Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

Script for
Chapter 12. WORKPLACE LEARNING AND HOW ADULTS LEARN (PART 1)

Let us first understand the objectives of the session

OBJECTIVES

● To Define the concept of Learning

● To Understand the Basic Principles of Learning
● To Understand Training Design
● To Articulate Individual Differences in the Learning Process
● Analyse a case

INTRODUCTION

In our previous session, we discussed what the designing of HRD programs involves.

Learning and Instruction

According to Richard E. Mayer, Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior,

cognition (which is related to thinking, to make the word simple), or affect (related to feeling, to
make the word simple) that occurs as a result of one’s interaction with the environment. Several
aspects of this definition are important. First, the focus of learning is change, either by acquiring
something new (skill in conducting meetings) or modifying something that already exists.
Second, the change must be comparatively long lasting before we can say learning has really
occurred. Third, the focus of learning can include behavior, cognitions, affect, or any
combination of the three. Learning outcomes can be skill based (climbing a utility pole),
cognitive (procedures for applying for a research grant), or effective (becoming more safety
conscious). Finally, learning results from an individual’s interaction with the environment.
Learning does not include behavior changes attributable to physical maturation or a temporary
condition (such as fatigue or drugs).

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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

The Basic Learning Principles

The cornerstone of learning theory is the concept of association. Association is the process by
which two cognitions become paired together, so that thinking about one evokes thoughts about
the other. There are three principles that influence the learning of associations. They are:

1. Contiguity Objects that are experienced together tend to become associated with each
other. For example, learning vocabulary in a foreign language usually involves pairing a
new word with an object or picture of an object.
2. The Law of Effect The law of effect states that a behavior followed by a pleasurable
consequence is likely to be repeated. For example, when a superior compliments a police
officer who values recognition for the way he or she has handled a difficult arrest, the
officer associates the compliment with the arrest method and he/she is likely using that
method to make difficult arrests in the future.
3. Practice Repeating the events in an association will increase the strength of the
association. For example, the more times someone rappels down a cliff or a wall, the
more adept he or she becomes at rappelling. But practice alone is not enough to guarantee
a strong association. The effect of practice is strengthened with reinforcement, such as
receiving a pleasurable consequence.

If you are wondering why learning needs to be discussed, think again: no training or
developmental effort is effective unless, and until the person receiving the training learns. Thus,
human resource development is not teaching, but learning oriented. Having a clear understanding
of the learning process helps an HRD manager select the HRD strategies and set up the HRD
systems that encourage and facilitate learning at workplace.

Limits of Learning Principles in Improving Training Design

Unfortunately, when it comes to improving training design, these general principles are not as
helpful as one might expect. Many of the researches that demonstrated these principles were
conducted in tightly controlled laboratory settings using artificial tasks, which limit the
applicability of the findings to many “real-world” training settings.

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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

Robert Gagne convincingly demonstrated the limited benefit of learning principles to increase
training effectiveness in landmark article “Military Training and Principles of Learning.” Gagne
showed that practice and reinforcement failed to improve performance of three representative
military tasks: gunnery (a motor skill), turning on a radar set (a procedural task), and diagnosing
malfunctions in complex electronic equipment (troubleshooting). Instead of relying on the
prevailing learning principles, Gagne argued that training could be improved by using three
principles:

1. Task Analysis Any task can be analyzed into a set of distinct component tasks. Can you
think of how many separate tasks are involved in the ‘job’ of repairing a punctured car
tyre?
2. Component Task Achievement Each component task must be fully achieved before the
entire task performed correctly. An example of the component tasks achievement for the
above work or job, a mechanic would have to start with ‘determine the location where to
place the jack, rotate the handle of the jack to lift the vehicle sufficiently, choose the
spanner of the correct size and so on.
3. Task Sequencing The learning situation should be arranged so that each of the
component tasks is learned in the appropriate order before the total task is attempted. You
can see the importance of the sequence in the above job. The most appropriate
sequencing in the above job might even start with parking the car and engaging the hand-
break. If you are going to conduct the training, be prepared to answer the questions such
as, ‘what’s wrong if I unscrew the bolts before jacking the car up?’

At this level, we are not getting into the methods of task analysis. But we hope that you can see
that task analysis is not easy, especially when the tasks are more complex and less physical.
Once the task is analysed, the task frequency, difficulty of learning, importance to train, task
criticality, task difficulty, and the overall task importance are described.

Maximising Learning

Definition of learning makes it clear that people acquire and develop skills, knowledge, and
change behavior as a result of an interaction between forces within the learner and in the
environment.
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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

Trainee characteristics

A learner or trainee’s personal characteristics will influence how he or she learns new tasks and
new information. There are three such characteristics and they are trainability, personality, and
attitudes. We discuss these three primary areas as we emphasize ways to maximize learning,
namely trainee characteristics, training design, and the transfer of training.

Trainability focuses on the trainee’s readiness to learn and combines the trainee’s level of ability
and motivation with his or her perceptions of the work environment. A simple formula to convey
this is:

Trainability= f (motivation x Ability x perceptions of the Work Environment)

This formula illustrates that a trainee must have both the motivation and the ability to learn; if
either of this is lacking, learning will not occur. The equation also shows that a very high level of
one cannot completely overcome a very low level of the other. In addition, if employees perceive
little support in the work environment for learning new knowledge or skills, they will be less
likely to learn and use them. Thus, it is important to note that trainability is not just a function of
the individual trainee, but also of the work environment in which the learner will be asked to use
what was presented in the HRD intervention.

Trainability is very important in HRD. Placing employees in the programs in which they are not
motivated to attend or are not prepared to do well will waste the time and resources. Trainees
with less ability take longer time to learn, which can increase the length of the training period
and the expenses involved in conducting training programmes. In fact, it is possible that such
trainees may never learn to the levels desired by the organization.

Over the past several years, researchers have studied the notion pre-training motivation. The
findings of recent research show that:

➢ The way trainees perceive training ( e.g. as remedial versus advanced, or as an

unpleasant task versus an opportunity) affects the levels of learning, perceptions of
efficacy, anxiety, and perceptions of fairness.

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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

➢ The way in which individuals view their own ability (as a fixed entity or an acquirable
skill, which means whether they have acquired that particular skill say soft skills or it was
with them- fixed entity) affects anxiety level, efficacy perceptions and the learning of
declarative (factual) knowledge.
➢ Experiencing negative events on the job prior to training can increase trainees’
motivation to learn and their performance in training.
➢ A number of other factors have been found to increase the individuals’ motivation to
participate in and learn from training. Factors identified include involvement in
decisions about training, perceptions that participation in training will lead to benefits
(e.g., increased job performance and career advancement opportunities), and perceptions
of support, or lack of obstacles to use what has been learned in the work environment.
➢ Characteristics of the organization (e.g., policies and guidelines regarding training
participation) have been linked to participation in developmental activities.

These findings are useful and suggest ways in which organizations can increase the motivation to
participate in and learn from HRD interventions.

Trainability testing is one approach that can be used to ensure that trainees have both the
motivation and relevant ability to learn. This approach focuses on measuring the motivation and
relevant abilities of candidates for training and selecting the candidates for training only those
who show a sufficient level of trainability.

Another approach for trainee testing is to allow candidates to complete part of the training
program and use their performance on that section as a predictor of how well they will perform
during the remainder of training.

Personality and attitudes: Although not explicitly mentioned in the definition of trainability, a
trainee’s personality and attitudes can also have an effect on learning. Ray Noe suggested that an
employee’s attitudes toward career exploration and job involvement impact learning and its
applications to the job. Other researches have shown that job involvement, expectations for
training, and trainee confidence are all related to success in training.

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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

Personality is the stable set of personal characteristics that account for consistent patterns of
behavior. Personality traits that are related to employee learning include locus of control, the
need for achievement, activity, independence, and sociability. Murray Barrick and Michael
Mount reported the results of a meta-analysis showing that two personality dimensions-
extraversion and openness to experience-are valid predictions of success in training.

Joseph Martocchio and Jane Webster found that an individual’s level of cognitive playfulness
(which is in part the spontaneity, imagination, and exploratory approach a person brings to task
performance and learning) affects learning, mood, and satisfaction with training. They also found
that individuals with low levels of cognitive playfulness were affected more by positive feedback
than individuals with higher levels of cognitive playfulness.

To summarize, assessing employee’s relevant abilities, motivation, and personality prior to HRD
programs can be important in maximizing the chances that learning will occur. This approach to
maximizing learning fits with Glaser’s notion that knowing the initial state of the learner is an
important part of effective training.

Training Design

Training design involves adapting the learning environment to maximize learning. Training
design issues include (1) the conditions of practice that influence learning and (2) the factors that
impact retention of what is learned.

Conditions of practice: At least six issues have been studied that relate to practice and learning.
They include (a) active practice, (b) massed versus spaced practice sessions, (c) whole versus
part learning, (d) over- learning, (e) knowledge of results, and (f) task sequencing.

Active practice suggests that learners should be given an opportunity to repeatedly perform the
task or use the knowledge learned.

Massed versus spaced practice sessions concern whether to conduct the training in one session
or to divide it into segments separated by some period of time. For example, is it better to study
for an exam over a period of several days (spaced practice) or in one cram session (mass
practice)?
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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

In general, information and skills can be learned either way, but spaced practice sessions with a
reasonable rest period between them lead to better performance and longer retention of what is
learned than a massed practice session. For difficult, complex tasks, an initial massed session
followed by spaced practice sessions has led to improved performance.

Whole versus part learning concerns the size of the unit to be learned, that is, should trainees
practice an entire task (or study certain material as a whole), or should the task or material be
learned in separate parts or chunks? Gagne suggested that procedural material (material
organized into series of steps) should be analyzed and divided into subunits, with the trainees
mastering each subunit before performing the entire procedure.

The answer to which method is most effective appears to depend on the nature of the task to be
learned. When the subtasks are relatively easy to perform and are well organized, the whole
value method is superior. Otherwise, the part methods have seen to be more effective.(Blum, M.L
& Naylor, J.C 1968)

For example, operating a chainsaw involves adding fuel, holding it properly, starting it, making
various cuts, and turning it off. Given that these are interrelated, it makes sense that they be
learned together. The task of supervising others, however, includes subtasks like scheduling,
evaluating employee performance, discipling, planning and delegating work. These subtasks are
are less closely related and would best be learned by focusing on each subtask separately.

To teach someone how to drive a stick shift automobile - say a four wheeler, which approach
would you use?

Over-learning is defined as practice beyond the point at which the material or task is mastered.
(McGehee, W & Thayer, P.W 1961)

The rationale for over-learning is three fold.

First, over-learning may improve performance in a variety of different situations. By developing

stronger associations between the parts of a task or unit of knowledge, it is less likely that
situational changes will interfere with learning.

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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

Second, over-learning provides additional practice in using the skill or knowledge when there is
little opportunity for doing so in the job setting.

Third, over-learning should make what is learned more “automatic,” thereby improving
performance in stressful or emergency situations.

Research indicates that over-learning, in fact, increases the retention of what is learned. Quite
obviously, its major drawback is that over-learning can increase the time and expense of training.

For example, an instructor teaching cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in a first aid course
would be using overlearning if trainees were required to repeatedly practice CPR procedure even
after they had successfully ‘revived’ the training dummy.

Knowledge of results, or feedback, provides objective information regarding the adequacy of

one’s performance, and it can come from observers, the performer, or the task itself. A sizable
body of research suggests that feedback enhances learning and retention. Trainers and educators
generally agree that feedback improves learning. Researchers suggest that feedback is both
informational- when it helps the learners to determine that they have performed something
correctly, and motivational- when it is valued by the learner or indicates valued outcomes. The
effectiveness of feedback also seems to depend on how it is provided, especially in regard to
timing and specificity. To ensure that the learner clearly understands the relationship between the
feedback and the behavior, it should be provided as soon as possible after the behavior occurs.
Further, the attributions the individuals make about feedback can affect efficacy beliefs, with
feedback attributed to factors within the trainee’s control increasing perceptions of efficacy.

Finally, task sequencing suggests that tasks and knowledge can be learned more effectively if
what is to be learned is divided into subtasks that are arranged and taught in an appropriate
sequence. Gagne and colleagues provide guidelines for how task sequencing can help in learning
intellectual skills, motor skills, and attitudes.

To summarize, research on the various conditions of practice offers some practical guidelines for
designing more effective HRD interventions. In general, over-learning, feedback, and practice
sessions spaced over all tend to increase learning.

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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

Retention of learning

The goal of training goes beyond ensuring that the trainee learns the task or material being
presented. It is usually important that newly learned material is retained. Three additional issues
that influence retention are the meaningfulness of material, the degree of original learning, and
interference.

The meaningfulness of material is the extent to which it is rich in associations for the individual
learner. For example, a new way of soldering circuits might be quite significant to an electronics
enthusiast, yet absolutely the meaningless to a professional athlete or a hair stylist.

To put it simply, the more the meaningful factual material is, the easier it is to learn and
remember. Thus, training should be designed to be more meaningful to employees to encourage
learning retention. Overviews of topics at the beginning of training sessions can help trainees
understand the course content as a whole. Using examples and terminology familiar to trainees
and mnemonic devices (such as creating a word out of the first letters of items in a list) also
increase meaningfulness by providing more associations.

The degree of original learning also influences learning retention. The more effectively the
information is initially learned, the more likely it will be retained. Though this is not surprising,
it does reinforce the research on over-learning, massed versus spaced practice, and whole versus
part learning as ways to ensure initial learning.

Interference can also affect the extent to which learning is retained. Interference can be of two
types. First, material or skills learned before the training session can inhibit recall of the newly
learned material. Second, information learned after a training session may also interfere with
retention. For example, a fighter trained to operate the power ladder on the city’s older fire trucks
may have difficulty in retaining that knowledge if a different sequence of steps are to be learned
for the same operation on a newer fire truck.

Both types of inferences are similar in that the learner is required to make different responses to
the same situation. The more responses one learns, the greater is the chances for inference in
learning to occur.

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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

Transfer of training is a recurring theme in HRD literature. A main goal of HRD is to ensure
that employees perform their jobs effectively. In addition to learning and retaining new material,
employees must also use it on the job to improve performance. The transfer of training to the job
situation is critically important to the success of HRD efforts.

Transfer can take different forms. Positive transfer occurs when job performance is improved as
a result of training. Zero transfer occurs when there is no change in job performance as a result
of training. Negative transfer occurs when job performance is worse as a result of training.
Negative transfer may be unlikely, but the detrimental effect inference can have on learning and
performance. Tennis players, for example may find that their tennis shots become less accurate
after learning how to play racquetball.

Another distinction that should be made is between “near transfer” and “far transfer.” Near
transfer has to do with the ability to directly apply on the job what has been learned in training,
with little adjustment or modification, whereas far transfer has to do with expanding upon or
using what was learned in training in new or creative ways. It obviously depends upon the
context whether an organization is more concerned with near transfer, far transfer, or both,
though in most cases, far transfer is the best indicator that training has been successful.

Individual Differences in the Learning Process

As discussed earlier, trainee characteristics play a role in the learning, retention, and transfer of
skills and factual material. The three additional factors that account for differences in individual
learning processes are different rates of trainee progress, interactions between attributes and
treatment, and the training of adults and older workers.

Rate Of Progress

People learn at different rates. Some people progress more quickly than others, and individual
learners may even progress at different rates during the same training program. For example, a
new employee learning how to operate a punch press may show little progress at first, making
many mistakes, and then suddenly master the procedure and quickly progress to competence.
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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

A useful way to show rates of learning is by drawing learning curves.

A learning curve is plotted on a graph with learning proficiency indicated vertically on the y-axis
and elapsed time indicated horizontally on the x-axis. Five types of learning curves are shown in
Figure.

The learning curve for Trainee 1 shows a fast rate of learning, taking little time to achieve high
performance. The curve for Trainee 2 shows a slower rate of learning, with training ending at a
lower level of final performance than for Trainee 1. Trainee 3 reaches a moderate level of
performance quickly but then makes little further progress despite continued practice. This
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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

contrasts to the progress of Trainee 4, who learns slowly at first but steadily improves to a high
level of performance. Finally, the S-shaped learning curve for Trainee 5 shows rapid progress at
first, followed by a period of little progress during the middle of training, and then rapid progress
in the latter part of training.

Learning curves can provide useful feedback to both trainers and trainee. For instance, if a
trainer notices a plateau (the flat part of a curve indicating no progress is being made), a different
approach, encouragement, or some other intervention may be needed for the trainee to improve.
When implementing a new HRD program, plotting learning curves can be used as a baseline for
communicating expectations of progress to future trainees and trainers, and as aids in scheduling
and planning future sessions.

Attribute-Treatment Interaction (ATI)

Interest in the effect of trainee intelligence on learning has led some researchers to hypothesize
that the effectiveness of training methods may be influenced by various trainee characteristics.
Stated simply, some methods of training may be better suited to certain types of people. Thus,
research on attribute-treatment interactions (ATI) has sought to develop training systems that can
be adapted to differences between individual learners.

Two variables that have received considerable attention in ATI research are cognitive ability and
motivation. The expectancy theory of motivation suggests that when motivation is low, both
high-low-ability individuals will perform at low levels, but when motivation is high, differences
in performance can be expected between high-and low-ability individuals. To date, research has
found little conclusive evidence of an interaction between motivation and ability. Jeff Terborg
stated that the mixed evidence regarding the existence of a motivation-ability ATI may be due to
differences in complexity of the tasks studied. Terborg suggested that tasks of moderate
difficulty would be the place where ATIs would most likely occur.

An illustration of a well-developed ATI theory is the cognitive resource allocation theory

proposed by Ruth Kanfer and Philip Ackerman. Their theory uses an information processing
perspective to explain the existence of a cognitive ability-motivation ATI for both skill
acquisition and task performance of moderately difficult tasks.

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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

Cognitive resource allocation theory is based on several propositions, which are explained
below:

1. The attentional demands made by a task will determine the contribution of both ability and
motivation to task performance.

2. The attentional demands required to acquire a skill change during the skill acquisition process.
Skill acquisition occurs in three phases: declarative knowledge (forming a mental representation
of the task), knowledge compilation (integration of cognitive and motor processes needed to
perform a task), and procedural knowledge (knowledge how to perform cognitive processes and
being able to perform the task “automatically,” with little attention). Attentional demands are
highest during the declarative knowledge phase, but are reduced significantly during knowledge
compilation and proceduralization.

3. Cognitive ability is related to the amount of attentional resources an individual has: the higher
the level of cognitive ability (e.g., general intelligence), the more attentional resources the
individual has. For example, research shows that intelligence predicts performance is best during
the declarative knowledge phase (when attentional demands are high) and predicts performance
are less during the procedural knowledge phase (when attentional demands are low).

4. Motivational processes places a limit on the amount of cognitive resources available (e.g.,
attention) that an individual will apply to a task (e.g., the more the motivation, the more attention
the individual will apply to the task). In addition, motivational processes that determine how the
individual have allocated cognitive resources (e.g., self-regulation, goal setting) require cognitive
resources themselves, thereby using resources that could be used to learn or perform the task.
Therefore, to the extent that motivational processes use cognitive resources that can be taken
from the resources needed to perform the task, Task performance will be hindered rather than
facilitated by the motivational attempt.

Cognitive resource allocation theory predicts that:

1. Individuals with higher levels of cognitive ability will perform than those with lower
levels of cognitive ability during the declarative knowledge phase (because they have

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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

more attentional resources with them), but that the differential will decrease as the
knowledge becomes procedural (because attentional demands are reduced during this
phase).
2. Motivational efforts will reduce performance during the declarative knowledge phase
(because they use part of the limited attentional resources available to learn the task), but
enhance performance during the compilation and procedural phases (because attentional
demands of these phases are less, freeing up resources for motivational process),
especially for low-ability individuals.
3. The negative impact of using attentional resources for motivation during the declarative
knowledge phase will have less of an impact on high-cognitive-ability individuals
(because they have a greater amount of resources to draw upon).

The research conducted to date supports these predictions.(Kanfer & Ackerman 1989).

It appears as though ability and self-efficacy are better predictors of performance in the early
stages of skill acquisition, whereas motivation is a better predictor of performance during later
stages. Perhaps the most direct implication of this research is that motivational efforts may be
best saved until later phases of training for moderately complex tasks when they are likely to
harm performance and more likely to lead to higher levels of performance.

Let us now summarise the session, in a nutshell

SUMMARY

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior, cognition, or affect that occurs
as a result of one’s interaction with the environment. Training design involves adapting the
learning environment to maximize learning. Three additional factors that account for differences
in individual learning processes: are, different rates of trainee progress, interactions between
attributes and treatment, and the training of adults and older workers. Learning styles and
strategies can be important in determining learning outcomes.

Let's discuss a case study for better understanding the concept

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 Workplace Learning And How Adults Learn (Part 1)

CASE STUDY DISCUSSION

An example of a company that appears to have successfully implemented a change is Ethicon

Ltd, a medical device company that manufactures sutures for medical applications. They had
been undergoing restructuring for some years; at the time, the most recent announcement was
that the research and development (R&D) function was to move to Germany and the new focus
of the UK site was to be manufacturing.

In managing change, Ehticon set up new in-house systems to refocus people’s ideas on three
main goals:

➢ To improve process cycle times

➢ To decrease costs

➢ To improve quality.

Throughout the change process the company communicated well with employees and made them
aware of the intentions and the benefits. A number of project managers were put in place to drive
through change. Ethicon also introduced cross-functional teams that have broken down
interdepartmental barriers and encouraged open forum discussions. They managed to involve the
workers in the project and made them believe that there were gains to be made by changing the
way they worked. This initiated change across the whole company. They also set in play a
system of measurements against objectives in order to translate them into tangible business
benefits. It is believed that one of the greatest achievements gained from this redesign project
was the true sense of team working. The end result was a measured increase in productivity
levels. The new ways of working were that they would produce positive results and cost savings
to the company to ensure that Ethicon remained competitive.

Questions

1. How did management at Ehticon ‘get it right’?

2. What particular aspects have encouraged the successful change?

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Here are some Possible Answers,

1. It is rightly said, Communication is the key for any organisation, throughout the change
process the management has been in constant touch with the employees/department to
communicate about their intentions and benefits.

Second is - decentralisation, breaking organisation into smaller parts to make working

simpler and encouraged open discussions.

2. Change is the only constant, the sooner we accept and know it, the better we are. Ehticon
have put efforts to implement two learning strategies that is - Elaboration strategies (e.g.,
forming a mental image; taking notes, paraphrasing, or summarizing new material)
Organizational strategies (e.g., grouping or ordering information to be learned; outlining
an article; creating a hierarchy of material)

The entire change process has been smooth due to various supportive actions by the
management.

Self Assessment Questions

1. Enumerate the factors influencing employee behavior

2. Discuss Motivation as an important factor causing employee behavior
3. What are the internal factors affecting employee behaviour
4. Explain the basic principles of learning
5. How can the training be designed for learning
6. Enunciate the individual differences in learning
7. Discuss the learning strategies and styles .

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