1.

Give an overview of the basic functional units and bus structures of a

computer?

A.Functional Unit (Or) Structure of a Computer System:Every Digital computer

systems consist of five distinct functional units. These units are as follows:

1. Input unit
2. Memory unit
3. Arithmetic logic unit
4. Output unit
5. Control Unit

These units are interconnected by electrical cables to permit communication between

them. A Computer must receive both data and program statements to function properly
and be able to solve problems. The method of feeding data and programs to a computer is
accomplished by an input device. Computer Input devices read data from a source, such
as magnetic disks, and translate that data into electronic Impulses for transfer into the
CPU. Example for input devices are a keyboard, a mouse, or a scanner.Central Processing
Unit The brain of a computer system is the central processing unit (CPU). The CPU

processes data transferred to it from one of the various input devices. It then transfers
either an Intermediate or final result of the CPU to one or more output devices. A central
control section and Work areas are required to perform calculations or manipulate data.
The CPU is the computing center Of the system. It consists of a control section, an
arithmetic-logic section, and an internal storage section (main memory). Each section
within the CPU serves a specific function and has a particular relationship With the other
sections within the CPU.
Input Unit :The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer.
These devices take input and convert it into binary language that the computer
understands. Some of the common input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick,
scanner etc.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) : Once the information is entered into the computer by
the input device, the processor processes it. The CPU is called the brain of the
computer because it is the control center of the computer. It first fetches instructions
from memory and then interprets them so as to know what is to be done. If required,
data is fetched from memory or input device. Thereafter CPU executes or performs the
required computation and then either stores the output or displays on the output
device. The CPU has three main components which are responsible for different
functions – Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Memory registers

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) : The ALU, as its name suggests performs mathematical
calculations and takes logical decisions. Arithmetic calculations include addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical decisions involve comparison of two
data items to see which one is larger or smaller or equal.

Control Unit : The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of CPU
and also controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also input/output
units. It is also responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored in the program. It
decodes the fetched instruction, interprets it and sends control signals to input/output
devices until the required operation is done properly by ALU and memory.

Memory Registers : A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These are used
to store the data which is directly used by the processor. Registers can be of different
sizes(16 bit, 32 bit, 64 bit and so on) and each register inside the CPU has a specific
function like storing data, storing an instruction, storing address of a location in
memory etc. The user registers can be used by an assembly language programmer for
storing operands, intermediate results etc. Accumulator (ACC) is the main register in
the ALU and contains one of the operands of an operation to be performed in the ALU.

Memory : Memory attached to the CPU is used for storage of data and instructions and
is called internal memory The internal memory is divided into many storage locations,
each of which can store data or instructions. Each memory location is of the same size
and has an address. With the help of the address, the computer can read any memory
location easily without having to search the entire memory. When a program is
executed, it’s data is copied to the internal memory and is stored in the memory till the
end of the execution. The internal memory is also called the Primary memory or Main
memory. This memory is also called as RAM, i.e. Random Access Memory. The time of
access of data is independent of its location in memory, therefore this memory is also
called Random Access memory (RAM). Read this for different types of RAMs

Output Unit : The output unit consists of output devices that are attached with the
computer. It converts the binary data coming from CPU to human understandable form.
The common output devices are monitor, printer, plotter etc.

What is a Computer Bus?

A bus is a set of physical connections (cables, circuits, etc.) that can be shared by
multiple hardware components to communicate with one another. Memory and input/
output devices are connected to the Central Processing Unit through a group of lines
called a bus. These lines are designed to transfer data between different components.

Types of Computer Bus

Address Bus

Data Bus

Control Bus

1. Address Bus

A collection of wires used to identify particular location in main memory is called

Address Bus. Or in other words, the information used to describe the memory locations
travels along the address bus.

The address bus transports memory addresses which the processor wants to access in
order to read or write data..

The address bus is unidirectional.

The size of address bus determines how many unique memory locations can be
addressed.

Example:

A system with 4-bit address bus can address 24 = 16 Bytes of memory.

A system with 16-bit address bus can address 216 = 64 KB of memory

A system with 20-bit address bus can address 220 = 1 MB of memory.

2. Data Bus

A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to
another is called Data Bus.

Data Bus can be thought of as a highway on which data travels within a computer.

The main objective of data bus is transfer of the data between microprocessor to input/
output devices or memory.

The data bus transfers instructions coming from or going to the processor.

The data bus is bidirectional because the data can flow in either direction from CPU to
memory(or input/output device) or from memory to the CPU.

The size (width) of bus determines how much data can be transmitted at one time.

Example:

A 16-bit bus can transmit 16 bits of data at a time.

32-bit bus can transmit 32 bits at a time.

Control Bus

The connections that carry control information between the CPU and other devices
within the computer is called Control Bus.

The main objective of control bus is all signals controller carried from processor to
other hardware device.

The control bus transports orders and synchonisation signal coming from the control
unit and travelling to all other hardware components

The Control bus is bidirectional because the data can flow in either direction from CPU
to memory(or input/output device) or from memory to the CPU.

It also transmits response signals from the hardware.

Example:

This bus is used to indicate whether the CPU is reading from memory or writing to
memory.
 Conclusion

The bus system is the important part of computer architecture which helps the
computer CPU to communicate efficiently with memory as well input/output devices.
The performance and reliability of a computer system is depending to the design and
implementation of the computer bus system is mentioned into the points that we
elaborate the importance of computing.

2.Discuss various computer types with their applications in real world

environment?

A)Computer Types: Basing capacity, technology used and performance of computer,

they are classified Into two types

→ According to computational ability

. → According to generation

According to computational ability (Based on Size, cost and performance):

There are mainly 4 types of computers. These include:

a) Micro computers
b) Mainframe computers
c) Mini computers
d) Super computer

a) Micro computers: -

Micro computers are the most common type of computers in existence today, whether at
work in School or on the desk at home. These computers include:
 1. Desktop computer
2. Personal digital assistants (more commonly known as PDA’s)
3. Palmtop computers
4. Laptop and notebook computers

Micro computers were the smallest, least powerful and least expensive of the computers
of the time. The first Micro computers could only perform one task at a time, while bigger
computers ran multi-tasking Operating systems, and served multiple users. Referred to as
a personal computer or “desktop computer”, Micro computers are generally meant to
service one user (person) at a time. By the late 1990s, all personal Computers run a multi-
tasking operating system, but are still intended for a single user.

b) Mainframe Computers :-

The term Mainframe computer was created to distinguish the traditional, large, institutional
computer Intended to service multiple users from the smaller, single user machines. These
computers are capable of Handling and processing very large amounts of data easily and
quickly. A mainframe speed is so fast that it is measured in millions of tasks per
milliseconds (MTM). While other computers became smaller, Mainframe computers stayed
large to maintain the ever growing memory capacity and speed. Mainframe computers are
used in large institutions such as government, banks and large corporations. These
institutions were early adopters of computer use, long before personal computers were
available to Individuals. “Mainframe” often refers to computers compatible with the
computer architectures established in The 1960’s. Thus, the origin of the architecture also
affects the classification, not just processing power.

c) Mini Computers / Workstation :-

Mini computers, or Workstations, were computers that are one step above the micro or
personal Computers and a step below mainframe computers. They are intended to serve
one user, but contain special Hardware enhancements not found on a personal computer.
They run operating systems that are normally Associated with mainframe computers,
usually one of the variants of the UNIX operating system.

d) Super Computer:-
 A Super computer is a specialized variation of the mainframe. Where a mainframe is
intended to Perform many tasks, a Super computer tends to focus on performing a
single program of intense numerical Calculations. Weather forecasting systems,
Automobile design systems, extreme graphic generator for Example, are usually based
on super computers.

3.Give an overview of the performance measurement of computers?

A)Performance: -The most important measure of the performance of a computer is

how quickly it Can execute programs. The speed with which a computer executes
program is affected by The design of its hardware. For best performance, it is necessary
to design the compiles,The machine instruction set, and the hardware in a coordinated
way.The total time required to execute the program is elapsed time is a measure of the
Performance of the entire computer system. It is affected by the speed of the processor,
The disk and the printer. The time needed to execute a instruction is called the
processor Time.

Performance measurements:-

It is very important to be able to access the performance of a computer, comp

Designers use performance estimates to evaluate the effectiveness of new features.The
previous argument suggests that the performance of a computer is given by The
execution time T, for the program of interest.

Inspite of the performance equation being so simple, the evaluation of ‘T’ is Highly
complex. Moreover the parameters like the clock speed and various architectural
Features are not reliable indicators of the expected performance.Hence measurement
of computer performance using bench mark programs is Done to make comparisons
possible, standardized programs must be used.The performance measure is the time
taken by the computer to execute a given Bench mark. Initially some attempts were
made to create artificial programs that could be Used as bench mark programs. But
synthetic programs do not properly predict the Performance obtained when real
application programs are run.A non profit organization called SPEC- system
performance evaluation Corporation selects and publishes bench marks.The program
selected range from game playing, compiler, and data base Applications to numerically
intensive programs in astrophysics and quantum chemistry. In Each case, the program
is compiled under test, and the running time on a real computer is Measured. The same
program is also compiled and run on one computer selected as Reference.

The ‘SPEC’ rating is computed as follows.

SPEC rating =Running time on the reference computer/Running time on the computer
under test

If the SPEC rating = 50

Means that the computer under test is 50 times as fast as the ultra sparc 10. This Is
repeated for all the programs in the SPEC suit, and the geometric mean of the result is
Computed.Let SPECi be the rating for program ‘i’ in the suite. The overall SPEC rating for
The computer is given by

(n )1/n

SPEC rating = |π. SPECi|

. (i=1 )

Where ‘n’ = number of programs in suite.

Since actual execution time is measured the SPEC rating is a measure of the Combined
effect of all factors affecting performance, including the compiler, the OS, the Processor,
the memory of comp being tested.

4.Discuss the Logic Gates with neat sketches?

A)Logic Gates:

The logic gates are the main structural part of a digital system.Logic Gates are a block of
hardware that produces signals of binary 1 or 0 when input logic requirements are
satisfied.Each gate has a distinct graphic symbol, and its operation can be described by
means of algebraic expressions.The seven basic logic gates includes: AND, OR, XOR, NOT,
NAND, NOR, and XNOR.The relationship between the input-output binary variables for
each gate can be represented in tabular form by a truth table.Each gate has one or two
binary input variables designated by A and B and one binary output variable designated by
x.

AND GATE:

The AND gate is an electronic circuit which gives a high output only if all its inputs are high.
The AND operation is represented by a dot (.) sign.
 OR GATE:

The OR gate is an electronic circuit which gives a high output if one or more of its inputs
are high. The operation performed by an OR gate is represented by a plus (+) sign.

NOT GATE:

The NOT gate is an electronic circuit which produces an inverted version of the input at
its output. It is also known as an Inverter.

NAND GATE:
The NOT-AND (NAND) gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.
The NAND gate gives a high output if any of the inputs are low. The NAND gate is
represented by a AND gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle
represents inversion.
NOR GATE:
The NOT-OR (NOR) gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The
NOR gate gives a low output if any of the inputs are high. The NOR gate is
represented by an OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle
represents inversion.

Exclusive-OR/ XOR GATE:

The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if one of its inputs
is high but not both of them. The XOR operation is represented by an encircled
plus sign.
EXCLUSIVE-NOR/Equivalence GATE:
The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate is a circuit that does the inverse operation to the XOR
gate. It will give a low output if one of its inputs is high but not both of them. The
small circle represents inversion.
5)Convert the following binary number to their equivalent decimal and
hexadecimal (base 16) representation. I) 101101.0101 ii) 1010.0111 iii) 10.01?

A)