R Lines f (x) & Graphs fog & Shifting Graphs Trigonometry

PRELIMINARIES
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Real Numbers
Real numbers are numbers that can be expressed as decimals,
such as
3
− = −0.75000 . . .
4
1
= −0.3333 . . .
√3
2 = 1.4142 . . .

Real Line
The real numbers can be represented geometrically as points on a
number line called the real line.
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Rules of Inequalities
If a, b, and c are real numbers, then:
1. a < b implies ( =⇒ ) a + c < b + c
2. a < b =⇒ a−c <b−c
3. a < b and c > 0 =⇒ ac < bc
4. a < b and c < 0 =⇒ ac > bc
Special case a < b =⇒ −a > −b
5. If a and b are both positive or both negative, then
1 1
a<b =⇒ <
b a
1
(a ̸= 0 =⇒ is called as the reciprocal of a. )
a
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Intervals
A subset of the real line is called an interval if it contains at least
two numbers and contains all real numbers lying between any two
its elements.
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R Lines f (x) & Graphs fog & Shifting Graphs Trigonometry

Absolute Values
The absolute value of a number x is defined by formula

x, x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x x < 0
or √
|x| = x2

Absolute Values Properties

For any numbers a and b, the followings hold
1. | − a| = |a|
2. |a b| = |a| |b|
a |a|
3. = (b ̸= 0)
b |b|
4. |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| (the triangle inequality)
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Absolute Values and Intervals

If a is any positive number, then
1. |x| = a if and only if ( ⇐⇒ ) x = ±a
2. |x| < a ⇐⇒ −a < x < a
3. |x| > a ⇐⇒ x > a or x < −a
4. |x| ≤ a ⇐⇒ −a ≤ x ≤ a
5. |x| ≥ a ⇐⇒ x ≥ a or x ≤ −a
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Cartesian Coordinates in the Plane

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Increments and Straing Lines

When a particle moves from the point
P1 (x1 , y1 ) to the point P2 (x2 , y2 ), the
net changes in its coordinates are called
increments.

∆x = x2 − x1 ∆y = y2 − y1

Slop
The constant
rise ∆y y2 − y1
m= = =
run ∆x x2 − x1
is the slope of the nonvertical line P1 P2 .
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Types of the Line Equation

1. Point-Slope Equation:

y = m(x − x1 ) + y1

2. Slope-Intercept Equation:

y = mx +b

3. General Equation:

Ax + By = C
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Example: Find an equation for each line described

(a) Passes through (2, −3) with slope 12 .
(b) Passes through (3, 4) and (−2, 5).
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R Lines f (x) & Graphs fog & Shifting Graphs Trigonometry

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

L1 ∥ L2 ⇐⇒ m1 = m2
L1 ⊥ L2 ⇐⇒ m1 m2 = −1
R Lines f (x) & Graphs fog & Shifting Graphs Trigonometry

Example: Write an equation for the line passing through the point
P(5, −1) that are (i) parallel and (ii) perpendicular to the given
line.
(a) 2x + 5y = 15.
(b) y = 4
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Function
A function from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique
(single) element f (x) ∈ Y to each element x ∈ D.
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Example: A(r ) = π r 2 is a circle-area function if r denotes a radii of

any circle.

Example: (Identifying Domain and Range)

Function Domain (x) Range (y )

1. y = x2 (−∞, ∞) [0, ∞)

2. y = 1/x (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)

√
3. y= x [0, ∞) [0, ∞)
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Example: Sketch the graph of the

function
Graphs of Functions 
If f is a function with domain D,  −x, x < 0
its graph consists of the points in f (x) = x 2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
1, x >1

the Cartesian plane whose
coordinates are the input-output
pairs for f .

{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ D}

Piecewise Functions
Functions have different formulas
for different parts of the domain.
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R Lines f (x) & Graphs fog & Shifting Graphs Trigonometry

Vertical Line Test

If every vertical line in the xy −plane intersects a given curve in at
most one point, then the curve is the graph of a function.
Example:
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Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Example: The function graphed
below is decreasing on (−∞, 0]
Let f be a function defined on an and increasing on [0, 1]. The
interval I and let x1 and x2 be function is neither increasing nor
any two points in I . decreasing on the interval [1, ∞).
• If f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) whenever
x1 < x2 , then f is said to be
increasing on I .
• If f (x2 ) < f (x1 ) whenever
x1 < x2 , then f is said to be
decreasing on I .
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Even Function and Odd Function

A function y = f (x) is an
• even function of x if f (−x) = f (x),
• odd function of x if f (−x) = −f (x),
for every x in the function’s domain.
Example: (Recognizing Even and Odd Functions)
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Example:
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Common Functions
• Linear Functions (y = m x + n)
• Power Functions (y = x a , where a is a constant.)
• Polynomials (p(x) = an xn + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 )
• Rational Functions (f (x) = p(x)/q(x), where p and q are
polynomials)
⋆ Algebraic Functions: Any function constructed from
polynomials using algebraic operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and taking roots) lies within the class
of algebraic functions.
⋆ Transcendental Functions: These are functions that are not
algebraic. They include the trigonometric, inverse
trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions, and
many other functions as well.
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Useful Graphs
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Exponential Functions
Let a be a positive real number other than 1. The function

f (x) = ax

is the exponential function with base a.

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Logarithmic Functions

The base a logarithm function y = loga x is the inverse of the

function y = ax (a > 0, a ̸= 1).
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Combining Functions Algebraically

√ √
Example: Let f (x) = x and g (x) = 1 − x.
Thus D(f ) = [0, ∞) and D(g ) = (−∞, 1].
Function Formula Domain
√ √
1. f +g (f + g )(x) = x+ 1−x [0, 1] = D(f ) ∩ D(g )
√ √
2. f −g (f − g )(x) = x− 1−x [0, 1]
√ √
3. g −f (g − f )(x) = 1−x − x [0, 1]
√
4. f ·g (f · g )(x) = x − x2 [0, 1]
q
x
5. f /g (f /g )(x) = 1−x [0, 1] (x = 1 excluded)

q
1−x
6. g /f (g /f )(x) = x [0, 1] (x = 0 excluded)
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Composite Function
If f and g are functions, then the
composite function fog is defined
by

(fog )(x) = f (g (x)).

The domain of fog consists of the

numbers x in the domain of g for
which g (x) lies in the domain of
f.

Two functions can be composed at x whenever the value of one

function at x lies in the domain of the other.
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√
Example: If f (x) = x and g (x) = x + 1, find the domain of the
following
(a) (fog )(x)

(b) (gof )(x)

(c) (fof )(x)

(d) (gog )(x)

R Lines f (x) & Graphs fog & Shifting Graphs Trigonometry

√
Example: If f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = 1 − x, find the domain and
range of the following
(a) (fog )(x)

(b) (gof )(x)

R Lines f (x) & Graphs fog & Shifting Graphs Trigonometry

Shifting Graphs
Vertical Shifts
y = f (x) + k Shifts the graph of f up k units if k > 0
Shifts it down |k| units if k < 0
R Lines f (x) & Graphs fog & Shifting Graphs Trigonometry

Horizontal Shifts
y = f (x + h) Shifts the graph of f left h units if h > 0
Shifts it right |h| units if h < 0
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Example: Graph the function y + 4 = (x + 2)2/3 .

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Vertical and Horizontal Scaling and Reflecting Formulas

For c > 1, the graph is scaled:

y = c f (x) Stretches the graph of f vertically by a factor of c.
y = c1 f (x) Compresses the graph of f vertically by a factor of c.
y = f (c x) Compresses the graph of f horizontally by a factor of c.
y = f (x/c) Stretches the graph of f horizontally by a factor of c.

For c = −1, the graph is reflected:

y = −f (x) Reflects the graph of f across the x-axis.
y = f (−x) Reflects the graph of f across the y -axis.
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R Lines f (x) & Graphs fog & Shifting Graphs Trigonometry

Example: Identify the domain and range of the following function:

√
(a) y = 4 − x

√
(b) y = 1 − x2
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Radian Measure
Since the circumference of the
The radian measure of angle circle is 2π and one complete
ACB is the length of arc AB on revolution of a circle is 360◦ , the
the unit circle centered at C . relation between radians and
degrees is given by

π radians = 180◦ .

Example: 45◦ in radian measure is

π π
45 · = rad.
180 4
π/6 radians is

π 180
· = 30◦ .
6 π
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The angles of two common

triangles, in degrees and radians

Conversion Formulas

π
1 degree = (≈ 0.02) radians
180
π
Degrees to radians: multiply by
180

180
1 radian = (≈ 57) degrees
π
180
Radians to Degrees : multiply by
π
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Angles in standard position in the xy −plane.

Nonzero radian measures can be positive or negative and can

beyond 2π.
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The Six Basic Trigonometric Functions

opp y hyp r
sin θ = = csc θ = =
hyp r opp y
adj x hyp r
cos θ = = sec θ = =
hyp r adj x
opp y adj x
tan θ = = cot θ = =
adj x opp y
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2π 2π
Example: cos =? and sin =?
3 3
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R Lines f (x) & Graphs fog & Shifting Graphs Trigonometry

Periodicity and Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

Periodic Function
A function f (x) is periodic if there is a positive number p such
that f (x + p) = f (x) for every value of x. The smallest such value
of p is the period of f .
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R Lines f (x) & Graphs fog & Shifting Graphs Trigonometry
R Lines f (x) & Graphs fog & Shifting Graphs Trigonometry

Identities

• cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1

• 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
• 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ
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• Addition Formula

cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

• Double-Angle Formula

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ

sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

• Half-Angle Formula

1 + cos 2θ
cos2 θ =
2
1 − cos 2θ
sin2 θ =
2
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• The law of cosines: If a, b and c are sides of a triangle ABC

and if θ is the angle apposite c, then
c 2 = a2 + b 2 − 2a b cos θ
(If θ = π/2, then c 2 = a2 + b 2 .)
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References

G. B. Thomas, M. D. Weir J. R. Hass (2014)

Thomas’ Calculus 13th Edition,
Pearson.