WE ARE WITH THE COMMUNITY

Gambella University
College of Agriculture and Natural Resource
Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism Management

Ethnomedicinal Plant Use and Practice by Indigenous People for the Treatment of
Human and Livestock’s Ailment in Gambella Town, Ethiopia

An Ethnobotanical Approach

By

Jibril Kedir

Research Proposal Submitted to Research Directorate, Gambella University

July, 2021

Gambella, Ethiopia
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Ethnobotany is wide term stand for the study of local people’s interrelation with the

natural environment: how they classify, manage, and use plants available around them

(Martin, 1995; Zeleke Assefa. 2019). Ethnomedicinal plants have been used widely as

medication purpose by traditional practitioners since ancient time for both human and

livestock’s healthcare for sedative purposes in the world (Sofowora, 1993 and WHO,

2003). Locally dependence of human upon plants was started primary at 10,000 years and

indigenous people have developed their locality specific knowledge on medicinal plant

use and management (Martin, 1995). This Indigenous local communities’ knowledge was

based on health practices, animal and mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies,

manual techniques and manual therapies for treat disease and injury, diagnose and

prevent illnesses and maintain well-being traditionally for human and livestock (WHO,

2001; Tesfaye Awas and Sebsebe Damesie, 2009). They although, experienced

indigenously in emic categorizations and classification of plants diversity for

conservation (Martin, 1995; Cotton, 1996).

Ethiopia is endowed rich flora and fauna diversity due to its rugged topography and

climatic diversity (Yalden, 1992). There were 7,000 estimated plant species in the

country, of which about 10% are endemic and 14% are used as medicinal purpose, which

are estimated to contain about 887 plants species (Kidane, BET AL., 2014; Asfaw Debell,

2014). It is believed that about 80% of human population and 90% of livestock is depend

on traditional medicine generated from plants (Mengistu et al., 2019, Aragaw et al.,

2020). Large occurrence of plants is distributed in the southern and southwestern parts of
the country following the concentration of biological and cultural diversity (Feyssa et

al.,2015; Tamene et al., 2020). Wide and vital uses of traditional medicine in the country

could be attributed to cultural diversity and acceptability, economic affordability, and

perceived efficacy against certain type of diseases compared to modern medicines

(Tolossa K, 2013). However, Knowledge of the medicinal plants of Ethiopia and their

uses was under little emphasis over the past decades (Mirutse Giday, et al 2010; Dawit

Abebe, 2001), even if there has been some attempt in investigating medicinal plants and

indigenous knowledge on sustainable use, management which bring vital contribution to

human and livestock healthcare in the country (Lulekal, et al., 2013). Even though, many

more medicinal plants of Ethiopia which are found in lesser studied areas are still

anticipate scientific studies, that’s why, the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation has

pledged long-range strategic research plan for identification and documentation of

indigenous knowledge (IBCR, 2000). Similarly, studies based on medicinal plants of

Ethiopia have so far concentrated in the south, southwest, central, north and north-

western parts of the country (Asfaw et al., 2001; Giday M, 2013; Tolossa K et al., 2013).

There were little data that quantitatively assess the resource potential, indigenous

knowledge on the use and management of medicinal plant species from western Ethiopia

(Jemberu Alemu and Ketema Tilahun 2019), as well as none are there from the present

study area. However, the region has Gambella region has relatively better plant resources

and the associated traditional knowledge resource which is expected to be significant.

The focus of this study is in Gambella town in which the area is characterized as the high

native people specialized in traditional medicine (Jamberu Alemu and Ketema Tilahun,

2019). The community of the area had guardians of valuable indigenous knowledge on
the use of traditional medicinal plants of their surroundings, used for treating human and

livestock ailments. The study would attempt to assess the ethnomedicinal plant species

used to manage human ailments and livestock’s, the associated indigenous knowledge in

and around Gambella Town.

1.2. Statements of the problem

In Ethiopian human population in both rural and urban areas known by low health care

coverage even the existing public sector resources are being stretched to the limit. The

country face greatest challenges for determining narrow gap between the existing

services health and the population whose access is limited (WHO, 2013). In 2003/04,

30% of populations did not have easy access to formal health services. Accordingly, 35%

of the patients in the country did not obtain the prescribed drugs due to lack of money

(WHO, 2013). However, most Traditional medicine are delivered either free or with low

cost by traditional healers for community as primary health care need. Environmental

degradation, agricultural expansion, loss of forests and woodlands, overharvesting, fire,

cultivation of marginal lands and urbanization appear to be the major threats to the

traditional medicinal plants in the country.

There is a problem of Traditional Medicinal reports, scarcity of drugs due to loss of

forests and lack of efficient inexpensive drug sources which could also be worsened by

prevailing social and economic challenges in the study area, (Tesfaye et al., 2009,

Ketema Tilahun and Jemberu Alemu, 2013). Gambella region has some plant resource

and associated traditional knowledge resource which would be expected to be significant

for fill up the expected problems. Gambella Town is characterized as high populated,

medium health service, high practice of Traditional Medicine and medium income
(Gambella Regional Report, 2019). The area is characterized by lowland steep

topography and diverse vegetation types cultivated by native people like Homegarden

and Botanical garden and some nonnative plants like Neem plants distributed in the town,

however the due to human population growth and its activities the town goes under

tension of deforestation, which causes the primary result of ethnomedical plants

reduction, available for disease treatment in the town (Azeb W. Degife, 2019). In

addition, localized weather shocks and incidence of livestock pests and disease outbreaks

alter the feed intake, death rate, reduce growth rate, low self-maintenance, and shortage

of food (Azeb W. Degife, 2019). Even, the current plant use trend seems that the

environment is facing problems of resource depletion and loss of indigenous knowledge

due to local community migration from rural to urban, which may tend them loses of skill

on traditional medicinal knowledge. Similarly, there is lack of scientifically

documentation and identification of tradition healer’s knowledge found in the town. In

the Town no evidence was gained regarding any research done on this topic. Therefore,

this study will be conducted to fill the research gaps regarding to the use and practice for

conservation strategies for traditional medicinal plants species practiced by Traditional

household. In addition, this study aimed to identify adoption status, determining factors

and effectiveness in utilization of local knowledge on medicinal plants use and

management practice.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

1.3.2. General Objective

The overall objective of the study will be to investigate indigenous knowledge of

Ethnomedicinal Plant use and practice by local community and to evaluate their

effectiveness in Gambella town.

1.2.2 Specific Objectives

To record and document Indigenous Knowledge of the people on the use of

Traditional Medicinal plants in the Gambella Town,

To collect and identify list of traditional medicinal plant

specimens used for treatment of human and livestock health

problems in the area,

To identify major parts and mode of preparation of Traditional Medicinal plants

specimen used in the area,

1.4.Research Questions

What is the IK associated with the use of TMPS against human and livestock

health problem?

How many Medicinal Plants are there in the study research area to be used against

human and livestock ailment?

Which parts of Traditional Medicinal plants are used in the area to treat illness?

What is the mode of preparation of Medicinal plants by local community?

1.5 Significance of the Study

Different stake-holders (Governmental and non-governmental organization) involved in

town will be highly concerned with loss of Traditional medicinal plants and they have

been taking considerable measures to increase knowledge of conservation and to improve

or maintain the existing natural resource base of the area. The study findings will

therefore help the town Administrative Office to design strategies that can bring positive

outcomes to the conservation of Medicinal Plants diversity. In addition, the study results

will be also be used as an initiative for further related research works in the study area.

2. Literature review

2.1 Origin and development of ethnobotany

Starting from the hunting and gathering time human beings were used plants as a

medicine.

The Practice of ethnobotany was started by Christopher Columbus in 1492, at the time he

brought tobacco, maize, spices and other useful plants to Europe from Cuba, Aztec, Maya

and Inca peoples and documented it as food, medicine and other useful service (Cotton,

1996). Still, Traditional people around the world possess unique

knowledge of plant resources for utilization as food, medicine and had

other tremendous botanical skill (Martin, 1995). The animal, plant

kingdom and mineral products contribute human wellbeing in

supplying his basic needs. This close interaction and dependency of

humans on plants is studied under the field of ethnobotany.

It is difficult to tell exactly when the term ethnobotany became part of modern science.

However, the term ethnobotany first coined by John Hershberger in 1895 at the time

when humans started making conscious interaction with plants and animals. (Balick,

1996). According to Martin (1995), ethnobotanical studies are mainly useful in

documenting, management, use, and disseminating of knowledge on the interaction

between biodiversity and human society, and how biodiversity is valued in different

societies as well as how it is influenced by human activities. Though, Ethnobotany is

study of the use of plants by aboriginal peoples (Cotton, 1996). In similar concept, Bye

(1985) stated ethnobotany as a science investigates the biological (including the

ecological) basis of interaction and relationship between plants and people over

evolutionary time and geological space. Ethnobotanical study finds out how local people

have traditionally used plants for various purposes, and how they incorporated plants in

to their cultural tradition and religions (Balick and Cox, 1996). Ethnobotanical

investigation documents the knowledge on cultural interaction of people with plants,

Therefore, traditional local communities worldwide have a great deal of knowledge about

native plants on which they intimately depend (Langeheim and Thimann,1982). As stated

by Martin (1995) to achieve more detailed and reliable information of plants and plant

use, ethnobotanical study needs involvement of specialists from various disciplines, such

as plant taxonomists, plant ecologists, anthropologists, linguists, economic botanists,

pharmacologists and others. With such interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary

approaches, ethnobotany is aimed at gathering and documenting indigenous botanical

knowledge, cultural practice, use and management of botanical resources and discovers

benefits from plants.

2.2 Indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge refers to the accumulation of knowledge, rule,

standards, skills, and mental sets possessed by local people in a

particular area (Quanash, 1998). The immediate and intimate

dependency of local people on natural resources resulted in the

accumulation of indigenous knowledge that helped people to adapt to

and survive with environments friendly within their host place. Local

knowledge is unique to a given culture or society and the base for

agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, environmental

conservation and a host of other activities (Thomas, 1995). The

complex knowledge, beliefs and practices of indigenous knowledge

develops and changes with time and space. Such knowledge includes

time-tested practice that developed in the process of interaction of

humans with their environment (Alcorn, 1984). Thus, it is the result of

many generations long year’s experiences, careful observations and

trial and error experiments (Martin, 1995). Indigenous knowledge is a

body of knowledge built up by a group of people through generations

of living in close contact with nature and it is cumulative and dynamic.

The quantity and quality of traditional knowledge differs among

community members according to their gender, age, social standing,

profession and intellectual capabilities. For instance, societies

concerned with biological diversity will be most interested in

knowledge about the environment; this information must be

understood in a manner, which encompasses knowledge about the

cultural, economic, political and spiritual relationships with the land

(Balick and Cox, 1996). Indigenous people of different localities have

developed their own knowledge on plant resources use and

conservation (Cotton, 1996).

Thus, systematic application of indigenous knowledge is important for

sustainable use of resources and sustainable development (Thomas,

1995). One of the widely used indigenous knowledge system in many

countries is the knowledge of traditional medicine. Such knowledge,

known as ethnomedicinal knowledge involves traditional diagnosis,

collection of raw materials, preparation of remedies and its prescription

to the patients (Farnsworth, 1994). Indigenous knowledge on remedies

in many countries including Ethiopia, pass from one generation to the

other generation verbally with great secrecy (Jansen, 1981). Such

secrete and crude transfer makes indigenous knowledge or

ethnomedicinal knowledge vulnerable to distortion and in most cases,

some of the lore is lost at each point of transfer (Amare Getahun,

1976), hence it is need for systematic documentation of such

knowledge through ethnobotanical research.

2.3 Medicinal plant diversity and distribution in Ethiopia

Different vegetation types that found in the various agro ecological zones of Ethiopia

accommodate various types of medicinal plants. Woodlands, Montana vegetation

including grasslands and forests and the evergreen scrubs and rocky areas contain more

medicinal plants with higher concentrations in the woodlands ( Friis, I. and Edwards, S.,

2001). It is believed that there was 1000 TMPSs Identified in the Ethiopian Flora,

however, many others are not yet identified. According to Jansen (1981), Ethiopia has

rich MP lore and points out that almost all plants of the Ethiopian flora are used

somewhere somehow medicinally. Other workers on the other hand estimated about 60%
of the flora to be medicinal, and most sources give about 10% of the vascular flora to be

medicinal. The list cover plants that are widely used by the local communities in

lowlands and highlands for treating human ailments and some of them for livestock

ailments. Friis, I. and Edwards, S., 2001, noted that, greater concentration of MPs is found

in the south and south western Ethiopian parts of the country following the concentration

of biological and cultural diversity.

The various records of MPs were from central, north and northwestern part of Ethiopia

showed small fractions of MP present in Ethiopia. Study on the Bale Mountains National

Park in the South East Ethiopia revealed that the area, as much as it is a biodiversity

hotspot, also turned out to be a MP hotspot with 337 identified medicinal species of

which 24 are endemic (Haile Yineger, 2005). The country is home of many languages and

cultures with high diversity of IK and practices of people use of medicinal plants. In 1993

it was reported that 80% of the Ethiopian population still depends on traditional medicine

for their health care practices. More than 95% of traditional medical preparations are

plant origin.

2.4.1 Traditional medicinal plants use in public health care

system

Plants have been used as a source of traditional medicine in Ethiopia

from the time immemorial to combat different ailments and human

sufferings (Asfaw Debela et al., 1999). Due to its long period of practice

and existence, traditional medicine has become an integral part of the

culture of Ethiopian people (Mirgissa Keba, 1998). According to Dawit

Abebe (2001), there is a large magnitude of use and interest in

medicinal plants in Ethiopia due to acceptability, accessibility and

biomedical benefits. In this country, the long history of use of

medicinal plants is reflected in various medico- religious manuscripts

produced on parchments and believed to have originated several

centuries ago (Fassile Kibebew, 2001). Medical textbooks written in

Geez or even Arabic in Ethiopia between the mid of 17 th and 18th

century imply that plants have been used as a source of traditional

medicine in Ethiopian health care system. Even today, it is common for

people living in rural and urban areas to treat some common ailments

using plants available around them (example, Hagenia abyssinica to

expel tapeworm, for various health problems) (Abbink, 1995).

The continued dependency on herbal medicine along with the side of

modern medicine is largely conditioned by economic and cultural

factors (Aketch, 1992). The modern medical services are inaccessible

to the vast majority of the populations due to their costs made herbal

medicines more acceptable. The problem of ensuring equitable

distribution of modern health care has become more serious, as the

gap between supply and demand has continued to widen. Hence, in

present-day Africa including Ethiopia, the majority of people lack

access to health care and where available the quality is largely below

standard (Abbiw, 1996). This is why Nijar (1996) stated that for most

indigenous peoples and the local communities’ reliance on plant

resources accounts for anything up to 95% of their survival

requirements. Therefore, herbal remedies are the world’s therapeutic

means to act against diseases for a large proportion of people in rural

and urban centers in developing countries like Ethiopia (Abbiw, 1996).

2.5 Threats and conservation of traditional medicinal plants in

Ethiopia

2.5.1 Threats to medicinal plants

People use many wild species of plants for food, medicine, clothing,

shelter, fuel, fiber, income generation and cultural and spiritual needs

throughout the world (Zemede Asfaw, 2001). Ethiopia’s traditional

medicine as elsewhere in Africa is faced with problems of continuity

(Ensermu Kelbessa et al., 1992). The primary causes of this problem

are loss of taxa of medicinal plants, loss of habitats of medicinal plants

and loss of Indigenous knowledge. Accordingly, most of the medicinal

plants utilized by Ethiopian people are harvested from wild habitats

(Mirutse Giday, 1999; Tesfaye Awas and Zemede Asfaw, 1999) and

hence this aggravates the rate of loss of taxa with related indigenous

knowledge and loss of widely occurring medicinal plants. Population

growth, need for fuel, urbanization, timber production, over harvesting,

invasive species, agricultural expansion and habitat destruction are

human caused threats to medicinal plants, while bush fire, disease and
pest out breaks are nature causes (Ensermu Kelbessa et al., 1992).

Like elsewhere in Ethiopia, the problem is manifested in Gambella

region due to the above-mentioned factors.

2.5.2 Conservation of traditional medicinal plants

Conservation is defined as the sustainable use of biological resources.

The concept of sustainability is now seen as the guiding principle for

economic and social development, particularly with reference to

biological resources. According to Zemede Asfaw (2001), medicinal

plants are considered to be at conservation risk due to over use and

destructive harvesting (roots and barks collection). Dawit Abebe and

Ahadu Ayehu (1993) found that many medicinal preparations use

roots, stem and bark by effectively killing the plant in harvest. Plant

parts used to prepare remedies are different; however, root is the most

widely used part. Such wide utilization of root part for human and

livestock aliments with no replacement has severe effect on the future

availability of the plant. Recent work of Haile Yineger (2005) confirms

the fact that of the total plant parts to prepare remedies root is widely

used with 64 species (35.5%) followed by leaf 47 species (25.97%)

which hence affects sustainable utilization. In a broad sense,

conservation is achieved through in-situ and ex-situ means. In-situ

conservation is conservation of species in their natural habitat. Some

traditional medicinal plants have to be conserved in-situ due to

difficulty for domestication and management (Zemede Asfaw, 2001).

Moreover, some plants fail to produce the desired amount and quantity

of the active principles under cultivation out of their natural habitats.

Medicinal plants can also be conserved by ensuring and encouraging

their growth in special places, as they have been traditionally (Zemede

Asfaw, 2001), this can be possible in places of worship (churches,

mosques, grave yards, etc), scared grooves, farm margins, river banks,

road sides, live fences of gardens and fields. According to (Zemede

Asfaw (2001), medicinal plants can be conserved using appropriate

conservational methods in gene banks and botanical gardens. This

type of conservation of medicinal plants can also be possible in-home

gardens, as the home garden is strategic and ideal farming system for

the conservation, production and enhancement of medicinal plants.

3: Materials and Methods

3.1. Description of the study area

3.1.1 Geographical location

The study conducted in Gambella Peoples National Regional State, Gambella town.

Gambella is one of the nine regional states that constitute the Federal Democratic

Republic of Ethiopia. It is located in the western tip of the country and has common

borders with Sudan in the West, South and North, the regional state of the SNNP in the

south and East, with the regional state of Oromia in the North and East. Gambella is a
name for both the region and the city, which is located about 753 kilometers West of

Addis Ababa perched at an elevation of 526 meters above sea level (Figure 1). The city

of Gambella is administered directly to the region along with Itang, an area that contains

Anyuaa, Nuer and Opo populations. The town is founded on the banks of the River Baro.

Figure 1: Map of the study area (Gambella Town)

3.2 Topography and climate

The Gambella region lies within the hot to warm humid lowland agro-ecological

zone. The topography divides the Gambella region into two broad sub-regions, the annual

rainfall of the Region lay at lower altitudes range from 900-1,500 mm and at higher
altitudes ranges from 1,900-2,100 mm. The climate of the Region is formed under the

influence of the tropical rainy season from the Indian Ocean, characterized with high

rainfall during wet season in May to October and has little rainfall during the dry season

from November to April. The rainy season starts at the end of April to end of October

with the maximum rainfall in July [20]. The mean annual temperature of the region varies

from 17.3 to 28.3co and annual monthly temperature varies from 27 to 33c o. while its

Annual evapo-transpiration of the region reaches 1,612 mm and the maximum value

occurs in March having 212 mm. Its climate is classified as tropical savannah (Aw) by

open and Geiger [18] with an average temperature of 27.6c o and 1,197 mm of average

annual precipitation [19].

The area have two main harvesting times Meher and Belg. In Meher, crops are harvested

from September to February and in the Belg, crops are harvested from March to August.

Baro, Gilo, Akobo, and Alwero are the main rivers crossing the region [21]. The region,

characteristized by favorable soil, topography and climate conditions, suitable for

growing for crops types.

3.3 Population

The region has an area of 25,802.01 square km with total population of 306,916 (CSA,

2009). The region is home to five indigenous ethnic groups, namely the Anywa, the Nuer,

the Majang, the Opo, and the Kumo. Each ethnic group. The dominant population groups

are the Nuer Jikany and the Anyuaa. It dominates by Administratively the region is

divided into three zones along the three major ethnic groups, (1) Anywa zone, (2) Nuer

zone, and (3) Majang zone. These three zones are further divided into 12 woredas; five

under Anywa zone, two under Majang zone, four under Nuer zone and one special (CSA,
2007). These groups are all of Nilo-Saharan linguistic origin, they do not form a

homogenous ethnic identity. Ethnic boundaries among these groups are mainly

constructed along linguistic lines, distinct cultural and political traditions. Additionally,

since 980s, Gambella native community has witnessed a huge influx of diverse ethnic

groups from the central/highland parts of the Ethiopia. This wave of migration has

introduced a new category of people in Gambella known as ‘highlanders. The

‘highlanders’ is generally used to collectively refer to other Ethiopians in the region who

do not belong to the five indigenous groups of the region but contrasted with the ‘black’

indigenous peoples; culturally and socially.

Land use and socio-economic

The region endowed with a vast marginal land which is suitable for agriculture and other

economic activities. The existing land cover of the region are identified as cultivated

land, forest land, wood land, bush land, shrub land, grass land, wet (marsh land) [6]. The

Anyuaa, subsistence economy largely depends on agriculture and crop cultivators at

south-eastern half of the region. The community classify ecological zones into ‘Bap’

(grassland flooded every rainy season); ‘Wok’ (woodland); and ‘Lul’ (forest). Those who

live in ‘Bap’ areas tend to practice pastoralism, fishing and cultivation. The Anywa of

‘Wok’ (woodland) practice shifting cultivation. During the dry season, cultivation is

carried out on the riverbanks and in rainy seasons. Fishing and pastoralism are also

practised, agriculture remains the most important means of subsistence in the areas. In

Lul (forest), there was practices of fishing and raising domestic animals. Beekeeping and

hunting are also very common practices among the Anywa of ‘Lul’ (EvansPritchard,

1940). Cattle have been of the highest economic, religious and symbolic value among the
Nuer ethnic group. Nuer, largely agro-pastoralists concentrated in the dryer north-western

half of the region (Stauder, 1971). The population of Highlanders of mixed ethnicity who

originate from Central Ethiopia, dominate trade in the region. The Nuer culture,

traditional, social and customs are intimately linked with cattle. (James, 1990; Dereje,

2005). Anywa and Nuer adopted the forest livelihood style from their neighbors, the

Majang people, who are forest people and a model of conservationist (Kurimoto, 1996,

Tasfeye Awas et al., 2001).

Vegetation

Vegetation types of Gambella region was classified into seven major

plant communities. 1.Commelina zambesica-Hygrophica consist

auriculate communities, with species of grass Echinochloa rotundiflora

Clayton. There was Herbaceous and grass species with scattered trees

of Balanities aegyptical (L) Del and nd shrubs of combretum collinum

fresen and Maerua triphylla. This community occurred in the western

plain of Gambella at an average altitude of 535 masl. 2, Sorghum

purpureo-sericeum-Pennistum thunbergi dominated community. There

were scattered individuals of the tree like Balanites aegyptica and

shrubs of Acacia polyacantha wild.

The community is confined to the vicinity of Itang at an altitude of

580m. 3, Loudetia arundinacea-Hyparrhenia pilgeriana dominated

community, with some grass like H.Filipendula (Hochst) Spapf. The

community distributed in Abobo to Phugnudo, Itang amd Gambella to

Bure at an average altitude of 635 masl .4, Combretum adenogonium-

Anogeissus Leiocarpa dominated community, intercepted by deciduous

woodland trees, consist of Lonchocarpus laxiflorus, Pterocarpus lucens,

Terminalia laxiflora and Zaziphus abyssinica Hochst. The community is

confined to the road from Gambella to Abobo and along the road from

Gambella to Bure at an average altitude of 686m. 5, Tamarindus

indica-Anogeissus leiocarpa community occurred along riverbanks in

riverine forest and characterized by Tamarindus indica and Anogeissus

leoicarpa at tree layer with trees species like Celtis toka, Hepper and

Wood and Ziziphus pubescens at an average altitude of 617m. 6,

Baphia abyssinica-Tapura fischeri community, Baphia abyssinica

Brummit and Tapurafischeri community. This community is restricted

to the lowland of eastern Gambella at an average altitude of 714m. 7,

Manilkara Butugi-Cordia Afrinica community, this community is

characterized by Manilkara butugi and Cordia africana Lam in the tree

layer occurred on the eastern escarpment at the average altitude of

1303m (Tasfeye Awas et al., 2001).

3. Methods

3.1 Sampling design and data collection methods

3.1.1. Sampling design

The study area will be one of the high practices of TMPS observed in Gambella town.

Due to that it was purposively selected based on the information obtained from Gambella
Agricultural Office. The three Kebeles (Baro Mado with four villages, New Land with

three villages and Gondar-Safer with two villages), which are found at the study Town

were selected for Ethnobotanical data collection will be done. From each selected Kebele,

ten traditional healers (totally 30) will be selected purposively following with the help of

Kebeles chair-man and local elder people. Traditional healers identified will be asked for

their permission to share their knowledge only for the purpose of this study.

3.2.3 Sample size and sampling techniques

Samples unit in the area will be selected purposively with the help of Kebeles

administration leaders and elder peoples. Five kebeles allocated by the city administration

will be selected based on same landscape and marketing activities. Therefore, five

Kebeles, Newland (Kebele 03), Gonder-Sefar (“Kebele 04) and Baro-Mado (Kebele 05),

Adis Safar (Kebele 01), Baro Abobo (kebele 02) will be selected purposive as sampling

house hold unit. Then sampling of household will be done by random sampling

technique. Informant selection will be done by selecting 65 informants, 7 to 9

individuals from five kebeles (40 men and 25 women) from the age of

20-84 will be included following ( Getnet Chekole, 2011). Similarly,

30 key informants will be selected based on the number of participants

incorporated within provided age ranges. The selection of key

informants take place with local administrators, elders and

Development Agents (DAs based on local community knowledge of

their medicinal plant traditionally practiced. The selection of key

informant, will be made through preferential methods to gutter

necessary information about traditional medicinal healers or certain

social groups such as women and elder (Martin, 1995). The remaining

informants will be selected randomly using lottery methods by using

the lists of the inhabitants from the kebele administration.

Table 1: Sampling size and sampling technique

Participa Population Sample size % Samplin

nt g
Techniqu
e
M F T M F T
Househol 7,256 9819 550 35 900 10 Random
d 2’56 0 Samplin
3 g
Tradition 52 32 84 20 10 30 35.7 Purposiv
al e
Healers Samplin
g
Key 15 10 25 8 5 13 52 Purposiv
Informan e
t Samplin
g
Total 7323 2605 9928 578 37 951 97.7
3
M=Male, F=Female, T= Total.

Total Household population of the study was 9928 whereas total sample size will be 951

who will be participated in five study Kebeles.

Table 2: Table Selection of households and healers

No Kebele Selected household Healers

1 01 32 6
2 02 26 5
3 03 30 4
4 04 34 5
5 05 25 4
 Total 160 24
From the total of 5 Kebeles 147 households and 24 THs will be selected and participated

in this study. As shown in the table 2, from the total sample of household about 550

(61.5%) participants will be male and 350(39%) will be female.

3.2.4 Sampling Key informants

To determine the implications of TMPS conservations and ethnobotanical practices in the

study area, the key informants will be needed. The key informants will be those people

who were well knowledgeable, well familiar with the study site. In this case, 15 key

informants will be selected through purposive sampling based on recommendations from

local authorities (Kebele administrators and local elder peoples) from all selected kebeles.

3.2.5 Ethnobotanical data collection

The methods used for ethnobotanical data collection will be semi-structured interviews,

group discussion, field (Home garden) observation and market survey.

3.2.5.1 Semi- structured interview

The respondents background, health problems treated, treatment methods, local name of

medicinal plants used, source of collection (wild or cultivated), used to treat human or

livestock ailments, plant part used as medicine, dosage used, route of

application, adverse effect, uses other than medicinal uses, threats to

medicinal plants and conservation practice of the respondents will be recorded. Semi-

structured interview sessions will be employed with the help of local assistants (Martin,

1995; Alexiades, 1996). Interviews and discussions will be based on, around

a checklist of topics or questions prepared beforehand in English, and

translated to Anyua,Neur and Majang Afan Oromo and Amharic.,. Local

names of plants will be studied by repeated inquiries at different times

with the same informants to check the accuracy of information

obtained and recorded.

3.2.5.2 Group discussion

Group discussion will be made in selected study Kebele. Thirty informants (ten from

each Kebeles) will be randomly selected. The informants will be grouped in to two age

group, young (20-30) and adult (above 46) to see how the ethnobotanical knowledge

varies with age. Checklist for each group will be prepared to guide topics for open ended

dissociation with traditional medicinal plant species practices. At the end of

interview the contribution of each informant will be appreciated,

indicating the value of their knowledge in health care and biodiversity

conservation.

Informant consensus

The informant consensus will be done to confirm the validity and

reliability of information given by the informants on the same topic.

This will be performed by contacted the informants more than twice.

As result, if the responses of an informant will be not in harmony with

the original one, the information will be rejected as it was unreliable.

Only the response of an informant that is in harmony with each other

will be taken as relevant and used for data analysis.

Informal interview with herbalists

Some key traditional healers, genuine herbalists that was well-known

by the local community own traditional home pharmacies derived from

plant remedies. Informants stated that they greatly respect the

herbalists they and that patients frequently visited them especially

when modern medical services are not affordable to them and when

they become inefficient to cure particular ailments. These healers will

be asked to show their work at their home and field. The information

obtained through discussion will be carefully recorded. This helped the

researcher to confirm the effectiveness of their knowledge on the

preparation of remedies and to cure health problems.

3.2.5.3 Field observation

Field observation will be conducted throughout the whole process of the research in order

to ensure the validity of the obtained information, in field observations, the type of MP,

the source/location, the human activities that cause loss to TMPS, and conservations of

MP will be carefully observed (Alexiades, 1996).

Market survey

Market surveys will be done carefully and with greater care as well as

confidentiality to record the varieties and number of herbal drugs sold

in the market. Market survey and observation will be conducted at a market which

take place once a week or Monday where more people attend) and a place which take

place all days at which the local people attend regularly. To assess the products of TMPS
supplied from the surrounding with the objective of understanding the system in income

generation to the household (Martin, 1995).

4.4 Specimen collection

In order to classify and describe plant communities by dominant and

co-dominant plant species and assess the distribution of medicinal

plants in the study area, specimen collection will be carried out

between 10th December and 20th February, 2021, through establishing

total of 32 quadrats. At each study site, number of plots with

homogenous vegetation and home gardens resulting specimens will be

collected. A modified Whittaker Nested-Quadrat sampling method by

Stohlgren et al., (1994) will be adopted for natural vegetation. Trees

were sampled in 20m x 20m plots, Shrub 5m x 5m and herbs 2m x 2m

plot nested on the bigger plot, and 5m x 5m quadrats for home

gardens in a separate plot. Based on ethnobotanical information

provided by informants’ specimens will be collected, numbered,

pressed, and dried for identification.

4.6 Vegetation description

The description of the vegetation will be done based on the information

gathered from informants following the emic categorization technique

i.e. categorization by indigenous people based on their own indigenous

knowledge. Additionally, categorization of plant species will be it done

through repeated curious visual observation following the etic

classification technique of ethnobotany as described by Martin (1995).

In the latter case, morphological characteristics or general appearance

of vegetation such as growth and life forms of the dominant or co-

dominant plants will focused upon.

Ethical Consideration

Special ethical considerations will be taken from the beginning to the

end of data collection. These will be be considered based on the

cultural view of the local communities in the site. In view of these

considerations, approaching of the informants will be very systematic

through telling the fact and convincing each informant following his or

her culture strictly. They will be also informed that the objective of the

research is not for commercial purposes but for academic reasons. This

will be confirmed by showing different official documents from

Gambella University and different concerned sector offices of the

Town.

3.4 Data analysis

Ethnobotanical data will be analyzed using direct matrix ranking methods, preference

ranking methods and paired comparison based on methods given by Martin (1995) and

Cotton (1996). Descriptive statistics (percentage and frequencies) will be computed to

describe the ethnobotanical information on the plant species used for medicinal,
associated knowledge and conservation status. Qualitative data obtained from key

informants will be subjected for thematic (means connected with them or themes with

something) analysis. Finally, all the results will be presented in tables and figures.

3.4.1 Preference ranking method

Martin (1995), noted preference ranking techniques as useful for gathering information

on the different needs, feelings, and priorities of different categories of individuals within

a community and numerical values will be assigned to each item. In this study preference

ranking of plant species will be compared on three selected Kebele. Preference ranking of

four MP that will be reported as effective for treating snake bite will be conducted in this

study.

3.4.2 Direct matrix ranking method

Direct matrix ranking method techniques will be conducted. The key informants will be

asked to assign use values (4=Best, 3=very good, 2=good, 1=poor and 0=undefined),

using numerical scale in which the highest number is equal to the most preferred item

whereas, the lowest to the least once. Then the key informants will be asked to rate their

preferences. Finally, the values of each species will be summed up and ranked. Five

commonly reported multipurpose MP and four diseases treated will be involved in this

study (Marten, 1996).

3.4.3 Pairwise comparison

Pairwise comparison can be used for evaluating the degree of use certain selected plants.

This method will be used to find out about the result of four TMPS used to treat malaria

following the procedure as described by Martin (1995). Nine key informants will e

purposively selected based on the recommendations of local authorities (Kebele chairman

and elder people) to show their responses independently for pairs of four MP that are

noted for treated malaria.

3.4.4 Correlation

In this study three variables (TMPS consumption with the age of participants, month

income and Educational level) were correlated by using SPSS software version 20

4.9.6 Fidelity level index

Fidelity level index quantify the importance of a given species for a

particular purpose in a given cultural group (Friedman et al., 1986;

cited in Cotton, 1996). Confirmation or consensus could not be taken

as a single measure of the potential efficacy of any medicinal plant.

Thus, efficacy is not the only factor that influences the informant

choice but prevalence of a given plant and disease in the area can

affect informants’ choices. Therefore, in this study, the area that

dominated with particular disease will be chosen to indicate the fidelity

level of particular anti-disease drug for treatment, theses will be by

considering frequently reported diseases in area. The total overall use

and particular use reports of drugs by informants for particular disease

treatment will be recorded and its fidelity level index for the site will be

calculated and summarized.

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Appendices

Appendix:1 Semi structured interview for households and healers of

Offa Woreda to

collect ethnobotanical data

Thank you for your cooperation.

General direction:

1. No need to write your name.

2. Please, put only “√” mark in the place provided.

3. for questions that need your opinion or comment, please give short

and precise answer

In the space provided.

Part I: Households background information.

1. Sex: - A. Male B. Female

2. Religion _____________________

3. Age__________________________

4. Family size ________________________

5. Level of education

____________________________________________________
6. The average monthly income (Ethiopian birr).

______________________________

7. Do you think agro-climate affects the distribution of TMP? A. Yes B.

No

8. Do you have a farm land? A. Yes B. No

9. Have you ever used traditional medicinal plant? A. Yes B. No57

10. If your response for question No 9 is yes, how many times do you

use per month?

__________________________________________________________________

11. How do you differentiate traditional medicinal plants from others?

Part II: -Checklist of Questions or Items used as a Basis for Discussion

and Interview

12. How do you classify medicinal plants in your area based on: -

a) Agro-ecology_______________

b) vegetation _______________

c) Soil types ___________________

13. Do you think age, educational level and month income affects the

consumption rate of
 traditional medicinal plant? How?

____________________________________________

14. How many years did you spend in your profession?

__________________________

15. How did you get this profession?

__________________________________________

16. For which types of disease did you give traditional medicinal

plants? _____________

The following table was prepared to identify traditional medicinal

plants for human/animal

ailments in the study area.

The following table was prepared to identify traditional medicinal plants for

human/animal ailments in the study area.

Local Disease Plants Habitat/ Mode of Dosage/

name treated parts Location preparatio amount
of TMP used n

TMP-Traditional medicinal plants

Traditional medicinal plants for livestock in study area

Local Disease Plants Habitat/Location Mode of Dosage/amount

name of treated parts preparation
TMP used

17. How many people use traditional medicinal plants per a day? ___________________

18. How do you use a traditional medicinal plant? _______________________________

19. Where did you collect traditional medicinal plants? ___________________________

20. How do you preserve a traditional medicinal plant? ___________________________

21. How do you give a traditional medicinal plant to patients? ______________________

22. What problems had you faced to obtain traditional medicinal plants?

______________

23. Have you ever observed any change in your economy due to your profession?

A. Yes B. No

24. If your response for question No, 23 is yes, what change have you observed?
______________
25. How far traditional medicinal plant species from your home?
(Km)____________________
26. How was the society view on the traditional medicinal plants in you Kebele?
____________
27. Is there any practice that obstacle to obtain traditional medicinal plants in you
Kebele?

A. Yes B. No

28. If your response for Q No25 is yes, what was the cause for los of TMPS in you
Kebele? _______________________
Appendix: 2 Lists of key informants

No Name of key
informants Sex Age Educational Marital status Kebele
level/gram

Appendix: 3 Medicinal plants of the study areas

Scientific Family Local Name Habit Source Part used

Name

Appendix 4 medicinal plants used for livestock aliments in the study areas.

Medicinal plant Local Name Mode of Preparation

WORK PLAN

Table 1: Tentative time schedule

Remark

Activities Decem Janua Februa Marc Apri May Jun July

ber ry ry h l e
 Problem identification

Research Proposal writing and

Submission

Preliminary survey

Data collection

Data Analysis and

incorporating comment

Thesis report writing up

Thesis submission and

incorporating

BUDGET BREAK DOWN

Table 1: Stationery and Materials Cost
No Items Unit Quanti Unit cost Total cost Rema
ty Birr Cents Birr Cen rk
ts
1 Paper

2 Pen

3 Flash disk

4 Binding

5 Toner (Printing
ink
6 Hand Bags

Subtotal

Table 2: Peridium and Transportation for Researcher and Data collectors

Persons No. of Payment Durati Total Payment

Particip per day on
ants (Days) Remark
Birr Cents
Researcher
Data Collector

Expert visit
Research
Informative
incentive
Communication
cost (Internet and
Mobile cost)
Transportation
cost
Sub Total

Table 3: Budget Summary

No. Item Sub Total Cost

1 Stationary Cost Birr Cent

2 Fuel/Transportation Cost

3 Peridium and Huma Labor

cost
4 Contingency

Grand Total