquifer is actually intercepted by tunnel
excavation. A sudden release of pressure in the direction of excavation could create worst disaster
for the tunneling men folk.
There are three general possibilities of relationship between tunnel axis and groundwater level:
 a) The tunnel axis may be passing entirely through impervious formations in which there is no
possibility of water seepage or leakage or movement. It is an ideal condition for tunneling of
course, but is very rare in nature. Good lengths in short tunnels or small length of long tunnels
might show such a relationship.
b) The tunnel axis might be located mostly above the water table, intercepting the aquifer only in
some sections. This is one of the most common situations and would involve provision for
special drainage facilities to be located in water-bearing zones of the section. The head of the
water in the zone of interception has also to be given due consideration and might necessitate
lining for stopping leakage or inrush of water.
c) The tunnel axis might be located below the water table. Such a situation should be avoided as
far as possible. In some specific cases, however, this might be the only possibility, such as in
soft ground tunneling, under water tunneling e.g., below rivers and lakes or in the karst regions.
Wherever tunnels enter the saturated zones, effective drainage systems and also support
systems have to be planned much in advance and executed with great precision and perfection.
Water is likely to enter the excavation with a force proportional to full hydrostatic head of the
water body. Waterproof lining is to be provided for the full length.
d) It may, therefore, be summed up that hydro geological investigations have to be made with
fullest concern and caution all along the proposed tunnel alignment.

SOFT GROUND TUNNELING

Tunneling in unconsolidated rocks or loose sediments or shales and clays, which require
immediate support after excavation, is known as Soft Ground Tunneling. It is comparatively
complicated than tunneling in solid rocks because of inherent structural weakness of the ground.
 Geological Investigations. In soft ground tunneling, the emphasis of geological investigations
is primarily on the following objects:
(i) Preparation of geological profile along the centre line of the proposed tunnel;
(ii) Thorough study of lithological characters and mode of origin of the sediments;
(iii) Precise establishment of groundwater regime and assessment of its possible effects on
tunnel line.
The geological profile would give an idea of various types of soils that are to be encountered
along the proposed tunnel. This profile would have a direct bearing upon the length of the line, design
of tunnel, method of construction and type and extent of safety measures that would be needed.
Similarly some sediment, e.g., those of glacial origin, is known to be dangerous for tunneling.