Dr.

Vinod Kumari
Associate Professor
Department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur
Module: Sericulture
Quadrant I
CONTENT

1. Introduction
2. Major Silk producing species
3. Silk
4. Mulberry sericulture
4.1. Moriculture: Cultivation of food plants
4.1.1. Choice of food mulberry variety
4.1.2. Planting methods of mulberry
4.1.3. Diseases of mulberry plant
4.2. Mulberry silk worm
4.3. Rearing of Bombyx mori
4.3.1. Selection of races of B. Mori
4.3.2. Rearing house
4.3.3. Rearing equipments
4.3.3.1. Rearing stands
4.3.3.2. Antwells
4.3.3.3. Rearing trays
4.3.3.4. Paraffin paper
4.3.3.5. Foam rubber strips
4.3.3.6. Chopsticks
4.3.3.7. Feathers
4.3.3.8. Leaf basket
4.3.3.9. Leaf chamber
4.3.3.10. Chopping boards, knives and mats
4.3.3.11. Cleaning nets
4.3.3.12. Mountages/ Cocoonages
4.3.3.13. Miscellaneous appliances
4.3.4. Production of Quality seeds
4.3.5. Disinfection
4.3.6. Deflossing
 4.3.7. Selection of leaves
4.3.8. Preparation of feed bed
4.3.9. Bed cleaning
4.3.10. Spacing
4.3.11. Moulting
4.3.12. Mounting
4.3.13. Harvesting of cocoons
4.3.14. Post harvest processing of cocoons
4.3.14.1. Stifling
4.3.14.2. Cocoon boiling/cooking
4.3.14.3. Brushing
4.3.14.4. Reeling
4.3.14.5. Re-reeling
4.3.14.6. Raw silk testing
4.3.14.7. Spinning (spun silk yarn production)
5. Problems related to sericulture (Diseases and enemies)
6. Sericulture in India
7. Sericulture research centres in India
1. INTRODUCTION
Sericulture is the combination of two words ‘sericos’ a Greek word meaning silk and
‘cultura’ meaning rearing. Sericulture therefore is a scientific method of rearing
silkworms to procure silk which is known as ‘Queen of textiles’. Around 4000 years ago,
a Chinese Empress named Si-Ling-Chi, wife of great Emperor Hoang-ti, accidently
dropped a silkworm cocoon brought from her garden in a hot cup of tea. The tea softened
the threads which were recovered and weaved into silk. Thus, was born silk which the
Chinese called ‘Si’ in honour of the Empress and the Empress Si-Ling-Chi herself was
regarded as the Seine-Than or ‘deity of the silkworm’. Evidences of primitive silk loom
were found from Hemudu culture in Yuyao, Zejiang (4000 BC), Yangshao culture in
Quingtaicum, Henan (3630 BC) and Liangzhu culture in Qianshanyang, Huzhou,
Zhejiang (2700 BC). Initially silk was used by emperors and their close relatives in
clothing, decorations, bonds and luxury paper (rag paper). But later, the value of silk
became more that it was measured in length equivalent to weight of the gold and was
used as taxes paid by farmers, as rewards for good services. Its manufacture was kept a
secret for centuries and to leak the secret was punishable by death. For three millennium,
it was confined to China until famous ‘silk road’ a longest highway from Eastern China to
the Mediterranean Sea was opened. The sericulture thus reached Korea, Japan. In 522
AD, sericulture reached westwards through smuggling by Persian monks. The 'monks'
discovered the secret and smuggled out silkworms (larvae) and cocoons in the hollows of
their staff. The silk thus reached Europe where the first silk factory was established in the
middle of the 6th century A.D. at Constantinople (in Turkey, now called Istanbul). At
present Japan, China, Korea, Italy, Soviet Union, France, Brazil and India are the chief
raw silk producing countries. In 1905 Lefroy introduced sericulture in India at the Pusa
Institute, Delhi.
 Sericulture, mulberry or non-mulberry, is an agro-based export and labour oriented
cottage industry comprising three main components cultivation of food plants of the
worms, rearing of silkworms and reeling and spinning of silk. The first two are
agricultural and last one is an industrial component. The importance of this industry lies
in: (i) low investment, (ii) low water requirement and (iii) high income output from a unit
area. Interestingly, India is the only country in the world where both kinds of sericulture
(resulting in 4 kinds of silk) are found and since mulberry sericulture constitutes the
major silk industry in the country, greater attention will be paid to it in the present
chapter.
2. MAJOR SILK PRODUCING SPECIES
All moths (as also butterflies) belong to the insect order Lepidoptera. They are nocturnal,
dull coloured, with tapering or feathery antennae and both pairs of wings spread while
sitting. In contrast, to the butterflies which are diurnal, beautifully coloured, with
clubbed-tip antennae and wings drawn vertical to the back while sitting. While all
Lepidoptera secrete silk, only some moths weave their silk into cocoons to protect their
vulnerable pupae from weather and predators. Only five such moths, listed in the table 1,
can be exploited for commercial silk production.

TABLE. 1: Silk producing moths of India

S. No. Family & silkworm Main host Domesticated Cocoon & Producing
plant(s) or wild silk states
1 Bombycidae: Mulberry Domesticated Reelable, West
(Morus alba, white or Bengal,
Mulberry silk- M. indica, M. creamy Karnataka,
worm (Bombyx multicaulis, Andhra
mori L.) M. bombycis) Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu,
Jammu &
Kashmir,
Himachal
Pradesh,
Uttaranchal,

2 Saturnidae: Asan Wild Reelable, Bihar,

i Tasar silkworm (Terminalia brown or Orissa, M.P.,
Antheraea mylitta tomentosa) coppery Jharkhand,
Drury Arjun Chhattisgarh,
A. royeli M.R. (Terminalia West
A. yamamai G. M. arjuna) Bengal,
Shorea Andhra
robusta Pradesh

ii Muga silkworm Som Semi- Reelable, Assam,

(Antheraea (Machilus domesticated golden- Meghalaya,
assamaensis W. bombycina) yellow Arunachal
W.) Soalu Pradesh,
(Litsaea Mizoram,
polyantha) West Bengal
 Persea
bombycina

iii Eri silkworm Castor Domesticated Unreelable, Assam,

[Philosamia (Ricinus red creamy Bihar, West
(=Attacus) ricini communis) white Bengal,
Boisduval (=Samia Kasseru Manipur,
cynthia ricini)] A. (Heteropanax Orissa,
(atlas) = minor fragrans) Nagaland,
Manihot Andhra
utilissima Pradesh

iv Oak Tasar Quercus Finer Manipur,

silkworm serrata variety of Mizoram,
Antharaea pernyi Q. incana tasar Nagaland,
G. M. Q. himalaya H.P,
A. proyeli Jolly Uttarakhand,
Assam, J&K,
Meghalaya

3. SILK
Silk is known as ‘queen of textiles’ because it is the most elegant and soft among all the
textile fibres. Moreover, it is well known for its natural glittering lustre, light weight and
high tensile properties. It is a nature- grown protein fibre available in the form of silk
cocoons spun by silkworms. Silk fibre is the product of a pair of silk glands which are
nothing but the modified labial glands of the larva (Fig. 1). The silk (fibre) is composed
of two proteins, fibroin (secreted as fibrinogen and converted to fibroin on exposure) and
sericin. A small gland, Lyonnet’s or Filippi’s gland is also present whose duct meets with
the duct of silk glands. It helps in lubricating the tube through which secretions of the silk
gland passes. The weight in grams of 900 m long silk filament is called a ‘denier’ and the
size of a normal cocoon is 1.8 to 3 deniers.
 Fig. 1: The silk gland
4. MULBERRY SERICULTURE
4.1. MORICULTURE: CULTIVATION OF FOOD PLANTS
4.1.1. CHOICE OF FOOD MULBERRY VARIETY
Cultivation of mulberry plants is called moriculture. There are over 20 species of
mulberry (family Moracea) and of which 4 are more common. They are: Morus
alba L., M. indica L., M. serrata Royb, M. laevigata Wall. These plants grow
both in tropical and temperate climates. An annual rainfall of 600-2500 mm,
24oC to 28oC temperature, and 60-80 % Relative Humidity (RH) are optimum
conditions needed for its growth. Both quality and quantity of silk produced by
silkworms depend on the quality of mulberry leaves fed to them. A choice in the
species of mulberry to be grown is, therefore, important. While the local M.
indica offers certain good features (quick growing, hardiness, remaining flush
throughout the year), its yield is rather low. Therefore, research institutions of
the Central Silk Board have developed high yielding varieties such as Kanva-2,
Victory-1, MR-2 from south India, Ber S-1, S-623, S-162 and Tr-23 from East
and north India and Kosen, Bota-tul KNG and Stari- tul from hilly areas of
eastern and north India. The selection of varieties is based on their quality,
quantity of leaf yield and easy propagation ability. The recommended strains or
varieties give 30-70 per cent more leaves per hectare than the local strain.
4.1.2. PLANTING METHODS OF MULBERRY
Laterite soils are more suitable than alluvial, black and red soil for mulberry
growth. Mulberry is propagated by seeds, root-grafts or stem cutting methods
and the stem cutting method is most commonly adopted. Pencil thick stem
cuttings, 22-23 cm long, 10-15 mm diameter and 6-8 months old with 3-4 buds
obtained from mature stems are either planted directly in the field or first in the
 nurseries then to be transplanted later. This ensures greater survival percentage.
Two systems of cutting-planting are in vogue: pit and row systems. In the pit
system, pits 45 cm wide and 45 cm deep with 90 cm and 45 cm distance
between rows and plants, respectively are dug prior to monsoon and are filled
with compost. After first rainfall the cuttings are planted in these pits. In the row
system, cuttings are planted on the margins of 60 x 30 cm ridges (raised
platforms). Distances here between the rows and plants are 45 cm and 10 cm,
respectively. Mulching (covering the soil between the mulberry rows with paddy
straw, stubbles, dry leaves or sunnhemp grown in between the rows and later
pulled) and pruning is also done for proper growth of mulberry plants.
Harvesting of leaves for feeding larvae is done in three ways: leaf picking,
branch cutting and top shoot harvesting.
4.1.3. DISEASES AND PESTS OF MULBERRY PLANT:
The success of sericulture depends on the quantity and quality of mulberry
leaves. Therefore, the cultivation of mulberry plants is challenging due to the
occurrence of plant diseases and pests as enlisted in table 2.
Table 2: Diseases and pests of mulberry plants
S. No. Name of Disease/ Causal agent/ Pest Symptoms Occurence Control measures
Pest
1 Leaf spot Cercospora Leaf surface with brown Rainy season Weeding, burning of
moricola, (fungus) necrotic, irregular or circular followed by affected leaves, wider
spots winter spacing, Use of Bavistin
Affected leaves fall off (0.2%) and Difolatan

2 Powdery Mildew Phyllactinia corylea White powdery patches on the Winter and Wider spacing
(fungus) ventral side of leaves and rainy season Picking and burning
chlorotic lesions on the dorsal Weeding and proper pruning
surface. Later the patches Use of Dinocap 30% EC
become brownish black. (Karathane, 0.2%) Morestan,
Affected leaves – yellow and Dithane M-45
fall off

3 Black leaf rust Cerotelium fici Brown pinhead sized eruptive Winter and Wider spacing
(=Perdiospora mori) lesions on leaves rainy season Use of Chlorothaionil 75%
(fungus) Leaves fall off WP (Kavach, 0.2%)
4 Red leaf rust Aecidium mori Golden yellow powdery spots Rainy and Wider spacing
(fungus) on leaves, buds, petioles and winter season No delay in harvesting
stems Use of Bavistin (0.2%) and
sulphur dust
5 Fungal leaf blight Alternaria alternate/ Brown and black leaves Summer and Wider spacing
Fusarium Leaves fall off rainy season Use of streptomycin (0.2%)
pallidoroseum or Dithane M
6 Bacterial leaf Pseudomonas Black brown patches on leaves Rainy and Wider spacing
blight syringae pv. mori winter season Use of streptomycin (0.2%)
(=Bacterium mori/ or Dithane M
Pseudomoas mori)
or Xanthomonas
compestris pv. mori
7 Wilt disease Sclerotium rolfsii Black patches on cuttings and Rainy season Use of Bavistin (0.2%)
(fungus) sprouted shoots become wilt Trichoderma (biofungicide)
8 White root rot Rosellinia necatrix Rotting roots with white Throughout the Uprooting and burning of
(fungus) patches year infected plants
Plants become weak; Use of Dithane M-45 and
defoliation biofungicide (Trchoderma
9 Violet root rot Helicobasidium Rotting roots with violet harzianum)
mompa (fungus) patches
10 Fusarium root rot Fusarioum The root surface beneath the
oxysporum (fungus) bark sticky appearance
11 Stem rot Polyporus hispidus Hear wood affected Throughout the Burning the affected plants
and Ganoderma Drying and rotting of twig and year
applantum (fungi) branches
12 Collar rot Phoma mororum Bark brown to black at ground Throughout the Pruning at level close to
level and appear as collar by year ground
encircling the shoot
Leaves withered
13 Cutting rot Fusarium solani Cuttings rotten and death of Throughout the Use of Dithane M-45
(fungus) sprouted shoots year
14 Stem canker Botryodiplodia Greenish black eruptions on Use of Bavistin (0.2%) and
theobromae stem cuttings carbendazim (0.1%)
Cuttings do not sprout
15 Leaf Mosaic Mulberry mosaic Mosaic dark green patches on Burning of affected plants
virus leaves Sanitization using
disinfectants
Use of plant resistant
varieties
16 Yellow Net Vein Mulberry yellow net Yellow leaves with net vein Burning of affected plants
vein virus appearance Sanitization using
disinfectants
Use of plant resistant
varieties
17 Dwarf disease Mycoplasma Short and fragile branches and Burning of affected plants
leaves Sanitization using
disinfectants
Use of plant resistant
varieties
18 Nematode disease Meloidogyne Leaves yellow Throughout the Deep ploughing
incognita Growth arrested irrigation Mulching
M. javanica Reduced leaf lamina Neem oil cakes @ 2
MT/ha/yr
19 Pink mealy bug Maconellicoccus Leaves become wrinkled Summer Destruction of eggs after
hirsutus roseate, bunchy top months clipping off infested leaves
appearance of internodes, Spraying of Dimethyl
Sooty mould develops on Dichloro Vinge Phosphate
leaves and stem (0.2%), Azadirachtin
(0.03%)
20 Mulberry leaf Diaphania Larvae are leaf feeder and September to Clipping off infested part for
roller pulverulentalis remain entangle in silky November destruction Spraying of
secretions 0.076% DDVP and
Azadirachtin
Biological control by egg
parasitoid, Trichogramma
chilonis and pupal parasitoid
Tetrastichus howardii
21 Leaf hopper- Empoasca Sap suckers causing withering Summer Collection by light traps and
Jassid flavesceus, of leaves months destruction
Eusarcocoris Spraying of DDVP (0.05%)
ventrlis
22 Bihar hairy Spilosoma obliqua Voracious feeder, defoliate the August to Collection and destruction
caterpillar (=Diacrisia obliqua) plants February Deep ploughing
Spraying of DDVP (0.2%)
Biological control by larval
parasite Apanteles obliqua
23 Scale insect Saissatia nigra Sap suckers, shoots start dying Summer Scrapping off or swabbing
and leaf yellowish or mottled months with diesel and soap
emulsion (1:3) or Lime-
Sulphur mixture to dislodge
the scale insects
Spraying of Malathion
(0.05%)
24 Thrips Pseudodendrothrips Sap suckers Throughout the Dispersion of thrips through
mori year sprinkler irrigation
Spraying of DDVP
25 Stem girdler Sthenias grisator Beetles form a girdled branch Throughout the Cutting and burning of
beetle by ringing the stems and cause year infested branches and stems
wiltings Spraying of Benzene
Hexachloride (0.1%) or
malathion (0.1%)
26 Short horned Neorthacris Nymphs and adults are July- August Deep ploughing to expose
grasshopper acuticeps nilgriensis, voracious feeder causing egg masses for destruction
Letana inflata, defoliation Spraying BHC (0.5%)
Ailopus sinulatrix
27 Spiraling white fly Aleurodiscus Feed on nutrients of plant Throughout the Scrapping off to dislodge the
disperses resulting stunted growth and year nymphs
Dialeuroplora sooty mould due to Spraying of DDVP
decempuncta accumulation of honeydew Installation of yellow sticky
secreted by nymphs trap during June –
November @ 60 Nos/acre
Spray 0.015%
Thiamethoxam (25 WG) @
5g/10 Litre water
Safe period: 15 days
Release a native predator,
Brumoides suturalis (Bio-
Control) @ 500 pairs/acre
4.2. MULBERRY SILK WORM
The insect: Bombyx mori L.
Distribution: Being fully domesticated, this species does not occur in the wild but
can be reared at any place which has the optimum climatic conditions such as 20-
28°C temperature, 70-85 per cent relative humidity, 16 hours photo phase and
unpolluted air. These or near about conditions are available in the states of Jammu &
Kashmir, W. Bengal, Karnataka, A.P. and T.N. and accordingly mulberry sericulture
can be carried out there. The wild ancestor Bombyx mandarina Moore native of
China, from which B. mori is supposed to have evolved can be found in mulberry
fields.
Life-cycle (Fig. 2): Adult's life-span is of 1-2 weeks after emergence. Mating occurs
soon after emergence for 2-3 hrs. Egg laying which would normally occur on the
upper surface of the mulberry leaves is made to take place on sheets of paper or cards
by sericulturists for the purpose of preservation and transport. The eggs are laid in
clusters around 400-500 eggs by univoltine and bivoltine races whereas 300-350 eggs
are laid by multivoltine races. Eggs undergo diapause in temperate region however,
in subtropical regions (India) non diapause eggs are laid by the moths. In about 10
days, eggs hatch into larva called as ants, kego or chawki, which undergoes 4 moults
thus, have 5 instars. The larval period lasts for 25 days. The growth and feeding
attain the peak in the last two instars thus the weight of the last instar increases
several thousand times. The last instar stopped feeding and start spinning cocoon
which is completed in 48-72 hours the larvae transforms into pupa within the cocoon
which lasts for 10-14 days.
 Fig. 2: Life cycle of Bombyx mori
4.3. REARING OF Bombyx mori
4.3.1. SELECTION OF RACES OF B. mori
The number of generations called "crops" in the language of sericulturists, varies
according to the race or strain of the moth. Thus, Votinism is the number of
crops or broods or generations produced by moth annually. A moth is
univoltine, if it produces only one crop a year and only hibernating eggs which
undergo diapause and hatch during the spring. Bivoltine moths produce two
generations annually laying non-hibernating eggs during first generation and
hibernating eggs in the next generation which hatch in the following spring.
Multivoltine moths produce more than 2 (4 or more) generations annually
laying only non-hibernating eggs which develop without diapause. Multivoltines
are usually the locally occurring races at some places e.g., "Mysore" race
(producing greenish-yellow cocoons) in Karnataka and "Nistari" race (producing
deep yellow cocoons) in W. Bengal. A bivoltine race, "Nandi" in Karnataka and
univoltine race, ‘Kashmir race’ (extinct) in Kashmir is also known to be used.
The cocoon yield of multivoltine races is poor when compared to uni- and
bivoltine races, the latter in particular. Culturing bivoltine races is, therefore,
more profitable and generally done by the sericulturists.
4.3.2. REARING HOUSE
Silkworms are very sensitive to weather conditions humidity and temperature,
therefore, the room/building in which they are to be reared should meet certain
specification. The place selected for construction of the building should be
sunny, airy, dry and as far as possible, elevated. Level land is preferred. Damp or
water-logged area should have drainage deep enough to drain the moisture, or
the building should be built on a high basement. The best orientation of a rearing
room would be north or north-west face and south-east back. The length of
rearing room varies according to the brushing capacity.
4.3.3. REARING EQUIPMENTS
Following are the equipment needed for proper rearing of silkworms:
4.3.3.1. REARING STANDS
These are stands of frame on which are placed rearing trays containing
silkworms. They could be made of wood or bamboo.
4.3.3.2. ANTWELLS
Ants are serious menace to silkworms. To protect them, the legs of the
rearing stand are kept in rectangular/circular enamel or concrete bowls
containing water mixed with ant repellents.
4.3.3.3. REARING TRAYS
These are trays, generally circular made up of locally available cheap
material like bamboo. Sometimes, box type wooden trays are
employed to rear early (I and II) instars.
4.3.3.4. PARAFFIN PAPER
Thick craft paper sheets coated with paraffin wax (M.P. 55°C) are
required to cover the rearing trays to maintain humidity and prevent
 withering of leaves. Polythene sheets and dried banana leaves are also
alternative to paraffin paper.
4.3.3.5. FOAM RUBBER STRIPS
Pieces (2.5 x 2.5 cm) of foam rubber soaked in water are kept all
around silkworm rearing beds to maintain humidity. Newspaper or
blotting paper folded strips moistened with water could also be an
alternative.
4.3.3.6. CHOP STICKS
Chop sticks are tapering bamboo rods meant to pick up younger stages
of larvae to ensure their hygienic handling and preventing from
injuries.
4.3.3.7. FEATHERS (Fig. 3)
Feathers, preferably white, are important items of silkworm rearing
room. They are used for brushing off newly hatched worms from egg
card to rearing trays or spreading larvae for proper spacing to prevent
injuries.

Fig. 3: Feather, chopsticks for handling delicate younger larvae and

knife, chopping board and mat for chopping mulberry leaves.
4.3.3.8. LEAF BASKET
It is made of bamboo to keep collected leaves and for transportation
from field to rearing house. Wet gunny bags or multi-layered gunny
bags could also be used for the same purpose.
4.3.3.9. LEAF CHAMBER
Mulberry leaves meant for feed are stored in chambers made up of 7.5
cm wide wooden strips fixed some distance apart or of some porous
board. The chamber with leaves is covered all over with wet gunny
bag cloth during the summer months and dry days.
4.3.3.10. CHOPPING BOARDS, KNIVES AND MATS (Fig. 3)
As mulberry leaves are offered to the worms in a chopped condition,
chopping board, knives and mats are required. Soft-wood-chopping-
board while chopping is placed on mat. Two sized knives, small and
large for chopping (small pieces for younger instars and large pieces
for older instars) are needed. Chopped leaves falling on the mat are
also collected in an enamelled receptacle.
4.3.3.11. CLEANING NETS
 Nets made up of cotton or nylon mesh of different size for different
instars are used. As manual separation of larvae from the litter has the
risk of injuring and killing many of them, it is used for changing the
rearing beds so that the left-over leaf-pieces and litter are filtered out
without the larvae being touched by hand. Mesh sizes suitable for I, II,
III and IV and V suitable for instars are 2 mm, 10 mm and 20 mm,
respectively.
4.3.3.12. MOUNTAGES/ COCOONAGES
Mountages (cocoonages) are made up of rectangular bamboo, wood,
cardboard, plastic, grass, dry leaves or twigs used to support the
penultimate larvae for spinning cocoon. Ripe worms about to spin
from cocoons are transferred on to them. The larvae suspend
themselves to the mountages and spin cocoons. There are various
types of mountages used all over India with the requisite characters
like- they can easily be made, easily stored/stacked, excreta of
spinning worms dry up soon to free passages and thus prevent
cocoons getting stained, easily be shifted from place to place, the
space between the frames be sufficient for uniform and proper sized
cocoon spinning and disinfection can easily be done.
Types of mountages are as follows:
 Bamboo chandrike (Fig. 4)

Fig. 4: Mountage (Bamboo Chandrike)

 Plastic mountages
 Plastic collapsible mountages
 Screen type mountages
 Bottle brush mountages
 Plastic bottle brush mountages
 Rotary mountages
 Vertical fixed mountages
 Shoot rearing rack
4.3.3.13. MISCELLANEOUS APPLIANCES
 Hygrometer, wet and dry thermometer, charcoal stove, disinfection
pads of gunny kept at the entry of rearing house, wooden stands to
place trays during feeding and bed cleaning, plastic basin, stand for
wash-basin, disinfection mask and protective gum shoes, sprayer for
disinfection, room heater, water air cooler, kerosene blow lamp, 6”
forceps, egg transportation box, egg incubation chamber, loose egg
incubation frame, black box, buckets, mug, plastic box, foot rugs,
formalin, bleaching powder, lime powder, bed disinfectants, slides
and cover slips, gunny cloth and cora cloth.
4.3.4. PRODUCTION OF QUALITY SEEDS
Use of quality silkworm eggs is the vital step to successful sericulture. Silkworm
eggs are called as seeds which are of two types reproductive seed and
commercial or industrial seed. Reproductive seeds are used for the production
of parents of different commercial seeds and are pure breeds whereas
commercial seeds are hybrids produced in mass for supply to sericulturists.
Seed production centres are Breeding stations, Breeding centres and
Grainages, where disease-free seeds of pure and hybrid races are produced in
large quantities. In grainages, first purchase cocoons from the government
certified seed producers and subject them to selection. Pupae randomly obtained
from the seed cocoons are crushed in mortar with a pestle and examined under a
microscope for pebrine or any other disease. After ensuring that the stock or crop
purchased is free from any disease, good quality cocoons with specified
characteristics are selected and others that are deformed, flimsy, stained or dead,
are rejected. Floss (loose downy materials) from the selected cocoons is removed
to facilitate adult emergence. The cocoons of the univoltine and bivoltine being
hard are cut for the same purpose. Sometimes even naked (uncocooned) pupae
are employed. These cocoons or pupae are allowed to develop in well ventilated
rooms with proper temperature (23- 25°C) and humidity (70-80 per cent). Moths
usually emerge during early morning hours. To bring about a near simultaneous
emergence, grainage rooms are kept in dark and on the expected day of
emergence, lights are put on suddenly. Males are kept in the trays of the females
and as soon as copulation occurs. Three hours of mating secures maximum
fertilized eggs. Male moths are then stored at 5°C to be used for a second mating
while the female moths are kept for egg laying:
Within 12 hours, 400-600 eggs are laid. Each layer is then crushed and
examined for pebrine. If infected, its eggs are discarded and destroyed. The
surface of paper sheets or cards used for egg laying is generally coated with a
gummy substance. The egg sheets/cards are washed with 2% formaline for hour
to disinfect the eggs and again with water to remove traces of formaline. The
sheets are dried in shade and transferred to incubators for hatching.
In commercial production, 50-100 moths are allowed to lay eggs on paper
sheets. The egg-sheets are soaked in water to loosen the eggs. The loose eggs
are washed in salt solution to remove unfertilized eggs which float on the
surface. The fertilized eggs thus separated are disinfected with 2% formaline,
 shade dried and packed (loose) in egg boxes to be despatched to buyers (seed
producers).
4.3.5. DISINFECTION
Before the commencement of rearing process, the rearing house, equipments
etc. are disinfected by physical (sunlight, steam, hot air) or chemical method.
Chemicals used as disinfectant should be animal and human safe, readily
soluble in water and cost effective. Chemicals like chlorine, iodine, phenol,
formaldehyde and bleaching powder are used as sprays or fumigants.
4.3.6. BRUSHING
The silk worm eggs will be either attached onto egg sheets or loose eggs in egg
cases. The larvae which hatch from the eggs be gently separated from the empty
egg shells. Separation of larvae from the empty shells and their transfer onto a
rearing tray is called brushing. This helps in proper handling of the larvae.
Use of feather for brushing is simple but sometimes it hurts the larvae. Brushing
with mulberry leaves or husk and mulberry leaf (which are similar) is easier in
making the silkworm seat flat.
4.3.7. SELECTION OF LEAVES
Growth of silkworms and quality of cocoon formed depends on the right kind of
mulberry leaves obtained from the high yielding mulberry varieties fed to the
larvae. Younger (I and II) instar larvae are given tender succulent leaves with a
high moisture content and the older instars are fed with mature but soft leaves
with lesser moisture content.
Mulberry leaves fed to the larvae should be in a chopped condition. Chopped
leaves are preferred over the entire leaves as chopped leaves can be spread
evenly, the quantity of feed can be regulated, they do not curl when the weather
is dry and prevent from getting damp in wet weather.
4.3.8. PREPARATION OF FEED BED
Feed bed or simply bed is a layer of chopped leaves spread on a tray or over a
larger area. In the case of younger (I and II instar) larvae, first a good quality
paraffin paper sheet (or newspaper) is spread in a rearing tray. Finely chopped
mulberry leaves are evenly scattered on the paper and the larvae carefully
brushed off on the leaves. A second sheet of paraffin paper is placed loosely
over the bed and in between the two sheets on all the sides, water-soaked foam-
rubber-strips (or wet newspaper folds) are placed to maintain the humidity. To
prevent muscardine (a fungus) disease, in humid places, a thin layer of ceresan
lime (slaked lime + ceresan) or dithan M-45 is spread over the bed. In place of
trays, wooden boxes (10-15 cm deep) with or without lids can be used. The
boxes could be stacked one above the other but separated by thin wooden strips
for ventilation. The older (IlI-V) instars can be reared by 3 methods: shelf-
rearing, floor-rearing and shoot-rearing. In shelf rearing, silkworms are reared in
round bamboo trays arranged one over the other in tiers on a rearing stand. A
stand can accommodate 10-11 trays and, therefore, this method provides
economy of space but requires more labour for handling so many individual
trays. Larvae are fed on chopped leaves in this method. In floor-rearing, fixed
 rearing seats or benches, 5-7 X 1-1.5 m size, constructed in 2-3 tiers out of
wooden or bamboo strips, are used for rearing the silkworms. In this method
chopped leaves are also given. This method is more economical than the first
one because it does not involve labour in handling innumerable trays. In shoot
rearing, the rearing seat, 1 m wide and any length long, is in single tier and the
larvae are fed with big shoots. To change the bed in this method, ropes parallel
to each other are stretched on the old bed and new shoots are placed on these
ropes. When all the larvae climb on to the new branches, the ropes are rolled
into loose bundles. The ropes and the branches are spread after cleaning the old
bed and litter making a new bed. This method is suitable for IV and V instars
and saves both labour (50-60%) and leaves (10-25%) and, therefore, most
economical among three methods. Four feeds a day are sufficient for each
instar. The feeds are normally given at 9 A.M., 3, 5 and 9 P.M. A gap of two
hours before and after the moulting for feeding is also considered.
4.3.9. BED CLEANING
Periodical removal of leaf leftovers and worm excreta is referred as bed
cleaning. It is necessary to maintain hygienic conditions and for proper growth
of the larvae. Bed cleaning is done by four methods viz., conventional method,
husk method, net method and the combined husk and net method. Conventional
method is the largely practiced method in which I-III instar larvae are simply
swept together with a feather and transferred to the new bed from the old one
whereas, IV and V instar larvae are transferred manually. In the husk method, a
thin and even layer of paddy husk is sprinkled over the bed to be changed and
the chopped leaves are scattered on the husk. The worms quickly crawl through
the husk to get at the feed from where they are transferred to the new tray. For I
and II instars, broken (not powdered) husk by pounding, for III instar, whole
husk and for IV and V instars evenly chopped straw are used. For the first two
instars, husk can be substituted with mosquito net cloth which have the
advantage of easy visibility of minute larvae against white background. In the
net method, a cotton or nylon net of suitable mesh size is spread over the old
bed and leaves are scattered on it. The larvae as usual migrate to the net in
search of fresh leaves which can be collected and transferred to a new bed. In
the combined husk and net method, a thin layer of paddy husk is first sprinkled
over the old bed and a net of suitable mesh is superimposed on it. This
combination of both methods has an advantage of cleanliness due to husk
method as well as ease of transference due to the net method. It also requires
less skill and care in manipulation though it is slightly more expensive than
others. The information from feeding to bed cleaning are summarised in the
following Table 8.
4.3.10. SPACING
Spacing means avoiding overcrowding of caterpillars by increasing the size of
the feeding trays (areas) with the growth of the insects as crowding leads to
under-nourishment and so uneven development resulting in a substandard
harvest. Besides, crowding increases accumulation of gases, heat, and
 fermentation of faecal matter, particularly during the early stages when the
temperature and humidity in the rearing beds are high. Such unhygienic
conditions may lead to infection, death and loss of crop. For optimum results,
rearing space is increased twice or thrice for I-IlI instars, for IV instar 2-3
times more than that for I-III instars and for V instar 2 times more than that for
the IV instar. It would save time and labour if the spacing is combined with
bed cleaning. Spacing could be achieved by marking out the extended feed
area and distributing both the leaves and worms evenly over the entire area. If
some crowded spots are still left, worms from those spots are picked up and
transferred to sparser areas.
4.3.11. MOULTING
Moulting is a very critical event in the life of caterpillars. When about to
moult, the larvae attain their maximum size for that particular instar. At this
stage bed cleaning should be carried out and leaves should be chopped to small
size for pre-moult feeding. Larvae stop feeding, when they settle down for
moulting so at that time it is advisable to sprinkle some lime powder to prevent
larvae of early moulting from commencing feeding and thus maintaining
uniform growth in all. During moulting, the worms are most susceptible to
muscardine infection which could be prevented by dusting them with
ceresan+lime.
4.3.12. MOUNTING
Transferring mature V instar larvae to mountages (cocoonages or chandrikes)
is called mounting. When the larvae are fully fed and ripe, they become
translucent, their body shrinks, they wander away from food (i.e. stop feeding)
and start searching for a suitable place to attach themselves for cocoon
spinning and pupation. They generally move to the periphery of the rearing
tray for this purpose. This is the right time to pick them up and put them on
mountages. The worms attach themselves to the spirals of the mountages and
start spinning cocoon. If unripe worms are put on the mountages, they will
move and defecate spoiling the cocoons of the nip worms or will fall off
resulting in loss to the rearer. Therefore, it is necessary that only right age
larvae are put on the mountages and a correct density is maintained to avoid
crowding. Mounting can be done by hand picking, branch method and net
method. In the branch method, branches of mulberry with green leaves are
kept over the rearing bed and when the worms crawl on to them, they are
shaken off on a net and transferred to the mountages. In the net method, a net
is spread over the bed after feeding. The non-feeding (mature) worms come up
and crawl on to the net which is then shaken on mat and the larvae are
transferred to the mountages.
4.3.13. HARVESTING OF COCOONS
When the caterpillar has spun its silken cage or cocoon around itself, it casts
off its skin to pupate. In early days, pupal skin is tender and ruptures easily.
Therefore, early harvest of the cocoons could injure the pupae and result in
their blood not only soaking in and staining the cocoon but also inducing
 fermentation and infection and making the stained portion unreelable. Late
harvest, on the other hand, leaves less time for transporting the cocoons to the
market and for their stifling and results in the risk of being cut by the emerging
moths and thus being rendered unfit for reeling. It is, therefore, very crucial for
the sericulturists to harvest the cocoons at the correct time. In tropical climate
(as in Karnataka, A.P., W. Bengal), the proper time to harvest cocoons is 5th
day after their formation whereas, it is 7th to 8th day in temperate climate (as
in Kashmir). Harvesting is normally done by hand (Fig. 5) or cocoon harvester
and it is the best time for sorting out cocoons into good cocoons, stained
cocoons, pierced cocoons and double cocoons.

Fig. 5: Cocoon Harvesting

4.3.14. POST HARVEST PROCESSING OF COCOONS

After harvesting of cocoons, the industrial part of the silk industry begins. The
post-harvest processing of cocoons includes following events:
4.3.14.1. STIFLING
The purpose of stifling or cocoon drying is to kill the pupae before they
metamorphose into moths and emerge, cutting the cocoons and rendering
them unreelable. This is achieved by any of the three methods i.e., drying
cocoons under the sun, hot air stifling or steam stifling.
4.3.14.2. COCOON BOILING/COOKING
This is done to make the cocoon thread reelable (loose) by dissolving the
gum-like protecting sericin that binds the winding segments of the thread.
4.3.14.3. DEFLOSSING
Deflossing is important to remove floss (loose layer of silk filament) and is
done before reeling. Deflossing is done by brushing manually or power
operated machines to reduce the labour expenditure.
4.3.14.4. REELING
Silk reeling is the process of finding the right end of the cocoon filament
and jointly taking several ends together to reel raw silk. In other words,
unwinding of the silk filament from the cocoon with the help of a reeling
 machine is called silk reeling. The reeling methods used are country charka,
cottage basin and filature.
4.3.14.5. RE-REELING
The raw silk is first reeled on small reels, allowed to properly dry up on
them and then re-reeled on large reels. Direct reeling on large reels leads to
insufficient drying which in turn leads to production of hard gum spots on
the thread. This is overcome by reeling the raw silk first on small reels
which permits better drying.
4.3.14.6. RAW SILK TESTING
There are Indian and International standards to judge the quality of the raw
silk and facilitate its marketing. To maintain these standards, raw silk is put
to a number of tests viz., visual examination, winding test, denier size and
deviation test, seriplane test to assess its size variations, winding quality,
neatness, evenness, cohesion and tenacity.
4.3.14.7. SPINNING (SPUN-SILK YARN PRODUCTION)
The following by-products are obtained in the process of silk reeling:
 Pierced cocoons
 Silk Waste
These by-products are utilized for producing silk yarn by the process
of spinning, since these cannot be reeled by the method used for
normal silkworm cocoons. The yarn is, therefore, taken out by the
process of spinning.
The process of spinning involves drawing the loose lump of waste
containing fibres of small staple length into slender slivers where the
fibres can lie in a more or less parallel manner, and are then
simultaneously twisted in spun yarn and wound on a wooden spindle.
5. PROBLEMS RELATED TO SERICULTURE
Mulberry silkworms, the most important of all the silkworms, are susceptible to
many diseases and enemies which are summarised in table 2.

Table 2: Diseases and Enemies of Bombyx mori

Causative agent (pathogens) / Stage Symptoms/ Control
Diseases/ Enemies
Insects infected damage measures
Gastro entric Brevundimonas, Larvae Diarrhoea, Maintenance of
disease Stenotrophomonas, vomiting, hygienic
Enterobacter, shrinkage after conditions
Staphylococcus, moulting, loss Proper disposal
Aeromonas, of appetite of litter
Bacterial
Brevibacterium, Use of bed
disease
Citrobacter, disinfectants
Escherichia, like formalin,
Klebsiella, bleaching
Pseudomonas powder or
Agrobacterium paraformaldehy
 Septicaemia Bacillus sp, Larvae Lack of de
Staphylococcus aureus, appetite, loss
Streptococcus bombycis, of clasping
Serratia marcenscens capacity of
prolegs,
brown, red,
green
colouration
Sotto disease B. thuringiensis var. Sotto larvae Gut paralysis,
vomiting,
twitching of
the body, black
or dark brown
colouration
Rangi or court Serratia marcescene Bizio larvae Crimson-red
disease (Bacillus oridigiosus Fluigge) colour, foul
smell after
death
Gattine Disease Streptococcus bombycis larvae Body swollen,
or clear head loss of appetite
disease
Pebrine Nosema bombycis Naegeli All Deformed Use of disease
stages wings, free females and
distorted eggs
antennae in Sterilisation of
Adults eggs,
Poor egg equipments
laying, poor room and
hatching, loss workers with
Protozoan
of appetite in 2% formaline
disease
larvae, hanging Destruction of
down, infected seeds
sluggishness, and laying
flabby pupae, females
dark patches
on the
abdomen near
wing pads
Flacherie Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis larvae Head Proper
Virus (CPV) disproportionat incubation and
ely large, rearing
Loss of Disinfectant use
appetite for sterilisation
Viral Grasserie Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus larvae Intersegmental Avoidance of
disease (NPV) membrane injury
glossy, swollen Proper
body, loss of incubation and
appetite rearing
Disinfectant use
for sterilisation
 Avoidance of
injury
White Beauveria bassiana Larvae Loss of
muscardine appetite,
Diarrhoea,
vomiting,
infected fifth
instar larvae
die in the Use of bed
cocoon disinfectants
Green Spicaria prasina Larvae Black specks, like formalin
muscardine vomiting, chaff (0.4
diarrhoea, loss 0.8%), dithane
of appetite M45 and captan
Yellow Isaria farinose Larvae Black specks 1-2% in
muscardine around combination
spiracles, with kaolin
larvae harden (levigated china
after death, clay)
Fungal loss of appetite
disease Black Metarhizium anisopliae Final Loss of
muscardine larval appetite, body
instar, rigid, brownish
pupa, yellow
adult
Aspergillosis Aspergillus flavus, Younger Body tensed Disinfection
A. oryzae, larvae and lustrous with 0.1- 0.4%
A. ochraceous, pentachlorophen
Sterigmatocystis japonica ol is
S. fulva recommended
for the control
of the disease.
Sprinkling 0.2%
of Chlorkalk
after moults is
also found to be
effective.

Diptera Uzi fly Tricholyga bombycis larvae Cocoons are Using Uzi trap
fly built in the VBiological
instar control by
Black scar on Nesolynx thymus
the larvae due(a pupal
to penetrationparasitoid)
of maggots Wire mesh for
doors and
windows
Coleopter Beetles Dermestes cadeverinus, Cocoons, Larvae greyish Maintenance of
a Anthrenus verbasi sometim hygienic
es eggs conditions
 and wire mesh for
larvae door and
windows
use of 0.2%
malathion
solution
Collection of the
grubs and adults
destroying by
burning or
dipping in soap
water.
Use of
Deltamethrin
treated bags

6. SERICULTURE IN INDIA
India occupies 5th position in the world in its silk production, the first four in order of
production being Japan, China, South Korea and USSR. Brazil, Bulgaria and Italy come
behind India. Nonetheless, sericulture Industry in India employs about 60 lakhs people,
mostly tribals, and is thus rated as the second largest employer next only to handloom
industry. It is also an export-oriented industry exporting silk to over 50 countries of the
world, the major ones being the west European countries and the USA and bringing in
foreign exchange worth about Rs. 250 crores. Incidentally, North-Eastern part of India is
the only region in the world where all four varieties of silk viz., mulberry, tasar, muga and
eri, are produced. Their output is 5% of the global output of mulberry silk, 10% of tasar
silk and 100% of muga silk (eri silk output figure is not known). The actual seed
production of the four silk varieties by India is given in Table 3. Thus, India has the
monopoly on muga silk production.
The export earnings during 2019-20 were Rs. 1498.39 crores.
Table 3: The total quantity of seed production (Unit: Lakh dfls) during the year 2018-19
and 2019-20 (CSB)
Silk 2018-19 2019-20
Mulberry 483.04 399.87
Tasar 51.08 55.53
Oak Tasar 0.78 0.44
Muga 5.33 5.71
Eri 7.22 6.64
TOTAL 547.45 468.19

7. SERICULTURE RESEARCH CENTRES IN INDIA

There are following major research centres for sericulture working under the common
Central Silk Board (under the Ministry of Trade and Commerce). They are-
1. Central Sericulture Research Station, Behrampur, Orissa (mulberry).
2. Central Sericulture Research and Training Institute, Mysore (mulberry).
3. Central Muga Eri Research and Training Institute, Lahdoigarh, Jorhat, Assam.
 4. Central Tasar Research Station, Ranchi, Jharkhand.
5. Central Sericulture Research Station, Behrampur, West-Bengal (Mulberry).
6. Sericulture Research Institute Channapatna, Mysore (Mulberry).
These stations have substations and extension centres in different parts of the country
trying to reach to almost every silk producing region for advice and guidance (Table 4).

Table 4: Silk centres in India

S. State Silk Centre
No.
1 Andhra Pradesh Dharmavaram, Pochampalli, Venkatagiri, Narainpet
2 Assam Sualkuchi
3 Bihar Bhagalpur
4 Gujarat Surat, Cambay
5 Jammu & Kashmir Srinagar
6 Karnataka Bangalore, Anekal, Ilkal, Molakalmuru, Melkote, Kollegal
7 Chhattisgarh Champa, Chanderi, Raigarh
8 Maharashtra Paithan
9 Tamil Nadu Kanchipuram, Arni, Salem, Kumbhakonam, Tanjavur
10 Uttar Pradesh Varanasi
11 West Bengal Bishnupur, Murshidabaad, Birbhum