Dr.

Vinod Kumari
Associate Professor
Department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur.
Module- Apiculture
Quadrant I (e-Content)

List of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Kinds of honey bees
3. Life history and behaviour of honey bees
3.1. Comb and nesting place
3.2. Life history
3.3. Behaviour
3.3.1. Languages
3.3.2. Swarming
3.3.3. Supersedure
3.3.4. Emergency queen
3.3.5. Absconding and migration
3.3.6. Nectar, water, pollen and propolis collection
4. Beekeeping
4.1. Primitive or indigenous methods
4.2. Modern method or frame hive method
4.2.1. Stand
4.2.2. Bottom board
4.2.3. Brood Chamber
4.2.4. Hive frames
4.2.5. Queen excluder or grid
4.2.6. Super chambers
4.2.7. Covers
4.3. Equipments needed for beekeeping
4.3.1. Bee veil
4.3.2. Overall
4.3.3. Bee gloves
4.3.4. High boots
4.3.5. Hive tool
4.3.6. Scraper
 4.3.7. Division board feeder
4.3.8. Queen cage
4.3.9. Swarm bag
4.3.10. Smoker
4.3.11. Wire embedder
4.3.12. Comb cutter
4.3.13. Bee brush
4.3.14. Uncapping basket
4.3.15. Uncapping knife
4.4. Extraction of honey from hives
4.5. Extraction of beeswax
5. Economic importance of apiculture
5.1. Bee products
5.1.1. Honey
5.1.2. Beeswax
5.1.3. Apitoxin/ bee venom
5.1.4. Propolis
5.1.5. Royal Jelly
5.2. Pollination
6. Problems related to apiculture
6.1. Diseases
6.1.1. Nosema disease
6.1.2. Amoebic disease
6.1.3. Acarine disease
6.1.4. Brood diseases
6.1.4.1. Bacterial diseases
6.1.4.1.1. American foul brood
6.1.4.1.2. European foul brood
6.1.4.2. Fungal diseases
6.1.4.2.1. Chalk brood
6.1.4.2.2. Stone brood
6.1.4.3. Viral diseases
6.1.4.3.1. Sac brood
6.1.4.3.2. Chronic bee paralysis disease
6.1.4.3.3. Clustering disease
6.2. Enemies
6.2.1. Moths
6.2.2. Bee louse
6.2.3. Beetles
6.2.4. Wasps
6.2.5. Ants
6.2.6. Lizards, toads and frogs
6.2.7. Birds
6.2.8. Mammals
7. Beekeeping in India

1. INTRODUCTION
Apiculture or beekeeping is the scientific method of rearing honey bees to procure honey
and wax. ‘Apiculture’ word is the combination of two words- apis + culture, where ‘Apis’
is a Latin word which means bee and culture means care and management of bees.
Therefore, for apiculture or beekeeping the bees are bred in scientific way at commercial
level in apiaries. Since time immemorial, usefulness of honey bees have been known to
man, the references are available from the Vedas, the Charak sanhita, the Ramayana, the
Quran, the Mahabharata and other old literature or holy books. Carvings of bees on
tombs, coffins, crowns, and maces of kings and the coins of empires in prehistoric and
modern empires were also reported. Use of honey as medicines has also been mentioned
by some foreign travellers like Fa-hien and Hiuen Tsang. In World War I, infuriated
swarm of honey bees were released as weapons to hamper the entry of troops in Belgium.
Even the use of bee venom for relieving muscular pain and treatment of sciatica,
rheumatism and arthritis has been known for a long time.
Apiculture is an agro-industry that not only produces honey and beeswax of millions of
dollars but also aid in pollination of commercial fruits, vegetables, and field crops. In
addition, it creates employment that aid in economy of a country. Therefore, it is essential
to understand the apiculture, an agro-industry to develop a skill in students for self-
employment.
2. KINDS OF HONEY BEES
Honey producing bees belong to order Hymenoptera with almost 30,000 species known
so far. They belong to three tribes- Bombini, Meliponini and Apini belonging to family
Apidae and sub family Apinae. The bees belonging to tribe Bombini, keep their broods
and honey in separate waxen pots (not combs). The tribe, Meliponini are stingless bees
making waxen pots e.g., Trigona staudingeri (in Africa) and Melipona beechii (in Mexico
and S. America). These bees are known for producing little honey however reared for the
pleasant tasted and medicinal honey, wax and propolis used for household and curative
properties and act as good pollinators of various food crops. They are small about less
than 5 mm and commonly known with name- dammar bees in India and domesticated in
Sikkim, Nepal, Kerala and Jammu & Kashmir. The tribe Apini have main honey
producing bees. Apis dorsata Fab. (India), A. florea Fab. (India), A. cerana Fab. (India),
A. mellifera L. (Europe), A. koschevinikovi (Indonesia), A. andreniformis (Thailand,
China and Malaysia), A. laboriosa (Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet and parts of Himalaya) are
examples. Of them, first four (Fig. 1) are most popular with apiculture agro-industry and
A. mellifera has been introduced into every country of the world due to its good honey
gathering quality. Following are the brief description of four species-
 Apis dorsata (rock bees or giant bees): It is the largest bee found in India from hilly
tracts to the plains making largest hives 6ft long and 3 ft deep that hang from high
rocks and tall trees at the height of 20 ft above the ground and several per tree (six
dozen to 156). They produce about 50-80 kg honey per colony per year but are most
ferocious, attacking victim even inside water and can kill a man. Being migratory in
nature they migrate to hills in winter and come back to plains during summer. Due to
its ferocious and migratory nature, it is not preferred for apiculture.
 Apis florea (little bee): It is the dwarf and wild bee found all over the plains not above
450 m. Its comb is palm size hanging vertical from branches of bushes, hedges,
buildings, caves, chimneys, empty cases etc. preferably in open place. It does not
stand captivity but does not sting easily. It produces less amount of honey with thin
consistency about half kg per year per hive and migration rate is high, however it
tastes the sweetest of all and domesticated in the Kutch area of Gujarat.
 Apis cerana (Oriental honey bee or Indian bee): It is the medium sized about 15 mm
smaller than rock bee and Italian bee but larger than dwarf bee. It is domesticated in
Pakistan, Nepal, Burma, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, South- East Asia, Indonesia,
Philippines, China and Japan. It is found everywhere in India with two known
subspecies: A. cerana indica and A. cerana cerana and A. cerana indica also occurs
in two morphotypes one is larger and darker, the hills bee or Gandhiana and smaller
and yellow, the plains bee. It makes parallel combs in preferably in dark places like
cavities of logs, hollows of rocks, termitaries, hollowed tree trunks, unused boxes,
clay pots etc. It produces about 7-9 kg honey annually per colony. Generally, it is
non-aggressive and do not migrate however, prone to swarming and absconding.
Therefore, domesticated by around 50000 beekeepers in South India i.e.,
Kanyakumari district of Tamilnadu.
 Apis mellifera (European or Italian bee): It has been originated from Italy and spread
all over the world with following subspecies: A. mellifera ligustica (Italy), A.
mellifera carnica (America), A. mellifera caucasia (Russia), A. mellifera mellifera
(Germany) and A. mellifera adansoni (Africa). It was also introduced to India being
resistant to sacbrood virus to replace Indian bees which were prone to sacbrood
 disease. It resembles Indian honey bee in behavior and looks and also makes the
similar comb i.e., parallel. However, it produces 9-10 times more honey than an
Indian bee (45-101 kg honey annually per hive). It is most preferred bee as it can be
easily domesticated because of gentle temperedness and less swarm formation
behaviour.

Fig. 1: Species of honey bee found in India.

3. ORGANISATION OF BEE COLONY
3.1. COMB AND NESTING PLACE
Worker bees (14-18 days old) construct combs with beeswax secreted by wax glands
located on their 3-6 abdominal sterna which is kneaded to soften with the help of
mandibles and secretion of mandibular glands. Comb is divided into several
hexagonal cells meant as space for developing larvae and food storage. Cells are of
three types: worker cells, drone cells and queen cells. The queen cells are the largest
and the worker cells are smallest, and the cells of drones are larger than those of
workers. The cells of queen, worker and drone are sealed or capped with wax on 8th,
9th and 10th day of emergence, respectively. The cap of drone cells is convex with a
hole at its centre whereas the cap of workers, queen, honey are flat and pollen cells
are generally not capped (Fig. 2). The location of the different cells has a definite
sequence i.e., the uppermost cells near the attachment are for honey storage, below
 these, there are pollen cells and down to them are worker brood cells followed by the
drone and queen cells (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2: Brood cells with eggs in it and cappings.

Fig. 3: Beehive showing location and structure of various cells.

Nesting place selected by bees is waterproof with proper ventilation not under direct
sun rays and protected from enemies like hollow trunk of trees, under rocks, under
the roof of high buildings, chimneys, cupboards and boxes. The bees usually seal the
cracks if it is there at selected place.
3.2. LIFE HISTORY
Honeybees are social insects having a colony with highly organized division of
labour, thus comprised of three castes: the drone (haploid male), the queen (fertile
functional female) and the workers (unfertilized female) (Fig. 4, Table 1). There is
usually one queen per colony but number of workers are variable, about 8000–
25,000, 40,000–50,000, 20,000–40,000 and 50,000–80,000 in A. florea, A. mellifera,
A. cerana and A. dorsata colony, respectively.
Fig. 4: Three castes: worker, drone and queen and different life stages in various cells
of beehive.
Queen (Fig. 5):
The queen is larger than worker and drone due to swollen abdomen with eggs. Their
eyes are far apart. In a colony there is only one egg laying queen which after 5-10
days of emergence takes a nuptial flight followed by drones. It mates with only one
drone for 1-6 times during the flight. The drone dies after copulation and both fall to
the ground. The queen then returns to the colony with the remains of the reproductive
organs of dead drone where it is continuously fed with royal jelly by worker bees
throughout its life. It lays up to 15000 eggs per day. It secretes pheromone called as
queen substance which subsides the reproductive ability of other virgin bees. When
the queen becomes ineffective or dies accidently and thus reduces the secretion of
queen substance then it is replaced by supersedure queen or emergency queen.

Fig. 5: Queen being fed by worker bees

Drone (Fig. 6):
The drones are robust than the workers and queen but smaller in size than the queen.
Their eyes meet over the head. Their main work is to fertilize the queen or fertile
female. They are driven out of the colony hive at the end of breeding season to die of
starvation or to do nuptial flight with fertile female of another colony. They are lazy
and always fed by 3-4 workers.
 Fig. 6: Drone
Workers:
The workers are smaller in size than drones and queen. Eyes are far apart. The
reproductive organs remain underdeveloped under the influence of pheromone
secreted by the queen. Workers during first 3 weeks of their life span spend on
indoor chores like feeding and attending the queen, feeding the drones and the brood,
secreting royal jelly and beeswax, constructing combs, cleaning, ventilating, cooling
and guarding the hive, evaporating nectar and storing honey. Next three weeks
workers do outdoor chores like foraging to collect nectar, pollen, propolis (bee-gum)
and water and ripening honey in its proventriculus. A worker collects half kg honey
in 40-80 thousand trips where single trip is of 1.5 to 3 miles.
Royal jelly or brood food produced by pharyngeal salivary glands is composed of
lipoproteins, neutral glycerides, free fatty acids, sugar, amino acids, and vitamin B
complex. Initially for two and a half days plenty of the brood food is given to all
larvae (obligatory feeding). As soon as the workers and drones are destined their
food is rationed for 6-7 days whereas those destined to become queen are fed
continuously with plenty of royal jelly (facultative feeding).

Table 1: Distinguishing features and life span of three castes of honey bees
Characters Queen Worker Drone
Sex Female Female Male
Fertility Fertile Sterile Fertile
Appearance Larger than both Smaller and less robust Robust than both
than both
Eyes Eyes far apart Eyes far apart Eyes meet over head
Abdomen Black, triangular Striped, triangular with Black, rectangular and
but more sting blunt without sting
elongated
Life span 2-3 years 6 weeks 3 weeks
Hatching (days) 3 3 3
Cell sealing (days) 8 8 8
Larva (days) 5 4 7

Pupa (days) 7-8 11-12 18-20

Adult emergence 15-16 18-21 21-24

(days)
3.3. BEHAVIOUR OF HONEY BEES
3.3.1. LANGUAGES
 Karl Von Frisch described the languages used by bees to give information about
the distance and direction of source of food among themselves i.e., round dance
(Rundtanz) and tail-wagging dance or figure of eight dance (Schwanzeltanz).
The round dance is used to indicate the source of food at short distance whereas
tail-wagging dance is used to indicate the long-distanced source of food. The
direction of food source is determined by the angle that foraging bees make
during dancing between its straight run and top of the hive which is equal to the
angle between the direction of sun and food source. This can be detected even if
the weather is cloudy.
Later, A. M. Wenner and Herald Esch proved that the sound signals produced
during tail wagging dance by foraging bees are actually caught by the other bees.
There is a positive correlation between the oscillations (wags), sound pulses due
to wagging and distance of the source of food; therefore, bees use both dance
and sound in their languages.
3.3.2. SWARMING
When the members in a colony of bee increases up to a considerable strength or
the queen reduces the secretion of pheromone, there is a migration of a part of a
colony to a new place to make another colony. This process is known as
swarming. It is of two types: prime swarm and after swarm or cast.
Prime swarm is the first swarm headed by old queen which is accompanied by
many bees. Before prime swarm, scout bees go out to find the suitable nesting
place and convey it through the dance. After prime swarm, the free virgin
remained in the colony makes a tooting sound of high frequency to locate other
imprisoned virgins that are identified by quacking sound of low frequency they
produce and are allowed by workers to kill them. However, when the workers do
not allow free virgin to kill the unemerged virgins, the free virgin rushes out of
the hive together with another batch of bees and form a second swarm i.e., after
swarm or cast. Casting may occur many times until workers permit the killing of
rest virgins by free virgin.
3.3.3. SUPERSEDURE
When the reproductive efficiency of the queen declines or lays high proportion
of drones, it is replaced or superseded by supersedure queen. The reduced supply
of royal jelly by queen stimulates the workers to build 2 or 3 supersedure cells in
the middle of the hive unlike dozens of queen cells formed at the edge of the
hive during swarming time.
3.3.4. EMERGENCY QUEEN
When the queen dies accidentally, there is a complete absence of royal jelly
which stimulates the workers to produce the emergency queen. Workers select
the larvae at the 2.5 days old age which were fed with abundance of brood feed.
Workers do not ration the feed to that larva and simultaneously enlarge the cells
and extended downwards. Thus, the larva is looked after by workers to develop
it into an emergency queen.
The hive, thus have four types of queen cells built separately in different
situations faced by hive. The normal queen cells built initially near the drone
 cells, supersedure cells in the middle of the hive (2-4, large), swarming queen
cells at the edge of the hive (dozen in numbers), and emergency queen cells.
3.3.5. ABSCONDING AND MIGRATION
Due to lack of water, over exhaustion of food, robbery of honey, overheating due
to improper ventilation or poor insulation, attack by ants or waxmoth or the
interference by beekeeper or honey extruders there is a complete abandonment
of a hive known as absconding or migration. The migratory or absconding
swarm feed whatever the honey left in the hive and migrate to a new nesting
place where they easily establish there. The empty combs and brood are left
behind.
3.3.6. NECTAR, WATER, POLLEN AND PROPOLIS COLLECTION

Fig. 7: Modified legs of honey bees for pollen collection: (A) showing outer side
of the leg and (B) showing inner side of the leg.
Nectar is collected by foraging bees from the flowers of nearby crop or plants
through proboscis. It is then kept in the honey stomach equivalent to crop of
other insects. Likewise, the water is collected by separate bees every day from
moist soil or water bodies like ponds, streams or rivers and is stored in the honey
stomach. Both the liquids are regurgitated and passed on to the beehive where
honey is deposited in honey cells and water in brood cells.
The collection of pollen is done by the hind legs of foraging bees which is
modified to form pollen basket or corbicula, pollen rakes, pollen brushes, pollen
 combs and pollen press (Fig. 7). On returning to the nest, the entangled pollens
are emptied in the pollen cells for current or future use.
Some of the main pollen and nectar yielding plants are- Fruit crops- Citrus,
Guava, Jamun, Mango, Jujube etc., Vegetable crops- All cruciferous vegetables,
carrot, coriander, lady finger etc., Ornamental plants- Aster, railway creeper,
cosmos, coral creeper, hollyhock etc. The roses and sunflower are good source
of pollen and trees- Acacia, Eucalyptus, neem, Indian laburum, soap nut etc.
4. BEEKEEPING
In general, an apiary (Beekeeping farm) should be located at a site which has an
abundance of nectar and pollen bearing plants within 1-2 km. radius. The site should be
sufficiently airy and stuffy places should be avoided. However, the site should not be
exposed to the strong winds and the hives should not face the direction of prevailing
winds. The site should preferably be flat with general slope for drainage of rainwater.
Clean or fresh running water should be available to the bees in or near the apiary. A shady
place is very good for an apiary, but a young orchard is an ideal choice. For commercial
use, beekeeping methods have been improved from crude or indigenous methods to the
modern methods.
4.1. PRIMITIVE OR INDIGENOUS METHODS
In this method the bees are improvised with the space to build their hives naturally.
Some beekeepers take clusters of the swarms from the tree and keep them in the
space they provide. The honey is extracted by fuming or bringing fire near the hive.
The bees either die or escape from the hives leaving honey and brood. In this type of
method, the honey extracted is impure due to the presence of larvae and pollens.
Moreover, there are many drawbacks of indigenous methods like: the colony become
weak due to the killing of eggs and larvae, after each extraction, bees need to make
new hive which reduces their efficiency and energy level, the activity of bees in this
method cannot be controlled, prone to attack by ants, rats, wasps, wax moth and
monkeys, easily affected by change in climatic conditions, and no selection of bees
possible in this type of methods. The indigenous methods are of two types:
Fixed type: a receptacle in the wall of house or building is provided to bees to build
hive. There is an entrance and observation holes in it to keep an eye on it.
Movable type: a hollow space like empty boxes, hollowed logs, bamboos, earthen
pots, pipes are provided to bees to build their hives.
4.2. MODERN METHOD OR FRAME HIVE METHOD
Modern methods include artificial bee hives fitted with movable frames on which the
bees are made to build their combs. Artificial hives were first introduced by L. L.
Langstroth in 1851. Now there are various types of frame hives used all over the
world i.e., Smith, British Commercial, Langstroth, BIS hive (Bureau of Indian
Standards), Newton hive, Jeolikote hive, single walled and double walled Dadant
hive, pot hive, book hive, Madhusagar hive, house hive, nucleous hive and basket
hive. In India, BIS hive, Newton hive and Marthandam hive are usually used for
Indian bees whereas, Langstroth hive is used for A. mellifera. They all are similar in
design having several boxes one on top of the other with suspended hive frames,
where lower one or two boxes are used for holding brood while upper one or two
boxes are used for collection of honey pollen and propolis. However, they differ in
their dimensions and number of frames used.
Langstorth hive model uses 10 frames with spacing of 1⅜ inches for European bees
whereas, 11 frames spaced with 1¼ inches for Indian and African bees. The parts of
typical langstroth movable hive model are described here under (Fig. 8):

Fig. 8: Langstroth frame hive.

4.2.1. STAND
It is the base of the hive to support the complete hive. It is 4 legged and 6-9
inches high from the ground and usually provided with ant wells to protect the
hive from ants.
4.2.2. BOTTOM BOARD
It is a rectangular tray raised from all the sides and a piece of board from the
middle of the front is removed to allow bees to enter and exit from it. Sometimes
alighting board is used to replace the front side runner of the board, but it is not
necessary where hive is kept on the stand.
4.2.3. BROOD CHAMBER
Brood chamber is rectangular board without top and bottom. Its number may be
increased depending on the strength of the colony. There is a rabbet or scooped
shelf on the entire length of the chamber to receive the top bar of hive frames so
that they rest on it to hang frame in the brood chamber.
4.2.4. HIVE FRAMES
These are the wooden frames with one top, two side and one bottom bars (Fig. 9,
10). The top bar is projected out to rest on the rabbet of brood chamber and its
underside is grooved to receive the edge of comb foundation. Frames are of two
types (Fig. 9): Hoffman- self-spacing frames where the upper third portion of
side frame is given the width of measurement 0.96 cm and staple-spaced frames
 that have two staples at the end of top bars to have a fix spacing between the two
frames.
4.2.5. COMB FOUNDATION
The frames have wiring between the side bars on which a fixed sheet of beeswax
bearing premarked hexagons on both sides, which is called as comb foundation
(Fig. 10). Usually the size and shape of the hexagons should tally with that of
cells of the species of bees to be domesticated. The bees build the cells on the
impression or premarked hexagons.

Fig. 9: (A) Hoffman self-spacing hive frame, (B) Staple-spaced hive frame

Fig. 10: Comb foundation

4.2.6. QUEEN EXCLUDER OR GRID
It is kept between brood chamber and super chamber. It is made up of zinc or
plastic wire frame with perforations of 2.3-3.5 mm size that is good enough for
escape of worker bees but not for queen whose thorax width is 4-5 mm.
4.2.7. SUPER CHAMBER
 It is placed above the queen excluder and is fitted with frames. The supers are
same as brood chamber but shallower therefore the size of frames of it is also
smaller. It can also be 2-3 in numbers depending on the strength of colony.
4.2.8. COVERS
Covers are the topmost on the beehive usually two in numbers. One is the inner
cover which is flat with one or two oval holes only for bee escapes but no entry.
The other is outer cover which is usually white or yellow painted on the outside
to keep the hive cool and easily be identified by bees. It acts as roof of the
beehive and may be slanting or an inverted tray like appearance.

Fig. 11: Bee veil wearing Scientist Prof. Ombir in an apiary.

Newton Hive is also with stand, bottom board, brood chamber with seven hive
frames, super and super frame, top cover with sloping planks
4.3. EQUIPMENTS NEEDED FOR BEEKEEPING
4.3.1. BEE VEIL
Bee veil is used to protect the face of the beekeeper. It is made up of frames with
small mesh wire gauge and cloth on the top and bottom (Fig. 11 and 12, A). The
bottom cloth that covers the entire neck, have strings to be tied around the
shoulders or elastic at the edge to make it stick to the neck.
4.3.2. OVERALL
It is the garment worn by beekeepers to protect their body from stinging bees
(Fig. 12, B).
4.3.3. BEE GLOVES
To protect the hands, beekeepers wear gloves made of leather or thick canvass
with elastic at the wrist side (Fig. 12, C).
4.3.4. HIGH BOOTS
To protect legs and from entry of bees through trousers, beekeepers wear high
boots (Fig. 12, D)
 Fig. 12: (A) Bee veil (B) Overall Fig. 13: Hive tool
(C) Bee gloves (D) High boots
4.3.5. HIVE TOOL
It is made up of steel with a flat sharpened end and a curved or bent end (Fig.
13). The bent end is used to separate the frames whereas the sharp end is used to
separate hive boxes. It is also used to scrape off the propolis and superfluous
comb pieces.
4.3.6. SCRAPER
It is also used to scrape off the propolis and superfluous comb pieces like hive
tool but more effectively. It is made up of flat sharpened steel with wooden
handle (Fig. 14).

Fig. 14: Scraper Fig. 15: Division board feeder

4.3.7. DIVISION BOARD FEEDER
As extra feeding is necessary for breeding, during absconding or shortage of
honey before honey flow starts in the flowers, a sugar solution is kept in
rectangular wooden trough with its extended shoulders which help it to hang in
the hive boxes (Fig. 15). A wooden strip is also placed inclined in the division
board feeder for bees to sit on it for sipping of sugar solution.
4.3.8. QUEEN CAGE
Queen cage is used to transport a young laying-queen to the hive as after every
two years, the old queen loses its ability to produce sufficient queen substance
that maintain the hive and suppresses the gonad development of worker bees. It
is of two type: rectangular (Fig. 16) and conical (Fig. 17). Rectangular queen
cage is made up of large-mesh wire gauge in rectangular shape with holes on
two opposite sides. One hole is plugged with a piece of wood or cork and
another one is covered with paper. To transfer new queen, queen cage is placed
in the brood box between the hive frames. New queen releases the queen
substance or pheromone to stimulate workers to feed it by entering in the cage
 through cutting of paper covering a hole. This release the new queen from the
queen cage and it soon takes the control of colony.

Fig. 16: Queen cage (Rectangular) Fig. 17: Conical Queen cage
4.3.9. SWARM BAG
It is a bag made up of cloth and wire gauge (Fig. 18). It is used to collect swarm
from the trees or bushes by shaking. The swarm collected in the bag is
transferred in the hive by opening its one end. The transfer of swarm is
occasionally necessary to maintain the strength of the bee hive.

Fig. 18: Swarm bag Fig. 19: Smoker

4.3.10. SMOKER
Smoker has a metal cylinder to which a bellow is attached to blow the fire and
burning pieces of sacs to generate cool smoke (Fig. 19). The smoke without heat
and flame, is used to drive the bees from super chambers to collect the honey,
the bees become submissive and do not sting.
4.3.11. WIRE EMBEDDER
Wire embedder (Fig. 20) has a spur or round wheel at one end with a wooden
handle to hold it. It is used to embed the comb foundation having hexagonal cell
impressions, on the wires of the hive frame.

Fig. 20: Wire embedder Fig. 21: Comb cutter

4.3.12. COMB CUTTER
 To cut and remove the old and worn out combs, the comb cutter is used (Fig.
21).
4.3.13. BEE BRUSH
Bee brush is used to brush off the bees from a honey comb before honey
extraction (Fig. 22).

Fig. 22: Bee brush Fig. 23 Uncapping basket

4.3.14. UNCAPPING BASKET
Uncapping basket (Fig. 23) is used to keep the caps of honey cells collected after
uncapping. A ‘T- shaped’ wooden bar is kept on the mouth of the basket to
support the bottom bar of the hive frame during the uncapping process.
4.3.15. UNCAPPING KNIFE
The uncapping knife is used to remove the caps (or seal) of the honey cells from
the combs before honey extraction. It is of two types: cold and steam uncapping
knife (Fig. 24 and 25). The steam uncapping knife has a double-walled blade
that is heated by steam provided through the tube connected to boiler. The
uncapping is easier with steam uncapping knife as compared to cold one. The
hive frames after uncapping is ready to go into the extractor.

Fig. 24: Cold uncapping knife Fig. 25: Steam uncapping knife

4.3.16. DRONE TRAP

Drone trap is a rectangular box with queen excluder sheet on one side and open
on another side. At the bottom wall of the box there are two hollow cones
through which drone can exit but unable to return. Thus, it is used kept in the
entrance to reduce the drone population in the hive by trapping drones in it.
 4.3.17. POLLEN TRAP
Pollen trap is set at the entrance of the hive provided with a drawer like tray. It
scrapes the pollen pellets from the legs of the foraging bees returning into the
hives.
4.4. EXTRACTION OF HONEY FROM HIVES
As the bees store the honey in the upper part of their hive therefore the super
chamber is placed on the top of beehives designed for rearing bees. This helps in
honey extraction with an ease. After uncapping from both the sides of hive frame, the
hive frames are put into the extractor to extract honey. In the honey extractor, which
is a drum like, the hive frames are rotated at high speed so that honey is driven out of
the cells of the combs on the hive frame due to centrifugal force. There are three
types of honey extractor viz., tangential extractor for small beekeepers and radial
extractor and parallel-radial extractor for commercial beekeeper. The honey extracted
is then collected in vessels situated below the outlet. Honey is strained by using
strainer with fine mesh wire-gauge or cheese cloth and only when the honey is fresh,
warm and fluid because it becomes thick when cooled down. Honey extraction can
be done either in open or room. In open place extraction should be done in night to
avoid interference from other bees. When extraction is to be done in room, the room
should be bee proof with wire netting on the doors and windows. The wire netting of
windows should be provided with cone for bees (which come along with hive frame)
to escape from the room. The honey collected after straining and removing air
bubbles from the surface after settling is ready for bottling and sale.
4.5. EXTRACTION OF BEESWAX
The combs of hive frames after honey extraction and cappings obtained after
uncapping process are used to obtain beeswax. The combs and cappings are first
soaked in water to remove extraneous honey and after draining off water these
become ready to render beeswax cakes and buttons. The rendering is done by solar
extractor, boiling with water (Tanganyika method) and by wax presses.
 A solar extractor uses sunlight to melt combs and caps when placed in the sun.
Molten wax collected after filtering through wire gauge sheets and leaving
extraneous matter, is removed, remolten and moulded into a cake or button in
a mould of desired shape.
 In Tanganyika method, all kinds of combs are melted by boiling it with plenty
of water in either earthen pots or utensils made up of other than zinc, iron,
brass and copper with which wax reacts and gets stained. The molten is passed
through wire-gauge or cloth to remove the extraneous matter and allowed to
cool. After cooling some impurities are scraped off which still remain and then
remolten in water to get more refined beeswax.
 Wax presses use steam and pressure to melt the combs. The combs are
wrapped in the canvas bags and container containing it is put on boiling water
through which emitting steam helps in melting the comb and molten wax then
oozes out from the bags and collected in a collecting vessel. When molten wax
stops oozing out from the bags, a pressure is applied from above. The
 steaming and pressure are renewed 2-3 times to get all the beeswax from the
combs.
5. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF APICULTURE
Apiculture is an agro-industry through which we get following direct and indirect profit:
5.1. BEE PRODUCTS
The chief products we get direct from apiculture or beekeeping are as follows-
5.1.1. HONEY
Honey is nectar sucked by bees from flowers and regurgitated in the honey cells in
the beehive. The ripen honey in the honey cells is composed of water soluble
carbohydrates, minerals (potassium, calcium, aluminium, nickel, iodine, sulphur,
fluoride, vanadium, bromine, molybdenum, barium, boron, etc.) proteins and
vitamins in the proportion as mentioned in table 2.
Table 2: Chemical composition of ripened honey
CONTENTS PERCENTAGE (%)
Levulose (fructose) 41
Dextrose (Glucose) 35
Sucrose 1.9
Dextrins 1.5
Minerals 3.3
Water 17-20
Proteins (amino acids) 0.18
Vitamin B [Thiamin (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin (B3), Traces
Pentothenic acid (B5), Pyridoxine (B6)]
Vitamin C Traces
Vitamin D Traces
Vitamin A Traces
Enzymes Traces
Pigments (carotenoids, Xanthophylls, anthocyanins, etc.) Traces
Acids (acetic, butyric, citric, formic, gluconic, lactic, malic, Traces
pyroglutamic, and succinic)
Colour and flavour of honey comes and depends on the kinds of flower the bees visit.
The darker honey has a stronger flavour and the lighter honey has a pleasant or
delicate flavour. It is alkaline and does not produce acidosis. Its specific gravity
ranges from 1.34 to 1.44 gms/cc.
To preserve its original flavour, colour and texture, it should be kept in room
temperature with much less exposure to the air. At 25oC, honey crystallises due to
crystallisation of dextrose sugar thus appears as granulated. Crystallisation may cause
fermentation of honey as levulose and water comes on the top layer. There is no
reliable test for testing the purity of honey except that the bottle bears the name of
some reputated agency. However, indirect tests like (i) the honey is not eaten by dog,
or (ii) it does not burn or (iii) it is soothing to the eyes are all unreliable. Presence of
crumbs of comb with brood or bees as a sign of purity of honey is also nothing more
than a gimmick. The only scientific method is testing the specific gravity of the
honey by a hydrometer.
 Uses: Honey is highly nutritive thus given as first feed to newborn and necessary
item in puja in Hindu mythology. It is believed that one pond of honey is equal to 30
eggs, 3 litres of milk, one kg of meat or dozen apples. Honey also has medicinal
value in Homeopathic, Unani and Ayurvedic medicines and is used as laxative, blood
purifier, curative for cold, cough, fever, sores of throat and tongues, eye ailments,
ulcers, and burns.
It is also used in baking and beverage industries, poultry and pisciculture etc.
5.1.2. BEESWAX
Beeswax is produced by bees for the construction of hives. There are four pairs of
wax glands present on 3rd to 6th abdominal sterna which secrete liquid wax that cools
down immediately to scales of white beeswax. Freshly prepared beeswax from the
process described in section 4.5 is white and smells like honey but turns yellow with
time.
Chemical composition and physical properties of beeswax are as given in table 3. The
beeswax produced by Indian bees is also known as Ghedda wax and it differs in low
acid value and high ester value from the wax that is produced by European bees.
Therefore ester/acid ratio for European beeswax is lower (3.3-4.3) whereas, it is
higher (8-9) in Asian beeswax.
Uses: beeswax is used in cosmetic industries (creams, lotions, haircreams, lipsticks,
etc.), grease paints, pharmaceutical preparations like ointments and pill coatings,
candles, polishes (for floor, shoes, leather), crayons, carbon paper, electrical
insulations, waterproof papers, sealing wax, lubricants (for archer’s bow and musical
instrument’s strings). It is also used in scientific (microtomy), military and atomic
research.
Table 3: Chemical and physical properties of beeswax (Bagdanov, 2016)
Monoesters 35%
Diesters 14%
Trimesters 3%
Hydroxy monoesters 4%
Hydroxy polyesters 8%
Chemical compositions Acid esters 1%
Acid polyesters 2%
Free acids 12-13%
Hydrocarbons 12-14%
Lactones 0.6%
Water <1%
Specific gravity at 15.5oC 0.950- 0.965
o
Refractive index at 75 C 1.4398-1.4451
o
Melting point ( C) 61-65
Physical constants Setting point (oC) 61-62.5
Acidic number 17-24
Ester value 70-90
Saponification number 87-100

5.1.3. APITOXIN/ BEE VENOM

 Bee venom present in venom sac of poison or acid gland, attached with ovipositor or
sting is injected along with sting by workers for their protection. It is used in
apitherapy in many countries like China, Egypt, Babylon, Greece, USA and India for
the cure of diseases like osteoarthritis, Parkinson disease, multiple sclerosis (MS),
nerve pain, etc. The bee venom collected using venom extractor can be used in
ointment or as subcutaneous injections.
5.1.4. PROPOLIS
Propolis is a sticky dark coloured resinous substance from seeps from the buds of
some trees and oozes from the bark of trees (mainly conifers) which is gathered by
bees in their pollen baskets. It is then mixed with bees’ own secretions and beeswax
and is used as sealing for cracks and unwanted spaces by bees. Chemically, propolis
has polyphenols (flavonoid, phenolic acids alcohols and ketones), sesquiterpene
quinones, steroids, amino acids and inorganic compounds. It has anti-inflammatory
and antimicrobial activity; therefore, it is known to be used for cure of abscesses,
dermatitis, cancer, wounds and infections. It has also been used by Egyptians for
mummies preparations. Only A. mellifera among all the bees, forage for propolis and
similar substance is also collected by stingless bees.
5.1.5. ROYAL JELLY
Royal jelly is acidic and white coloured which contains proteins, vitamins A, B and C,
sugars, RNA, fatty acids, minerals (Iron, copper, phosphorous, silicon and sulphur),
amino acids such as such as alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine,
isoleucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, tyrosine and serine. It is
secreted by the worker bees which feed broods at the age of 6–12 days. It is known
for its highly nutritious value as it increases vigour and vitality. To harvest it a
Doolittle or grafting method is used where an artificial queen cell cups made from
pure wax are kept inside the hive by attaching it to a brood frame. To harvest royal
jelly, one- or two-days old larvae are kept in cups which are then fed by worker bees.
5.2. POLLINATION
Bees are very well-known pollinators therefore we get indirect profit from apiculture.
Bee pollination gives better harvest to an agriculturist; therefore, nowadays there is a
trend of establishing apiary in crop fields.
6. PROBLEMS RELATED TO APICULTURE
For apiculture, keeping beehives healthy and in good conditions is very challenging due
to disease causing organisms and enemies.
6.1. DISEASES
6.1.1. Nosema disease
It is caused by Nosema apis, a Protozoan (Class: Sporozoa). This disease is
observed in temperate region and mostly in winter season. It can reduce the bee
population to a great extent due to dysentery caused by attack of stomach lining
of the bees. The spores from faeces of infected bees cause the infection of other
bees.
Treatment: sterilization with glacial acetic acid fumes or 40% formaline in brood
box without bees and queen is usually in practice by apiculturist.
6.1.2. Amoebic disease
 Causal organism of amoebic disease is also a protozoan, Malpighamoeba
mellificae. It also causes dysentery in infected bees and infests malpighian
tubules.
Treatment: sterilization of brood box is the only solution as that in Nosema
disease.
6.1.3. Acarine disease
This disease is also called as ‘Isle of Wight’ caused by a parasitic mite, Acarapis
woodi (tracheal mite). It inhabits in trachea through which it gets entry in the bee
body and feed on bee body fluid. Therefore, trachea is clogged and results in the
death of parasitized bee. Varroa jacobsoni is an ectoparasitic mite that causes
varroosis disease in honey bees (Fig. 26). Another ectoparasitic mite of bees are
Tropilaelaps clareae and T. mercedesae which are known as brood mites. They
feed on haemolymph of pupae of bees and reproduce in brood.
Treatment: to kill mites, a mixture of safrol oil, nitrobenzene and petrol in the
ratio of 1:2:2, respectively or methylsalycilate soaked cotton is placed under the
hive.

(A) (B)
Fig. 26: Varroa jacobsoni, an ectoparsitic mite, (A) on worker bee, (B) on larvae
6.1.4. Brood diseases
Bacteria, viruses and fungi easily attack the brood of the honeybee, therefore
there are following five types of brood diseases-
6.1.4.1. Bacterial diseases
6.1.4.1.1. American foul brood
Paenibacillus larvae is the causal organism of American foul brood and
very common in temperate regions. It causes death of larvae after cells
being sealed and cappings appear sunken and perforated. Therefore, the
brood cells appear patchy with diseased and healthy cells. The larvae
become chocolate brown and ultimately start giving foul smell when
converted into sticky mess. Although adults are not affected by American
foul brood but act as a carrier of spores to the larvae while feeding them.
Treatment: The best way of treatment is to transfer the whole members of
the colony to new foundations and completely burning and burying the
infected beehive in the pit. In case of mild infection, treatment with
sulphathiazole has been suggested by many researchers.
6.1.4.1.2. European foul brood
 It is caused by non-spore forming bacteria, Melissococcus plutonius,
Paenibacillus alvei and Streptococcus apis. Unlike American foul brood,
the larvae infected with this disease die before the cells are capped and turn
chocolate brown. Bacteria do not affect the tissue but remain in the
alimentary canal, multiply and compete for its food resulting in the death of
the larvae due to starvation. Although, it does not lead to unpleasant smell,
the secondary infection by other bacteria is the reason of foul smell
formation in the colony.
Treatment: as the main reason of this disease is hygiene, the only treatment
is burning and burying the infected beehive in the pit after transferring the
colony to fresh foundations.
6.1.4.2. Fungal diseases
6.1.4.2.1. Chalk brood
In Chalk brood as the name suggests, larvae are converted into chalk white
due to the presence of cottony filaments or masses of mycelium of fungus,
Ascosphaera apis. The larvae die in the cells after capping, shrink and
become loose in the cells. Although it is not fatal and serious disease, it
reduces the honey production by weak colony.
Treatment: usually the disease is managed by worker bees but if
uncontrolled the burning and burying is done like that described earlier in
American foul brood and European foul brood. Proper ventilation is also
suggested to prevent the disease.
6.1.4.2.2. Stone brood
Stone brood is caused by a fungus, Aspergillus flavus which infects the
adults also. Aspergillus invade through cuticle and spores are ingested
through the alimentary canal. Alimentary canal is then filled with the
germinating fungal spores causing larvae to become stone hard and lie open
in cells but aflatoxin produced by Aspergillus is the reason of their death.
Adult bees after infection become paralysed and feeble and get mummified.
Treatment: like Nosema disease, disinfection by formaldehyde fumes and
maintenance of hygiene are preferred treatment.
6.1.4.3. Viral dieases
6.1.4.3.1. Sac brood
In India, it is caused by Thai sac brood virus (TSBV) or Sac brood virus
(SBV) in which larvae become sac like with tough skin and die inside the
capped cells after attaining adulthood. Both larval and pupal stages of bees
rather than adults are affected by this disease and brood cells become
patchy due to sunken cell cappings in diseased cells. More than 90%
devastation in A. cerana colonies in India have been reported.
Treatment: the only treatment is transferring the colony to new one,
burning the infected colony and burying it in the pit. Maintenance of
hygiene is foremost necessary to prevent its occurrence.
6.1.4.3.2. Chronic Bee Paralysis Disease
 Chronic bee paralysis disease is also known as hairless black syndrome or
little black robbers. It is caused by chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV)
which results into death of the bees within a week. Adult bees become
black, hairless and shiny. A K-winged syndrome is observed in which bees
are seen crawling on the ground due to disability in flying.
Treatment: Proper ventilation, maintenance of hygienic conditions,
providing supplement food, and transferring the colony to new one, burning
the infected colony and burying it in the pit.
6.1.4.3.3. Clustering disease
Apis iridescent virus (AIV) cause clustering disease in honey bees. It infects
alimentary canal, hypopharyngeal glands, ovaries and fat bodies in bees. In
this disease bees form clusters inside as well as outside the hive suspension
of their foraging and brood raising behaviour. Similarly, Kashmir bee
virus (KBV) which is transmitted in bees through Varroa mite attack due
to piercing of cuticle. Virus is most virulent infecting haemolymph and
resulting death within 3 days.
Treatment: Maintaining hygienic conditions.
6.2. ENEMIES
Following are the enemies of bees which act as robbers and breeders-
6.2.1. Moths
Acherontia styx, death’s head hawk moth, is a robber which enter in the hive in
the night and feeds the honey from the honey cells. Another moths, Galleria
mellonella (greater waxmoth) and Achroia grisella (lesser waxmoth) are
breeders that lay their eggs in the combs and larvae bore into the wax of combs
to feed on pollen and in turn weave silken masses of webs deteriorating the
combs. Vitula spp. (dried fruit moth), Plodia interpunctella, Ephestia kuehniella
and E. cautella moths are also known as enemies of honey bee colonies.
Management: although bees keep these enemies under control,
paradichlorobenzene is used for the protection against moths. Recently, the use
of Bacillus thuringiensis, Galleria nuclear polyhedrosis virus (GNPV),
oviposition attractants and genetic manipulation are recommended biocontrol
measures against the wax moth.

Fig. 27: Galleria mellonella on the comb.

6.2.2. Bee louse
Bee louse is unusual wingless and small flies belonging to Braulidae family of
Diptera order. Two genera Braula and Megabraula are known as bee louse
which are not a true bee parasite and have superficial resemblance with mites or
 lice. Larval stage of Braula coeca burrows under the capping of honey combs
thus have an economic impact on beekeeping industry.
Management: Though it is not considered as major pest of honey bees, there are
very few recommendations for Braula control with fluvalinate and tobacco
smoke.
6.2.3. Beetles
Beetles are also both robbers and breeders. Tenebriobid beetle, Platybolium
alvearium and Bradymerus sp. being robbers enters the beehive and steals
honey. African small hive beetle, Aethina tumida breeds in the beehive and
causes damage to comb, stored honey and pollens. It makes tunnel in the comb,
feeds and defecates resulting in the discolouration and fermentation of honey.
Protaetia aurichalcea, P. impavida and Anomala dimidiata are also known to
feed pollens stored in hives.
Management: Paradichlorobenzene is used for the protection from the beetles.
Phosphorothiorate, an ectoparasiticide is also used for the management of
African small hive beetle.
6.2.4. Wasps
Vespa orientalis, V. cincta (yellow banded hornet), V. ducalis, V. auraria, V.
Magnifica, Philanthus ramakrishna and Palarus orientalis (bee hunter wasp) are
the species of wasps predaceous on bees. They catch bees from the fields or the
hive and completely finish the colony.
Management: to protect from wasps, destruction of their papery nests by burning
or spraying pesticides is suggested method.
6.2.5. Ants
Ants like carpenter ant, Componotus compressus; small red household ant,
Dorylus labiatus; Monomorium indicum and M. destructor also attack the bee
hive and consume stored honey, pollens, brood, dead bodies and waste materials.
Management: ants are managed by destroying their nests present in the vicinity
of beehive by fumigating or use of insecticides. The legs of the beehive stand are
wrapped with tapes soaked in good repellents against ants.
6.2.6. Lizards, toads and frogs
Lizards (Calotes spp., Acanthosaura spp., Hemidactylus frenatus and the skink,
Sphenomorphus spp.), toads and frogs are insectivorous; therefore, they are
threat to the apiculture.
Management: Apiculturists should keep eye on these organisms and always keep
apiary on the stand.
6.2.7. Birds
King crow, Dicrurus macrocercus and bee-eater, species of Merops such as M.
orientalis (Fig. 27), M. apiaster (European bee-eater), M. orientalis (small green
bee-eater), M. leschenaulti (chestnut-headed bee-eater), M. superciliosus
persicus (blue-cheeked bee-eater) and M. philippinus philipinnus (blue-tailed
bee-eater), Cypselus spp., Apus spp. (swifts), Indicator indicator (honey guides)
and Lanius spp. (shrikes) are major birds that prey on the bees.
 Management: No large-scale management is recommended for them as they aid
in pest management. So, continuous watch and making high pitch noises,
producing scaring sounds by beating the empty tins or drums to scare and drift
away the birds coming near the apiary.

Fig. 28: Merops orientalis with honey bee in its beak.

6.2.8. Mammals
Mammals like bears (Melursus ursinus), skunks, rodents (Raccoons and Pine
marten), jackal, honey badgers and humans are also the enemies of bees.
Management: Fencing the apiary, suspending hives from the branches of trees
and wire netting covering the hive are suggested practices to protect from
mammals.
7. BEEKEEPING IN INDIA
An artificial apiculture was first introduced to India in 1882, in undivided Bengal and was
further spread to Punjab by 1884. In 1907 and 1939, Bee Keepers Association and All
India Bee-keeping Association were created, respectively. Central Bee- keeping Research
Station was also established in 1945, which was further expanded to Coimbatore, (Tamil
Nadu) Ruptala (Andhra Pradesh) and Sundar Nagar (Himachal Pradesh). After this, an
All India Khadi and Village Industries Board (KVIB) and Bee Keeping Directorate were
constituted in 1953 and 1956, respectively by government of India to revive traditional
village industries. Within two decades, with the joint effort by KVIC (Khadi Village
Industries Commission) and State KVIBs, Beekeepers’ Cooperatives and Public
Institutions, emphasis on the beekeeping industry started by constituting Central Bee
Research Training Institute with its branches in Kodaikanal, Mahabaleshwar, Kangra,
Kashmir etc. In 1981, an All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Honey bee
Research and Training was conducted by ICAR involving Agricultural Universities to
promote and support budding apiculture agro-industry. In 1994-1995, under eighth ‘five
year plan’, a Central Sector Scheme entitled “Development of beekeeping for improving
crop productivity” was declared by the Ministry of Agriculture. The main targets of this
scheme were providing trainings and awareness programmes for the production and
distribution of apiary. Similarly, during ‘ninth five year plan’, a Beekeeping Development
Board with Macro Management Scheme was constituted to promote beekeeping
activities.
Honey Mission has been launched by KVIC for the period 2017-2020 under Sweet Kranti
(Sweet revolution) for mass honey production. The aim is to provide sustainable
employment and income to rural & urban unemployed youth, both educated &
uneducated, men & women by conserving the honeybee habitat and tapping untapped
natural resources.
With the efforts of all agencies, India is now ranked 6th in the top ten of the leading
exporters of honey in the world with about 1.5 million bee colonies, producing 55,000
tonnes of honey annually.
Beekeeping institutions in India
 All India Beekeepers’ Association
 Agricultural Products Export Development Authority (APEDA)
 Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India Ltd (TRIFED)
 Central Bee Research and Training Institute
 Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)
 Export Inspection Council (EIC) of India
 National Bee Board

List of honey exporters in India

 Kejriwal Bee Care India Private Limited
 APIS India Limited
 BRIJ Honey Private Limited
 Allied Natural Product
 Pioneer Food & Agro Industries Private Limited
 Ganpati Natural Products
 Dabur India Limited
 Queenbee Foods Pvt. Ltd.