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ISTUDY
Electric Power Systems with Renewables
Simulations Using PSS®E
Electric Power Systems with
Renewables
Simulations Using PSS®E

Second Edition

NED MOHAN
University of Minnesota, USA

SWAROOP GUGGILAM
Electric Power Research Institute, USA

Contributors
BRUCE WOLLENBERG
PRATAP MYSORE

DOUGLAS BROWN
Copyright © 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Mohan, Ned, editor. | Guggilam, Swaroop, editor.
Title: Electric power systems with renewables : simulations using PSS®E /
edited by Ned Mohan, Swaroop Guggilam.
Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons,
[2023] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022045412 (print) | LCCN 2022045413 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119844877 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119844884 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119844891
(epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Electric power systems. | Renewable energy sources.
Classification: LCC TK1001 .E26 2023 (print) | LCC TK1001 (ebook) | DDC
621.31--dc23/eng/20221017
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022045412
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022045413
Cover Image: © jia yu/Getty Images
Cover Design: Wiley
Set in size of
Pondicherry, India
To our families
 CONTENTS

PREFACE xiii
TABLE OF SIMULATIONS USING PSS®E, PYTHON, AND
MATLAB/SIMULINK® xv
ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE xvii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEMS: A

CHANGING LANDSCAPE 1
1.1 Nature of Power Systems 2
1.2 Changing Landscape of Power Systems Due to
Utility Deregulation 4
1.3 Integration of Renewables Into the Grid 5
1.4 Topics in Power Systems 6
References 9
Problems 9

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF BASIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND

ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Phasor Representation in a Sinusoidal Steady
State 12
2.3 Power, Reactive Power, and Power Factor 16
2.4 Three-Phase Circuits 22
2.5 Real and Reactive Power Transfer between AC
Systems 30
2.6 Equipment Ratings, Base Values, and
Per-Unit Quantities 32
2.7 Energy Efficiencies of Power System Equipment 33
2.8 Electromagnetic Concepts 34
viii Contents

Reference 44
Problems 44
Appendix 2A 47

CHAPTER 3 ELECTRIC ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 51

3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Choices and Consequences 51
3.3 Hydropower 53
3.4 Fossil-Fuel-Based Power Plants 53
3.5 Nuclear Power 55
3.6 Renewable Energy 58
3.7 Distributed Generation (DG) 66
3.8 Environmental Consequences and
Remedial Actions 66
References 68
Problems 68

CHAPTER 4 AC TRANSMISSION LINES AND UNDERGROUND

CABLES 71
4.1 Need for Transmission Lines and Cables 71
4.2 Overhead AC Transmission Lines 72
4.3 Transposition of Transmission-Line
Phases 73
4.4 Transmission-Line Parameters 74
4.5 Distributed-Parameter Representation of
Transmission Lines in a Sinusoidal Steady State 82
4.6 Surge Impedance Zc and Surge Impedance
Loading (SIL) 84
4.7 Lumped Transmission-Line Models in a
Steady State 86
4.8 Cables 88
References 89
Problems 90
Appendix 4A Long Transmission Lines 92

CHAPTER 5 POWER FLOW IN POWER SYSTEM NETWORKS 95

5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Description of the Power System 96
Contents ix

5.3 Example Power System 97

5.4 Building the Admittance Matrix 98
5.5 Basic Power-Flow Equations 100
5.6 Newton-Raphson Procedure 101
5.7 Solution of Power-Flow Equations Using the
Newton-Raphson Method 104
5.8 Fast Decoupled Newton-Raphson Method
for Power Flow 109
5.9 Sensitivity Analysis 110
5.10 Reaching the Bus VAR Limit 110
5.11 Synchronized Phasor Measurements, Phasor
Measurement Units (PMUS), and Wide-Area
Measurement Systems 111
5.12 DC Power Flow 111
References 112
Problems 112
Appendix 5A Gauss-Seidel Procedure for
Power-Flow Calculations 113
Appendix 5B Remote Bus Voltage Control by
Generators 114

CHAPTER 6 TRANSFORMERS IN POWER SYSTEMS 119

6.1 Introduction 119
6.2 Basic Principles of Transformer Operation 119
6.3 Simplified Transformer Model 125
6.4 Per-Unit Representation 127
6.5 Transformer Efficiencies and Leakage
Reactances 131
6.6 Regulation in Transformers 131
6.7 Autotransformers 132
6.8 Phase Shift Introduced by Transformers 134
6.9 Three-Winding Transformers 135
6.10 Three-Phase Transformers 136
6.11 Representing Transformers with Off-Nominal
Turns Ratios, Taps, and Phase Shifts 137
6.12 Transformer Model in PSS®E 140
References 141
Problems 141
x Contents

CHAPTER 7 GRID INTEGRATION OF INVERTER-BASED

RESOURCES (IBRS) AND HVDC SYSTEMS 145
7.1 Climate Crisis 146
7.2 Interface Between Renewables/Batteries and
The Utility Grid 146
7.3 High-Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Systems 152
7.4 IEEE P2800 Standard for Interconnection and
Interoperability of Inverter-Based Resources
Interconnecting with Associated Transmission
Electric Power Systems 156
References 157
Problems 157
Appendix 7A Operation of Voltage Source Converters
(VSCS) [7A1] 157
Appendix 7B Operation of Thyristor-Based Line-
Commutated Converters (LCCS) 161

CHAPTER 8 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM, LOADS, AND POWER

QUALITY 173
8.1 Introduction 173
8.2 Distribution Systems 173
8.3 Power System Loads 174
8.4 Power Quality Considerations 180
8.5 Load Management 191
References 192
Problems 192

CHAPTER 9 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 195

9.1 Introduction 195
9.2 Structure 196
9.3 Induced EMF in the Stator Windings 200
9.4 Power Output, Stability, and The Loss of
Synchronism 204
9.5 Field Excitation Control to Adjust
Reactive Power 206
9.6 Field Exciters for Automatic Voltage
Regulation (AVR) 208
Contents xi

9.7 Synchronous, Transient, and Subtransient

Reactances 208
9.8 Generator Modeling in PSS®E 211
References 213
Problems 213

CHAPTER 10 VOLTAGE REGULATION AND STABILITY IN

POWER SYSTEMS 215
10.1 Introduction 215
10.2 Radial System as an Example 215
10.3 Voltage Collapse 218
10.4 Preventing Voltage Instability 220
References 227
Problems 228

CHAPTER 11 TRANSIENT AND DYNAMIC STABILITY

OF POWER SYSTEMS 229
11.1 Introduction 229
11.2 Principle of Transient Stability 229
11.3 Transient Stability Evaluation
in Large Systems 238
11.4 Dynamic Stability 239
References 240
Problems 241
Appendix 11A Inertia, Torque, and Acceleration in
Rotating Systems 241

CHAPTER 12 CONTROL OF INTERCONNECTED POWER

SYSTEMS AND ECONOMIC DISPATCH 245
12.1 Control Objectives 245
12.2 Voltage Control by Controlling Excitation and
Reactive Power 246
12.3 Automatic Generation Control (AGC) 247
12.4 Economic Dispatch and Optimum Power Flow 257
References 262
Problems 262
xii Contents

CHAPTER 13 TRANSMISSION LINE FAULTS, RELAYING,

AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS 265
13.1 Causes of Transmission Line Faults 265
13.2 Symmetrical Components for Fault Analysis 266
13.3 Types of Faults 269
13.4 System Impedances for Fault Calculations 273
13.5 Calculating Fault Currents in
Large Networks 276
13.6 Protection Against Short-Circuit Faults 277
References 286
Problems 287

CHAPTER 14 TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES, SURGE

PROTECTION, AND INSULATION
COORDINATION 289
14.1 Introduction 289
14.2 Causes of Overvoltages 289
14.3 Transmission-Line Characteristics and
Representation 292
14.4 Insulation to Withstand Overvoltages 294
14.5 Surge Arresters and Insulation Coordination 296
References 296
Problems 297

INDEX  299
 PREFACE

Role of Electric Power Systems in Sustainability

It is estimated that approximately 40% of the energy used in the United States
is first converted into electricity. This percentage will grow to 60–70% if we
begin to use electricity for transportation by means of high-speed trains and
electric and electric-hybrid vehicles. Of course, generating electricity by using
renewables and using it efficiently are extremely important for sustainability. In
addition, electricity is often generated in areas far from where it is used, and
therefore how efficiently and reliably it is delivered is equally important for
sustainability.
Lately there has been a great deal of emphasis on the smart grid, whose
definition remains somewhat vague. Nonetheless, we can all agree that we need
to allow the integration of electricity harnessed from renewables, such as solar
and wind, and storage into the grid and deliver it reliably and efficiently. To
derive the benefits of such possibilities, a thorough understanding of how
electric power networks operate is extremely important, and that is the purpose
of this textbook.
The subject of electric power systems encompasses a large and complex
set of topics. An important aspect of this textbook is a balanced approach in
presenting as many topics as deemed relevant on a fundamental basis for a
single-semester course. These topics include how electricity is generated, how it
is used by various loads, and the network and equipment in between. Students
will see the big picture and simultaneously learn the fundamentals. The topic
sequence has been carefully considered to avoid repetition and retain students’
interest. However, instructors can rearrange the order based on their own expe-
rience and preference.
In a fast-paced course like this, student learning can be significantly
enhanced by computer simulations. We have used PSS®E, a simulation soft-
ware widely used in many countries. However, the knowledge and concepts
apply to any other power-system simulation software.
The authors are indebted to Professor Bruce Wollenberg, Pratap Mysore,
and Douglas Brown for their valuable contributions and Dr. Madhukar Rao
Airineni for his help during the preparation of this book.
 TABLE OF SIMULATIONS
USING PSS®E, PYTHON,
AND MATLAB/SIMULINK®

Topic Simulation Page

Transmission-line constants Example 4.2 using PSS®E 81

Power flow in a three-bus system Example 5.4 using PSS®E, Python, 107
and MATLAB
DC power flow Example 5.5 using Python and 112
MATLAB
N-R power flow Example 5.6 using PSS®E, Python, 116
and MATLAB
Modeling a transformer in power Example 6.1 using PSS®E 129
flow
Modeling IBRs Example 7.1 using PSS®E 151
Modeling an HVDC line Example 7.2 using PSS®E 154
Modeling generators in power flow Chapter 9 using PSS®E 211
Modeling a STATCOM in power Example 10.1 using PSS®E 225
flow
Transient stability Example 11.1 using PSS®E, 233
Python, and MATLAB
Interconnected systems Example 12.3 using Simulink® 255
Optimal power flow Chapter 12 using PSS®E 261
Fault calculations Example 13.1, 13.2, 13.3 using 268, 275, 277
Python and MATLAB
Bonus chapter on Python and PSS®E Python scripting: See the accompanying website.
 ABOUT THE
COMPANION WEBSITE

This book is accompanied by a companion website which includes a number of

resources created by author for students and instructors that you will find
helpful.

wiley.com/go/mohaneps

The Instructor website includes the following resources for each chapter:

● Videos
● Solution Manual for the Problems at the end of each Chapter.
● Slides for Lectures in PDF form.

The Student website includes the following resources for each chapter:

● Videos
● Bonus PDF Chapter on “Using Python with PSS®E”
● Live Web Page Link (To showcase day-to-day activities happening around
the book, like workshops, live sessions, etc.)

Please note that the resources in instructor website are password protected and
can only be accessed by instructors who register with the site.
 INTRODUCTION TO
1
POWER SYSTEMS: A
CHANGING LANDSCAPE

Electric power systems are technical wonders; and according to the National
Academy of Engineering [1], electricity and its accessibility are the greatest
engineering achievements of the twentieth century, ahead of computers and
airplanes. In many respects, electricity is a basic human right. It is a highly
refined “commodity,” without which it is difficult to imagine how a modern
society could function. It has saved countless millions from the daily drudgery
of backbreaking menial tasks.
Unfortunately, a billion people in the world have either no access or no
reliable access to electricity [2]. Added to this challenge is the fact that
burning fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas to produce electricity results
in carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. These greenhouse gases are
causing global warming and climate change, the gravest threat facing human
civilization.
Therefore, we as electric power engineers are faced with twin challenges.
How we generate electricity using renewables such as wind and solar, how we
transmit and deliver it, and how we use it are key factors to meet these
challenges.

Electric Power Systems with Renewables: Simulations Using PSS®E, Second Edition. Ned Mohan
and Swaroop Guggilam.
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion Website: www.wiley.com/go/mohaneps
2 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

1.1 NATURE OF POWER SYSTEMS

Power systems encompass the generation of electricity to its ultimate consump-
tion in operating everything from computers to hairdryers. In the most sim-
plistic form, a power system is shown in Figure 1.1, where power from a single
generating station is being supplied to consumers.

FIGURE 1.1 A single generating station supplying consumers (in color on

the accompanying website). Source: [3] / U.S Department of Energy / Public
Domain.

The system shown in Figure 1.1 is for illustration purposes only and shows the
various components of a power system if such a system were to be constructed.
It consists of a generating station, possibly producing voltages at a 20 kV level,
a transformer that steps up this voltage to much higher transmission voltages
for long-distance transmission of power, and then another transformer to step
down the voltage to supply consumers at various voltages. In this book, we will
look at all these components.
However, as mentioned, the system in Figure 1.1 is for illustration only. In
practice, for example, the North American grid in the United States and Canada
consists of thousands of generators, all operating in synchronism. These gener-
ators are interconnected by over 200,000 miles of transmission lines at 230 kV
voltage levels and above, as shown in Figure 1.2. Such an interconnected system
results in the continuity and reliability of service if there is an outage in one part
of the system and provides electricity at the lowest cost by utilizing the lowest-
cost generation as much as possible at a given time.
This power system has evolved over several decades, and a good history of
it can be read in [5].
As mentioned earlier, even though the actual power system may consist of
tens of thousands of generators and hundreds of thousands of miles of trans-
mission lines, it is possible to zoom in on a subset of such an extremely large
system. This is illustrated in Figure 1.3, as an example, which consists of only
10 generators. Although power transmission systems are always three-phase
FIGURE 1.2 Interconnected North American power grid (in color on the accompanying website). Source: [4].
4 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

FIGURE 1.3 A one-line diagram of the IEEE 39 bus system, known as the
10-machine New England Power System (in color on the accompanying web-
site). It has 10 generators and 46 lines. Source: [6].

(except in high-voltage DC [HVDC] transmission systems), we represent them

with one line in the figure, in a so-called one-line diagram.

1.2 CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF POWER SYSTEMS

DUE TO UTILITY DEREGULATION
Power systems today are undergoing major changes in how they are evolving in
their structure and meeting load demand. In the past (and still true to some
extent), electric utilities were highly centralized, owning large central power
plants as well as the transmission and distribution systems, all the way down to
the consumer loads. These utilities were monopolies: consumers had no choice
but to buy power from their local utilities. For oversight purposes, utilities were
Introduction to Power Systems: A Changing Landscape 5

watchdogs, preventing utilities from price gouging, and as custodians of the

environment by not allowing avoidable polluting practices.
The structure and operation of power systems are beginning to change,
and the utilities have been divided into separate generation and transmission/
distribution companies. There is distributed generation (DG) by independent
power producers (IPPs), and there are distributed energy resources (DERs) to
generate electricity by whatever means (wind, for example); they must be
allowed access to the transmission grid to sell power to consumers. The impetus
for the breakup of the utility structure was provided by the enormous benefits
of deregulation in the telecommunication and airline industries, which fostered
a large degree of competition, resulting in much lower rates and much better
service to consumers. Despite the inherent differences between these two indus-
tries and the utility industry, it was perceived that utility deregulation would
similarly profit consumers with lower electricity rates.
This deregulation is in transition, with some states and countries pursuing
it more aggressively and others more cautiously. To promote open competition,
utilities are forced to restructure by unbundling their generation units from their
transmission and distribution units. The objective is that the independent trans-
mission system operators (TSOs) wheel power for a charge from anywhere and
from anyone to the customer site. This fosters competition, allowing open trans-
mission access to everyone: for example, IPPs. Many such small IPPs have gone
into business, producing power using gas turbines, windmills, and PV plants.
Operation in a reliable manner is ensured by independent system opera-
tors (ISOs), and financial transactions are governed by real-time bidding to buy
and sell power. Energy traders have gotten into the act for profit: buying energy
at lower prices and selling it at higher prices in the spot market. Utilities are
signing long-term contracts for energy, such as gas. This is all based on the rules
of the financial world: forecasting, risks, options, reliability, etc.
As mentioned earlier, the outcome of this deregulation, still in transition,
is far from certain. However, there is every reason to believe that the deregula-
tion now in progress will continue, with little possibility that the clock will be
turned back. Some fixes are needed. The transmission grid has become a bottle-
neck, with little financial incentive for TSOs to increase capacity. If the trans-
mission system is congested, TSOs can charge higher prices. The number of
transactions and the complexity of these transactions have increased dramati-
cally. These factors point to anticipated legislative actions needed to maintain
electric system reliability.

1.3 INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLES INTO THE GRID

In addition to the deregulation mentioned, there is a great deal of emphasis on
generating power using renewables such as wind and solar rather than fossil
fuels such as coal and natural gas that emit greenhouse gases. The cost of power
6 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

cost of conventional sources. In making this comparison, we must realize that

renewables are intermittent, and thus their value goes down as their penetration
into the grid increases.
At present, the amount of electricity produced by renewables is small, as
shown in Figure 1.4 for the United States.

FIGURE 1.4 Generation of electricity by various sources in the United States

(in color on the accompanying website). Source: [7].

However, due to climate concerns, the portion of electricity from renewable

sources will undoubtedly grow, and our study of power systems must include
how we can accommodate them in the grid.

1.4 TOPICS IN POWER SYSTEMS

The purpose of this textbook is to provide a complete overview of power sys-
tems meeting present and future energy needs. As we can appreciate, the
interconnected power system with thousands of generators and hundreds of
thousands of transmission lines between them is vast and complex. Therefore,
the question in front of us is how we can impart the fundamental concepts and
learn the workings of various components while pointing to the real tools used
in industry to study such systems in their entirety.
It should be recognized that there can be planning studies that may have
over 90,000 buses—e.g. the entire Eastern Interconnection System in the United
States. However, the authors have taken the three-bus example shown in Figure
1.5 to explore various fundamental concepts. To extend these concepts to the
study of the real system, the authors have decided to use PSS®E [8] from
Siemens, which is one of the most widely used software packages in the utility
industry in over 140 countries. The analysis of this three-bus simple system is
shown in Figure 1.6 using PSS®E.
Introduction to Power Systems: A Changing Landscape 7

FIGURE 1.5 A three-bus example system.

FIGURE 1.6 Simulation of the three-bus example system in Figure 1.5 using
PSS®E.

The topics covered by this book’s chapters are described next and arranged
to associate the lecture material with the laboratory exercises chronologically.
All of these topics are supplemented by simulations in PSS®E as appropriate.
Chapter 2: This chapter describes the basic concepts that are fundamental
to the analysis of power system circuits. These include phasor representation in
sinusoidal steady state, power, reactive power, and power factors. The chapter
describes the three-phase circuit analysis, expressing quantities in per-unit, the
energy efficiency of power system apparatus, and electromagnetic concepts
essential to understanding transformers and electrical generators.
Chapter 3: We have a choice of using various resources for generating
electricity, but there are always consequences to any selection. These are briefly
discussed, including hydro plants, fossil fuel–based power plants, nuclear power,
and the increasing role of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar. The
environmental consequences of
8 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

Chapter 4: This chapter describes the need for transmission lines and
cables, AC transmission lines and their parameters, and various representa-
tions. It also includes a brief discussion of cables. It shows the use of PSS®E for
calculating line constants.
Chapter 5: For the purposes of planning and operating securely under
contingencies caused by outages, it is important to know how power flows on
various transmission lines. This chapter describes various power-flow tech-
niques that include the Newton-Raphson method, the fast-decoupled tech-
nique, the Gauss-Siedel approach, and the DC power-flow method. Examples
using PSS®E are given.
Chapter 6: Voltages produced by generators are stepped up by trans-
formers for long-distance hauling of power over transmission lines. This chapter
includes basic principles of transformer operation, simplified transformer
models, per-unit representation, regulation, phase shifts introduced by trans-
formers, and auto-transformers. It shows how transformers are represented in
calculating power flow using PSS®E.
Chapter 7: This chapter describes the role of inverter-based resources
(IBRs) and HVDC transmission systems, including those using voltage source
converters (VSCs) and line-commutated converters (LCCs). It also includes a
brief discussion of the IEEE P2800. Examples using PSS®E are given for inte-
grating IBRs and using HVDC-VSC.
Chapter 8: This chapter describes consumer loads and the role of power
electronics, which are changing their nature. It also describes how these loads
react to voltage fluctuations and their impact on power quality.
Chapter 9: To generate electricity, steam and natural gas are utilized to
run turbines that provide mechanical input to synchronous generators to pro-
duce three-phase electrical voltages. Synchronous generators are described in
this chapter. It shows how generators are represented for power flow and
transient stability analysis.
Chapter 10: Transmission lines are being loaded more than ever, making
voltage stability a concern, as discussed in this chapter. Power electronics have
a growing role in power systems in the form of flexible AC transmission systems
(FACTS), which are described in this chapter for improving voltage stability. It
includes an example of adding a static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)
at a bus in the power-flow analysis using PSS®E.
Chapter 11: Maintaining stability so that various generators operate in
synchronism is described in this chapter, which discusses how the stability in an
interconnected system, with thousands of generators operating in synchronism,
can be maintained in response to transient conditions, such as transmission-line
faults, when there is a mismatch between the mechanical power input to the tur-
bines and the electrical power that can be transmitted.
Chapter 12: This chapter discusses economic dispatch, where generators
are loaded in such a way as to provide overall economy of operation. The oper-
ation of interconnected systems is also described, so that the power system fre-
Introduction to Power Systems: A Changing Landscape 9

selling agreements between various utilities are honored. An example of optimal

power flow (OPF) is given using PSS®E.
Chapter 13: Power systems are spread over large areas. Being exposed to
the elements of nature, they are subjected to occasional faults against which
they must be designed and protected so that such events result only in momen-
tary loss of power and no permanent equipment damage accrues. Short circuits
on transmission systems are discussed in this chapter, which describes how
relays detect faults and cause circuit breakers to open the circuit, interrupting
the fault current and then reclosing the circuit breakers to bring the operation
back to normal as soon as possible.
Chapter 14: Lightning strikes and switching of extra-high-voltage trans-
mission lines during reenergizing, particularly with trapped charge, can result in
very high-voltage surges, which can cause insulation to flash over. To avoid this,
surge arresters are used and are properly coordinated with the insulation level
of the power systems apparatus to prevent damage. These topics are discussed
in this chapter.

REFERENCES
1. National Academy of Engineering. www.nae.edu.
2. United Nations Energy. https://un-energy.org/.
3. US Department of Energy. 2003. Final report, “Blackout in the United States and
Canada.”.
4. Endeavor MAPSearch. www.mapsearch.com.
5. Julie Cohn. 2017. The Grid. The MIT Press.
6. IEEE 39-Bus System. https://electricgrids.engr.tamu.edu/electric-grid-test-cases/ieee-
39-bus-system. Provided by Texas A&M University researchers free for commercial
or non-commercial use.
7. US Energy Information Administration (EIA). www.eia.gov.
8. Siemens Global. PSS®E high-performance transmission planning and analysis
software. https://new.siemens.com/global/en/products/energy/energy-automation-and-
smart-grid/pss-software/pss-e.html.

PROBLEMS
1.1 What are the advantages of a highly interconnected system?
1.2 What are the changes taking place in the utility industry?
1.3 What is meant by the following terms: DG, DER, IPP, TSO, and ISO?
1.4 What are the different topics in power systems for understanding its
basic nature?
 REVIEW OF BASIC
2
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
AND ELECTROMAGNETIC
CONCEPTS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to review elements of basic electric circuit theory
that are essential to the study of electric power circuits: using phasors to ana-
lyze circuits in a sinusoidal steady state, real and reactive powers, the power
factor, analysis of three-phase circuits, power flow in AC circuits, and per-unit
quantities [1].
In this book, we use MKS units and IEEE-standard letters and graphic
symbols whenever possible. The lowercase letters v and i are used to represent
instantaneous values of voltages and currents that vary as functions of time. A
current’s positive direction is indicated by an arrow, as shown in Figure 2.1.
Similarly, the voltage polarities must be indicated. The voltage vab refers to the
voltage of node a with respect to node b , and thus vab = va − vb .

Electric Power Systems with Renewables: Simulations Using PSS®E, Second Edition. Ned Mohan
and Swaroop Guggilam.
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion Website: www.wiley.com/go/mohaneps
12 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

vab b
a
i
va vb

FIGURE 2.1 Convention for voltages and currents.

2.2 PHASOR REPRESENTATION IN A SINUSOIDAL

STEADY STATE
In linear circuits with sinusoidal voltages and currents of frequency f applied
long enough that a steady state has been reached, all circuit voltages and cur-
rents are at a frequency f (= ω / 2π ) . To analyze such circuits, the calculations
are simplified through phasor-domain analysis. Using phasors also provides a
deeper insight into circuit behavior relatively easily.
In the phasor domain, the time-domain variables v(t ) and i (t ) are trans-
formed into phasors represented by the complex variables V and I . Note
that these phasors are expressed using uppercase letters with a bar (–) on top.
In a complex (real and imaginary) plane, these phasors can be drawn with a
magnitude and an angle. A co-sinusoidal time function is taken as a reference
phasor that is entirely real with an angle of zero degrees. Therefore, the time-
domain voltage expression in Equation 2.1 is represented by a corresponding
phasor

v(t ) = 2 V cos( ωt + φv ) → ⇔→V = V ∠φv (2.1)

Similarly,

i (t ) = 2 I cos( ωt + φi ) → ⇔→ I = I ∠φi (2.2)

where V and I are the rms values of the voltage and current. These voltage
and current phasors are drawn in Figure 2.2. In Equations 2.1 and 2.2, the
angular frequency ω is implicitly associated with each phasor. Knowing this
frequency, a phasor expression can be re-transformed into a time-domain
expression.
Review of Basic Electric Circuits and Electromagnetic Concepts  13

positive
angles
Im
V V ∠0° Re

φ = φv – φi

I I ∠φi

FIGURE 2.2 Phasor diagram. Here, φv = 0° ; φi = negative ; φ = (φv − φi ) =

−φi = positive.

Using phasors, we can convert differential equations into easily solvable

algebraic equations containing complex variables. Consider the circuit in
Figure 2.3a in a sinusoidal steady state with an applied voltage at a frequency
f (= ω / 2π).
To calculate the current in this circuit, remaining in the time domain
would require solving the following differential equation:

di (t ) 1
Ri (t ) + L
dt
+
C ∫ i (t ) i dt = 2 V cos( ωt ) (2.3)

Using phasors, we can redraw the circuit from Figure 2.3a as Figure 2.3b, where
the inductance L is represented by its reactance X L = ω L and its impedance
ZL = jX L . Similarly, the capacitance C is represented by its reactance
 1 
XC = −
 ωC  and its impedance ZC = jXC .

(a) (b) (c)

i(t) I
Im jXL
jωL jXL jXc
L V V∠ 0
v(t)
−
√2Vcos(ωt) R Z
R
1
j jXC R Re
C ωC 0

FIGURE 2.3 A circuit (a) in the time domain and (b) in the phasor domain;
(c) impedance triangle.
14 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

In the phasor-domain circuit, the impedance Z of the series-connected ele-

ments is obtained by the impedance triangle in Figures 2.3c as­

Z =R+
jX L + 
jX c
ZL Zc (2.4)

where the reactanceX is the imaginary part of an impedance Z and therefore,

 1 
X L = ω L and X c = − (2.5)
 ωC 

This impedance can be expressed as

Z = Z ∠φ (2.6a)

where

   
 ω L + − 1  
2

  
    ωC  

Z = R 2 + ω L + − 1  → and φ = tan−1    (2.6b)

   ωC 
  
 R 
 XL  
 X c   
 

It is important to recognize that while Z is a complex quantity, it is not a phasor

and therefore does not have a corresponding time-domain expression.

Example 2.1
Calculate the impedance seen from the terminals of the circuit in Figure 2.4
under a sinusoidal steady state at a frequency f = 60Hz.

j0.1Ω

2Ω
−j5Ω

FIGURE 2.4 Impedance network for Example 2.1.

2 ×(– j 5 )
Solution Z = j 0.1 + = 1.72 − j 0.59 = 1.82∠−18.9° Ω .
( 2 – j5 )
Review of Basic Electric Circuits and Electromagnetic Concepts  15

Using the impedance in Equation 2.6, and assuming that the voltage phase
angle φv is zero, the current in Figure 2.3b can be obtained as

V  V  (2.7)
I = =  ∠−φ
Z  Z 
V
where I = and φ is as calculated from Equation 2.6b. Using Equation 2.2,
Z
the current can be expressed in the time domain as

2V
i (t ) = cos( ωt − φ ) (2.8)
Z

In the impedance triangle in Figure 2.3c, a positive value of the phase angle φ
implies that the current lags the voltage in the circuit in Figure 2.3a. Sometimes it
is convenient to express the inverse of the impedance, which is called admittance:
1
Y= (2.9)
Z
The phasor-domain procedure for solving i (t ) is much easier than solving the
differential-integral equation given by Equation 2.3.

Example 2.2
Calculate the current I1 and i1 (t ) in the circuit in Figure 2.5 if the applied voltage
has an rms value of 120 V and a frequency of 60 Hz. Assume V1 to be the ­reference
phasor.

0.3Ω j0.5Ω j0.2Ω

I1
V1 7.0Ω
j15Ω
Im I2

FIGURE 2.5 Circuit for Example 2.2.

Solution With V1 as the reference phasor, it can be written as V1 = 120 ∠0°V.

The input impedance of the circuit seen from the applied voltage terminals is

( j15)(7 + j 0.2)
Zin = ( 0.3 + j 0.5 ) + = 6.775 ∠ 29.03° Ω
( j15) + (7 + j
16 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

Therefore, the current I1 can be obtained as

V1 120 ∠ 0°
I1 = = = 17.712∠− 29.03°A
Zin 6.775 ∠ 29.03°

and hence i1 (t ) = 25.048 cos ( ωt − 29.03°) A.

2.3 POWER, REACTIVE POWER, AND POWER FACTOR

Consider the generic circuit in Figure 2.6 in a sinusoidal steady state. Each sub-
circuit may consist of passive (R-L-C  ) elements and active voltage and current
sources. Based on the arbitrarily chosen voltage polarity and the current
direction shown in Figure 2.6, the instantaneous power p(t ) = v(t )i (t ) is deliv-
ered by subcircuit 1 and absorbed by subcircuit 2. This is because in subcircuit
1, the positively defined current comes out of the positive-polarity terminal (the
same as in a generator). On the other hand, the positively defined current enters
the positive-polarity terminal in subcircuit 2 (the same as in a load). A negative
value of p(t ) reverses the roles of subcircuits 1 and 2.

i(t)

Subcircuit 1 v(t) Subcircuit 2

p(t) v(t)i(t)

FIGURE 2.6 A generic circuit divided into two subcircuits.

Under a sinusoidal steady state condition at a frequency f , the complex power

S, the reactive power Q, and the power factor express how effectively the real
(average) power P is transferred from one subcircuit to the other. If v(t ) and i (t )
are in phase, the instantaneous power p(t ) = v(t )i (t ) shown in Figure 2.7a ­pulsates
at twice the steady-state frequency, as shown here (V and I are the rms values)

p(t ) = 2V cosωt ⋅ 2 I cosωt = 2VI cos 2ωt

(2.10)
= VI +VI cos2ωt (i in phase with v )

where both φv and φi are assumed to be zero without any loss of generality. In this
case, p(t ) ≥ 0 at all times, and therefore the power always flows in one direction:
from subcircuit 1 to subcircuit 2. The average over one cycle of the second term on
the right side of
Review of Basic Electric Circuits and Electromagnetic Concepts  17

Now consider the waveforms shown in Figure 2.7b, where the i (t ) waveform
lags behind the v(t ) waveform by a phase angle φ (= φv − φi ). Here, p(t ) becomes
negative during a time interval of (φ / ω ) during each half-cycle, as calculated here:

p(t ) = 2V cos ωt ⋅ 2 I cos( ωt − φ ) = VI cos φ +VI cos( 2ωt − φ ) (2.11)

A negative instantaneous power implies power flow in the opposite direction.

This back-and-forth flow of power indicates that the real (average) power is not
optimally transferred from one subcircuit to the other, as in Figure 2.7a. Therefore,
the average power P (= VI cos φ ) in Figure 2.7b is less than that in Figure 2.7a,
even though the peak voltage and current values are the same in both situations.

(a) (b)
p(t) average φ/ω
power v(t) p(t) average
power

0 t 0
t
v(t)
i(t) φ/ω i(t)

FIGURE 2.7 Instantaneous power with sinusoidal currents and voltages. (a)
Voltage and current are in phase; (b) current lags behind voltage.

The circuit from Figure 2.6 is redrawn in Figure 2.8a in the phasor domain. The
voltage and the current phasors are defined by their magnitudes and phase angles as

V = V ∠φv → and → I = I ∠φi (2.12)

(a)
I

Subcircuit 1 V Subcircuit 2

S P jQ
(b) (c)
Im Im S
jQ
φ
V V∠φv
P Re
φ Re

I I∠φi

FIGURE 2.8 (a) Circuit in the phasor domain; (b) phasor diagram with
φv = 0; (c) power triangle.
18 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

The complex power S is defined as

S = V I * → (* indicates complex conjugate ) (2.13)

Therefore, substituting the expressions for voltage and current into Equation
2.13, and noting that I * = I ∠−φi ,

S = V ∠φv I ∠− φi = VI ∠(φv − φi ) (2.14)

The difference between the two phase angles is defined as before

φ = φv − φi (2.15)

Therefore,
S = VI ∠φ = P + jQ (2.16)
where
P = VI cosφ (2.17)

Q = VI sinφ (2.18)

In Equation 2.17, I cosφ is the current component that is in phase with the
voltage phasor in Figure 2.8b and results in real power transfer P . On the other
hand, from Equation 2.18, I sinφ is the current component that is at an angle
of 90 degrees to the voltage phasor in Figure 2.8b and results in a reactive
power Q but no average real power.
The power triangle corresponding to the phasors in Figure 2.8b is shown
in Figure 2.8c. From Equation 2.16, the magnitude of S , also called the apparent
power, is

S = P2 + Q2 (2.19)

and
Q 
φ = tan−1   (2.20)
 P 

These quantities have the following units: P , W (watts); Q, var (volt-amperes

reactive); S , VA (volt-amperes); and φv , φi , φ , radians, measured positively in a
counterclockwise direction with respect to the real axis that is drawn horizon-
tally from left to right.
The physical significance of the apparent power S , P , and Q should
be understood. The cost of most electrical equipment such as generators,
Review of Basic Electric Circuits and Electromagnetic Concepts  19

electrical insulation level and the magnetic core size for a given line frequency
depend on the voltage V, and the conductor size depends on the rms current
I. The real power P has a physical significance since it represents the useful
work being performed plus the losses. Under most operating conditions, it is
desirable to have the reactive power Q be zero; otherwise, it results in
increased S .
To support this discussion, another quantity called the power factor is
defined. The power factor is a measure of how effectively a load draws real
power:

P P
power factor = = = cosφ (2.21)
S VI
This is a dimension-less quantity. Ideally, the power factor should be 1.0 (that
is, Q should be zero) to draw real power with a minimum current magnitude
and hence minimize losses in electrical equipment such as generators, trans-
formers, and transmission and distribution lines. An inductive load draws
power at a lagging power factor where the load current lags behind the voltage.
Conversely, a capacitive load draws power at a leading power factor where the
load current leads the load voltage.

Example 2.3
Calculate P, Q, S, and the power factor of operation at the terminals in the
circuit shown in Figure 2.5 in Example 2.2.
Solution

P = V1I1 cos φ = 120 ×17.712 cos 29.03° = 1858.4 W

Q = V1I1 sin φ = 120 ×17.712 ×sin 29.03° = 1031.3 var
S = V1I1 = 120 ×17.7 = 2125.4 VA
Q
From Equation 2.20, φ = tan−1 = 29.03° in the power triangle shown in
P
Figure 2.8c. Note that the angle of S in the power triangle is the same as the
impedance angle φ in Example 2.2. The power factor of operation is

power factor = cos φ = 0.874

Note the following for the inductive impedance in Example 2.3: (i) the imped-
ance is Z = Z ∠φ , where φ is positive. (ii) The current lags the voltage by the
impedance angle φ . This corresponds to a lagging power factor of operation.
(iii) In the power triangle, the impedance angle φ relates P , Q, and S . (iv) An
inductive impedance, when applied to a voltage source, draws a positive reactive
power QL (var). If
20 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

would be negative, and this impedance, when a voltage was applied, would draw
a negative reactive power QC (that is, this impedance would supply a positive
reactive power).

2.3.1 Sum of Real and Reactive Powers in a Circuit

In a circuit, all the real powers supplied to various components sum to the total
real power supplied:

total real power supplied = ∑ Pk = ∑ I k2 Rk (2.22)

k k

Similarly, all the reactive powers supplied to various components sum to the
total reactive power supplied

total reactive power supplied = ∑ Qk = ∑ I k2 X k (2.23)

k k

where X k and hence Qk is negative if a component is capacitive.

Example 2.4
In the circuit shown in Figure 2.5 in Example 2.2, calculate P and Q associated
with each element and calculate the total real and reactive powers supplied at
the terminals. Confirm these calculations by comparing with P and Q calcu-
lated in Example 2.3.
Solution From Example 2.2, I1 = 17.712∠− 29.03° A .

R2 + jX 2
I m = I1 = 7.412∠− 92.66° A, and I 2 = I1 − I m = 15.876∠
( R2 + jX 2 ) + jX m
−4.3° A.

2 2
Therefore, PR1 = R1I12 = 0.3×17.1722 = 94.11W , PR2 = R2 I 2 = 7 ×15.876 =
1764.3 W , and

∑P = PR 1
+ PR2 = 1858.4 W

For the reactive vars, QX1 = X1I12 = 0.5×17.1722 = 156.851 var ,

QX 2 = X 2 I 22 = 0.2 ×15.8762 = 50.409 var and

QX 3 = X m I m2 = 15×7.4122 = 821.021 var
Review of Basic Electric Circuits and Electromagnetic Concepts  21

Therefore,

∑ Q = QX 1
+ QX 2 + QX m = 1031.3 var

Note that ∑ P and ∑ Q are equal to P and Q at the terminals, as calculated

in Example 2.3.

2.3.2 Power Factor Correction

As explained earlier, utilities prefer that loads draw power at the unity power
factor so the current for a given power drawn is minimum, thus resulting in the
least amount of I 2 R losses in the resistances associated with transmission and
distribution lines and other equipment. This power-factor correction can be
accomplished by compensating or nullifying the reactive power drawn by the
load by connecting a reactance in parallel that draws the same reactive power
in magnitude but of the opposite sign. This is illustrated by the following
example.

Example 2.5
In the circuit shown in Figure 2.5 in Example 2.3, the complex power drawn by
the load impedance was calculated as PL + jQL = (1858.4 + j1031.3) VA.
Calculate the capacitive reactance in parallel that will result in the overall power
factor being unity, as seen from the voltage source.
Solution The load is drawing reactive power QL = 1031.3 var. Therefore, as
shown in Figure 2.9, a capacitive reactance must be connected in parallel with
the load impedance to draw QC = −1031.3 var (or supply positive reactive var
equal to QL ) such that only the real power is drawn from the voltage source.

P PL

jQC
V1
PL jQL
j13.963 Ω

FIGURE 2.9 Power factor correction for Example 2.5.

22 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

Since the voltage across the capacitive reactance is given, the capacitive reac-
tance can be calculated as

V2 1202
XC = = = −13.96 Ω
QC −1031.3

2.3.3 Summary of Basic Relationships in Inductive and Capacitive

Circuits
In a sinusoidal steady state at a frequency f and at the corresponding angular frequency
ω, the various relationships in circuits with L and C are summarized in Table 2.1.

TABLE 2.1 Summary of various relationships related to L and C in a

sinusoidal steady-state circuit at an angular frequency ω

Relationship L C
1
Reactance X L = ωL XC = −
ωC
 1 
Impedance ZC = jX C = j −
ZL = jX L = j ω L  ωC 
 1 
Voltage and VC = j − I
VL = ( j ω L )I L  ωC  C
current
Phase angle Voltage leads current by Current leads voltage by 90
90 degrees φ = φv − φi = 90° degrees φ = φv − φi = (−90°)

VL2 VC2
Reactive power QL = = positive QC = = negative
drawn XL XC
QL = VL I L sin(90°) =VL I L QC = VC IC sin(−90°) = −VC IC

2.4 THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

A basic understanding of three-phase circuits is essential to the study of electric
power systems. Nearly all electricity, with only a few exceptions, is generated
using three-phase AC generators. Figure 2.10 shows a simplified one-line dia-
gram of a three-phase power system. Generated voltages (usually below 25 kV)
are stepped-up using transformers to 230 kV to 500 kV levels for transferring
power long distances over transmission lines from the generation site to load
centers. At the receiving end of the transmission lines, near the load centers,
these three-phase voltages are stepped down by transformers. Most motor
loads above a few kW in power rating operate from three-phase voltages.
Review of Basic Electric Circuits and Electromagnetic Concepts  23

Step up
Transformer

Generator
Transmission 13.8 kV
line
Feeder

Load

FIGURE 2.10 One-line diagram of a three-phase power system; the subtrans-

mission is not shown.

Three-phase AC circuits are either Y or delta connected. We will investi-

gate these under a sinusoidal steady state, balanced condition, which implies
that all three voltages are equal in magnitude and displaced by 120 degrees
(2π / 3 radians) with respect to each other. The phase sequence of voltages is
commonly assumed to be a − b − c , where the phase a voltage leads the phase b
voltage by 120 degrees, and phase b leads phase c by 120 degrees (2π / 3 radians),
as shown in Figure 2.11. This applies to both the time-domain representation in
Figure 2.11a and the phasor-domain representation in Figure 2.11b. Notice
that in the a − b − c sequence voltages plotted in Figure 2.11a, first van reaches
its positive peak, then vbn reaches its positive peak of 2π / 3 radians, and so on.
We can represent these voltages in the phasor form in Figure 2.11b as

Van = Vph ∠0°, Vbn = Vph ∠−120°, and Vcn = Vph ∠− 240° (2.24)

where Vph is the rms phase-voltage magnitude and the phase a voltage is
assumed to be the reference (with an angle of zero degrees).

(a) (b)
van(t) vbn(t) vcn(t)
a b c
− Vcn
√2Vph Positive sequence
0
ωt 120
120
Van
120

2π 2π
3 3 Vbn

FIGURE 2.11 Three-phase voltages in the (a) time domain and (b) phasor domain.
24 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

For a balanced set of voltages given by Equation 2.24, at any instant, the
sum of these phase voltages equals zero:

Van +Vbn +Vcn = 0 → and → van (t ) + vbn (t ) + vcn (t ) = 0 (2.25)

2.4.1 Per-Phase Analysis in Balanced Three-Phase Circuits

A three-phase circuit can be analyzed on a per-phase basis, provided it has a
balanced set of source voltages and equal impedances in each phase. Such a
Y-connected circuit is shown in Figure 2.12a.

(a) (b)
Ia a Ia
a

Van ZL Van
In ZL

Vcn n Vbn Vcn n Vbn

N N
c b
Ib b c Ib
Ic Ic

FIGURE 2.12 Balanced Y-connected, three-phase circuit. (a) Generic ­diagram;

(b) source and load neutral connected by a zero-impedance wire.

In such a circuit, the source neutral n and the load neutral N are at the
same potential. Therefore, hypothetically connecting these with a zero-imped-
ance wire, as shown in Figure 2.12b, does not change the original three-phase
circuit, which can now be analyzed on a per-phase basis. Selecting phase a for
this analysis, the per-phase circuit is shown in Figure 2.13a.

(a) (b)
Ia Vcn
a a Ic

Van
Van φ
Ib
n Ia
(Hypothetical) N
Vbn

FIGURE 2.13 (a) Per-phase circuit; (b) the corresponding phasor diagram.

If ZL = ZL ∠φ, using the fact that in a balanced three-phase circuit, phase

Review of Basic Electric Circuits and Electromagnetic Concepts  25

Van Vph V Vph 2π V Vph 4π

Ia = = ∠− φ I b = bn = ∠(−φ − ) I c = cn = ∠(−φ − )
ZL ZL ZL ZL 3 ZL ZL 3
(2.26)

The three-phase voltage and current phasors are shown in Figure 2.13b. The
total real and reactive powers in a balanced three-phase circuit can be obtained
by multiplying the per-phase values by a factor of three. The total power factor
is the same as its per-phase value.

2.4.2 Per-Phase Analysis of Balanced Circuits Including Mutual

Couplings
Most three-phase equipment such as generators, transmission lines, and motors
consists of mutually coupled phases. For example, in a three-phase synchronous
generator, the current in a phase winding produces flux lines that link not only that
phase winding but also the other phase windings. In general, in a balanced
three-phase circuit, this can be represented as shown in Figure 2.14a, where Zself is
the impedance of a phase by itself and Zmutual represents mutual coupling. Therefore,

VaA = Zself I a + Zmutual I b + Zmutual I c (2.27)

(a) (b)
Ia Zself ZaA
a A
a A
Zmutual
Ib Zself Zmutual
b B
Zmutual (Hypothetical)
Ic Zself
c C

FIGURE 2.14 Balanced three-phase network with mutual couplings. (a)

Three-phase representation; (b) per-phase representation.

In a balanced three-phase circuit under balanced excitation, three currents sum

to zero: I a + I b + I c = 0. Therefore, using this condition in Equation 2.25,

VaA = ( Zself − Zmutual )I a = ZaA I a (2.28)

where
ZaA = Zself − Zmutual (2.29)
26 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

2.4.3 Line-to-Line Voltages

In a balanced Y-connected circuit like that shown in Figure 2.12a, it is often
necessary to consider the line-to-line voltages, such as those between phases a and
b, and so on. Based on the previous analysis, we can refer to both neutral points
n and N by a common term n, since the potential difference between n and N is
zero. Therefore, in Figure 2.12a, as shown in the phasor diagram in Figure 2.15,

Vab = Van −Vbn , Vbc = Vbn −Vcn , and Vca = Vcn −Van (2.30)

Either using Equations 2.24 and 2.30 or working graphically from Figure 2.15, we can
show the following, where Vph is the rms magnitude of each of the phase voltages:

π
Vab = 3Vph ∠
6
π 2π π
Vbc = 3Vph ∠( − ) = 3Vph ∠− (2.31)
6 3 2
π 4π 7π
Vca = 3Vph ∠( − ) = 3Vph ∠−
6 3 6

Vcn
Vb
Vca Vab

30
Van

Vbn

Vbc

FIGURE 2.15 Line-to-line voltages in a three-phase circuit.

Comparing Equations 2.24 and 2.31, we see that the line-to-line voltages have
an rms value that is 3 times the phase voltage (rms)

VLL = 3Vph (2.32)

and Vab leads Van by π / 6 radians (30 degrees).

Review of Basic Electric Circuits and Electromagnetic Concepts  27

Example 2.6
In residential buildings where three-phase voltages are brought in, the rms value of
the line-line voltage is VLL = 208 V . Calculate the rms value of the phase voltages.
Solution From Equation 2.32,

VLL
Vph = = 120 V
3

2.4.4 Delta Connections in AC Machines and Transformers

So far, we have assumed that three-phase sources and loads are connected in a
Y configuration, as shown in Figure 2.12a. However, in AC machines and
transformers, the three-phase windings may be connected in a delta configura-
tion. The relationship between the line currents and phase currents under a
balanced condition is described in Appendix 2A.1.

2.4.4.1 Delta-Y Transformation of Load Impedances under Balanced Conditions

It is possible to replace the delta-connected load impedances with the equivalent
Y-connected load impedances and vice versa. Under a totally balanced
condition, the delta-connected load impedances in Figure 2.16a can be replaced
by the equivalent Y-connected load impedances in Figure 2.16b, as shown in
Figure 2.12a. We can then apply a per-phase analysis using Figure 2.13.
Under the balanced condition where all three impedances are the same, as
shown in Figure 2.16, the impedance between terminals a and b, with the
terminal c not connected, is ( 2 / 3)Z∆ in the delta-connected circuit and 2ZY in
the Y-connected circuit. Equating these two impedances,

Z∆
ZY = (2.33)
3

(a) (b)
Ia Ia
a
a

Z∆ ZΥ
Z∆ Iab
Ica
Ibc ZΥ ZΥ
c b c
Z∆ b

FIGURE 2.16 Delta-Y transformation of impedances under a balanced

condition. (a) Delta representation; (b) Y representation.
28 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

The delta-Y transformation of unbalanced load impedances is analyzed in

Appendix 2A.2.

2.4.5 Power, Reactive Power, and Power Factor in Three-Phase Circuits

We saw earlier that the per-phase analysis is valid for balanced three-phase cir-
cuits in a sinusoidal steady state. This implies that the real and reactive powers
drawn by each phase are the same as if it were a single-phase load. Therefore,
the total average real power and the reactive power in a three-phase circuit are
(V = Vph and I = I ph )

P3-phase = 3× Pper-phase = 3VI cosφ (2.34)

Q3-phase = 3×Qper-phase = 3VI sinφ (2.35)

and the total apparent VA are

S 3-phase = 3× Sper-phase = 3VI (2.36)

Therefore, the power factor in a three-phase circuit is the same as the per-phase
power factor:
P3-phase 3VI cos φ
power factor = = = cos φ (2.37)
S 3-phase 3VI

However, there is one very important difference between three-phase and sin-
gle-phase circuits in terms of instantaneous power. In both circuits, in each
phase, the instantaneous power is pulsating, as given by Equation 2.11 and
repeated here for phase a, where the phase current lags by a phase angle φ(t )
behind the phase voltage, which is considered the reference phasor:

pa (t ) = 2V cos ωt ⋅ 2 I cos( ωt − φ ) = VI cos φ +VI cos( 2ωt − φ ) (2.38)

Similar expressions can be written for phases b and c:

pb (t ) = 2V cos( ωt − 2π / 3) ⋅ 2 I cos( ωt − φ − 2π / 3)
(2.39)
= VI cos φ +VI cos( 2ωt − φ − 4π / 3)

pc (t ) = 2V cos( ωt − 4π / 3) ⋅ 2 I cos( ωt − φ − 4π / 3)
(2.40)
= VI cos φ +VI cos( 2ωt − φ − 8π / 3)
Review of Basic Electric Circuits and Electromagnetic Concepts  29

Adding the three instantaneous powers in Equations 2.38 through 2.40 results in

p3-phase (t ) = 3VI cos φ = P3-phase (from Equation 2.34) (2.41)

which shows that the combined three-phase power in the steady state is a
constant equal to its average value, even on an instantaneous basis. This con-
trasts with the pulsating power in single-phase circuits, shown in Figure 2.7.
The non-pulsating total instantaneous power in three-phase circuits results
in non-pulsating torque in motors and generators and is the reason for
­preferring three-phase motors and generators over their single-phase
counterparts.

Example 2.7
In the three-phase circuit shown in Figure 2.12a, VLL = 208 V , ZL = 10Ω, and
the per-phase power factor is 0.8 (lagging). Calculate the capacitive reactance
needed, in parallel with the load impedance in each phase, to make the power
factor 0.95 (lagging).
Solution The three-phase circuit in Figure 2.12a can be represented by the
per-phase circuit in Figure 2.13a. Assuming the input voltage as the reference
208
phasor, Van = ∠0 = 120
 ∠0 V . The current I L drawn by the load lags the
3 ( =V )
voltage by an angle φL = cos−1 ( 0.8) = 36.87° , and

V (= 120 )
IL = ∠− φL = 12∠− 36.87° A
ZL

Therefore, the per-phase real power PL and the reactive var QL drawn by the load are

V2 V2
PL = (power factor) = 1152 W , and QL = sin φL = 864 var .
ZL ZL

To make the net power factor 0.95 (lagging), a power-factor-correction capac-

itor of an appropriate value is connected in parallel with the load in each phase.
Now the net current into the combination of the load impedance and the
power-factor-correction capacitor is at an angle of φnet = cos−1 ( 0.95 ) = 18.195°
(lagging). The net real power Pnet drawn from the source still equals PL : that is,
Pnet = PL . Using the power triangle from Figure 2.8c, the net reactive var drawn
from the source is

Qnet = Pnet tan(φnet ) = 378.65 var

30 Electric Power Systems with Renewables

Since

Qnet = QL − Qcap

Qcap = QL − Qnet = 864.0 − 378.65 = 485.35 var

Therefore, the capacitive reactance needed in parallel is

V2
X cap = = 29.67 Ω
Qcap

2.5 REAL AND REACTIVE POWER TRANSFER

BETWEEN AC SYSTEMS
In this course, it will be important to calculate the power flow between AC sys-
tems connected by transmission lines. Simplified AC systems can be represented
by two AC voltage sources of the same frequency connected through a reac-
tance X in series, as shown in Figure 2.17a, where the series resistance has been
neglected for simplification.

(a) (b)
I
Vs
jX
+ +
jXI
Vs VR δ

φ VR
− −
I

FIGURE 2.17 Power transfer between two AC systems. (a) Circuit diagram;
(b) phasor diagram for the circuit in (a).

The phasor diagram for the system in Figure 2.17a, where the voltage VR is
assumed to be the reference voltage with a phase angle of zero, is shown in
Figure 2.17b. Based on the load, the current may be at some arbitrary phase
angle φ . In the circuit shown in Figure 2.17a,

VS −VR
I = (2.42)
jX

At the receiving end, the complex power can be written as

SR = PR + jQR
Review of Basic Electric Circuits and Electromagnetic Concepts  31

Using the complex conjugate from Equation 2.42 into Equation 2.43,

V ∠(−δ ) −VR  VSVR sin δ V V cos δ −VR2 

PR + jQR = VR  S  = + j  S R 
 − jX  
X   X  (2.44)
( = PR )
  
( =QR )

VSVR VV (2.45)
∴→ PR = sin δ → where Pmax = S R →
X X
( = Pmax )

which is the same as the sending end power PS , assuming no transmission-line

losses. This discussion shows that the real power P flows downhill on the phase
angles of the voltages and not on their magnitudes. It is plotted in Figure 2.18
for positive values of δ .

P / Pmax

1.0

0.5

0 90 180

FIGURE 2.18 Power as a function of δ .

Focusing on the reactive power from Equation 2.44,

VSVR cos δ VR2

QR = − (2.46)
X X

If the power transfer between the two systems is zero, then, from Equation 2.45,
sin δ and the angle δ are equal to zero. Under this condition, from Equation 2.46,

VSVR VR2 VR
QR = − = (VS −VR ) → ( if PR = 0 ) (2.47)
X X X

which shows that the reactive power at the receiving end is related to the
difference (VS −VR ) between the two voltage magnitudes.
The real and reactive power transfers given by Equations 2.45–2.47 are
extremely important in the discussion of power and reactive power flows in
later chapters.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Monster
Maker
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Monster Maker

Author: Ray Bradbury

Illustrator: Joseph Doolin

Release date: July 6, 2020 [eBook #62569]

Most recently updated: October 18, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MONSTER

MAKER ***
The Monster Maker
 By RAY BRADBURY

"Get Gunther," the official orders read. It

was to laugh! For Click and Irish were
marooned on the pirate's asteroid—their only
weapons a single gun and a news-reel camera.

[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from

Planet Stories Spring 1944.
Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that
the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
Suddenly, it was there. There wasn't time to blink or speak or get
scared. Click Hathaway's camera was loaded and he stood there
listening to it rack-spin film between his fingers, and he knew he was
getting a damned sweet picture of everything that was happening.
The picture of Marnagan hunched huge over the control-console,
wrenching levers, jamming studs with freckled fists. And out in the
dark of the fore-part there was space and a star-sprinkling and this
meteor coming like blazing fury.
Click Hathaway felt the ship move under him like a sensitive animal's
skin. And then the meteor hit. It made a spiked fist and knocked the
rear-jets flat, and the ship spun like a cosmic merry-go-round.
There was plenty of noise. Too damned much. Hathaway only knew
he was picked up and hurled against a lever-bank, and that
Marnagan wasn't long in following, swearing loud words. Click
remembered hanging on to his camera and gritting to keep holding
it. What a sweet shot that had been of the meteor! A sweeter one
still of Marnagan beating hell out of the controls and keeping his
words to himself until just now.
It got quiet. It got so quiet you could almost hear the asteroids
rushing up, cold, blue and hard. You could hear your heart kicking a
tom-tom between your sick stomach and your empty lungs.
Stars, asteroids revolved. Click grabbed Marnagan because he was
the nearest thing, and held on. You came hunting for a space-raider
and you ended up cradled in a slab-sized Irishman's arms, diving at
a hunk of metal death. What a fade-out!
"Irish!" he heard himself say. "Is this IT?"
"Is this what?" yelled Marnagan inside his helmet.
"Is this where the Big Producer yells CUT!?"
Marnagan fumed. "I'll die when I'm damned good and ready. And
when I'm ready I'll inform you and you can picture me profile for
Cosmic Films!"
They both waited, thrust against the shipside and held by a hand of
gravity; listening to each other's breathing hard in the earphones.
The ship struck, once. Bouncing, it struck again. It turned end over
and stopped. Hathaway felt himself grabbed; he and Marnagan
rattled around—human dice in a croupier's cup. The shell of the ship
burst, air and energy flung out.
Hathaway screamed the air out of his lungs, but his brain was
thinking quick crazy, unimportant things. The best scenes in life
never reach film, or an audience. Like this one, dammit! Like this
one! His brain spun, racketing like the instantaneous, flicking
motions of his camera.

Silence came and engulfed all the noise, ate it up and swallowed it.
Hathaway shook his head, instinctively grabbed at the camera locked
to his mid-belt. There was nothing but stars, twisted wreckage, cold
that pierced through his vac-suit, and silence. He wriggled out of the
wreckage into that silence.
He didn't know what he was doing until he found the camera in his
fingers as if it had grown there when he was born. He stood there,
thinking "Well, I'll at least have a few good scenes on film. I'll—"
A hunk of metal teetered, fell with a crash. Marnagan elevated seven
feet of bellowing manhood from the wreck.
"Hold it!" cracked Hathaway's high voice. Marnagan froze. The
camera whirred. "Low angle shot; Interplanetary Patrolman emerges
unscathed from asteroid crackup. Swell stuff. I'll get a raise for this!"
"From the toe of me boot!" snarled Marnagan brusquely. Oxen
shoulders flexed inside his vac-suit. "I might've died in there, and
you nursin' that film-contraption!"
Hathaway felt funny inside, suddenly. "I never thought of that.
Marnagan die? I just took it for granted you'd come through. You
always have. Funny, but you don't think about dying. You try not to."
Hathaway stared at his gloved hand, but the gloving was so thick
and heavy he couldn't tell if it was shaking. Muscles in his bony face
went down, pale. "Where are we?"
"A million miles from nobody."
They stood in the middle of a pocked, time-eroded meteor plain that
stretched off, dipping down into silent indigo and a rash of stars.
Overhead, the sun poised; black and stars all around it, making it
look sick.
"If we walk in opposite directions, Click Hathaway, we'd be shaking
hands the other side of this rock in two hours." Marnagan shook his
mop of dusty red hair. "And I promised the boys at Luna Base this
time I'd capture that Gunther lad!"
His voice stopped and the silence spoke.
Hathaway felt his heart pumping slow, hot pumps of blood. "I
checked my oxygen, Irish. Sixty minutes of breathing left."
The silence punctuated that sentence, too. Upon the sharp meteoric
rocks Hathaway saw the tangled insides of the radio, the food supply
mashed and scattered. They were lucky to have escaped. Or was
suffocation a better death...? Sixty minutes.
They stood and looked at one another.
"Damn that meteor!" said Marnagan, hotly.
Hathaway got hold of an idea; remembering something. He said it
out: "Somebody tossed that meteor, Irish. I took a picture of it,
looked it right in the eye when it rolled at us, and it was poker-hot.
Space-meteors are never hot and glowing. If it's proof you want, I've
got it here, on film."
Marnagan winced his freckled square of face. "It's not proof we need
now, Click. Oxygen. And then food. And then some way back to
Earth."
Hathaway went on saying his thoughts: "This is Gunther's work. He's
here somewhere, probably laughing his guts out at the job he did
us. Oh, God, this would make great news-release stuff if we ever get
back to Earth. I.P.'s Irish Marnagan, temporarily indisposed by a
pirate whose dirty face has never been seen, Gunther by name,
finally wins through to a triumphant finish. Photographed on the
spot, in color, by yours truly, Click Hathaway. Cosmic Films, please
notice."

They started walking, fast, over the pocked, rubbled plain toward a
bony ridge of metal. They kept their eyes wide and awake. There
wasn't much to see, but it was better than standing still, waiting.
Marnagan said, "We're working on margin, and we got nothin' to
sweat with except your suspicions about this not being an accident.
We got fifty minutes to prove you're right. After that—right or wrong
—you'll be Cosmic Films prettiest unmoving, unbreathin' genius. But
talk all you like, Click. It's times like this when we all need words,
any words, on our tongues. You got your camera and your scoop.
Talk about it. As for me—" he twisted his glossy red face. "Keeping
alive is me hobby. And this sort of two-bit death I did not order."
Click nodded. "Gunther knows how you'd hate dying this way, Irish.
It's irony clean through. That's probably why he planned the meteor
and the crash this way."
Marnagan said nothing, but his thick lips went down at the corners,
far down, and the green eyes blazed.
They stopped, together.
"Oops!" Click said.
"Hey!" Marnagan blinked. "Did you feel that?"
Hathaway's body felt feathery, light as a whisper, boneless and
limbless, suddenly. "Irish! We lost weight, coming over that ridge!"
They ran back. "Let's try it again."
They tried it. They scowled at each other. The same thing happened.
"Gravity should not act this way, Click."
"Are you telling me? It's man-made. Better than that—it's Gunther!
No wonder we fell so fast—we were dragged down by a super-
gravity set-up! Gunther'd do anything to—did I say anything?"
Hathaway leaped backward in reaction. His eyes widened and his
hand came up, jabbing. Over a hill-ridge swarmed a brew of
unbelievable horrors. Progeny from Frankenstein's ARK. Immense
crimson beasts with numerous legs and gnashing mandibles, brown-
black creatures, some tubular and fat, others like thin white
poisonous whips slashing along in the air. Fangs caught starlight
white on them.
Hathaway yelled and ran, Marnagan at his heels, lumbering. Sweat
broke cold on his body. The immense things rolled, slithered and
squirmed after him. A blast of light. Marnagan, firing his proton-gun.
Then, in Click's ears, the Irishman's incredulous bellow. The gun
didn't hurt the creatures at all.
"Irish!" Hathaway flung himself over the ridge, slid down an incline
toward the mouth a small cave. "This way, fella!"
Hathaway made it first, Marnagan bellowing just behind him.
"They're too big; they can't get us in here!" Click's voice gasped it
out, as Marnagan squeezed his two-hundred-fifty pounds beside
him. Instinctively, Hathaway added, "Asteroid monsters! My camera!
What a scene!"
"Damn your damn camera!" yelled Marnagan. "They might come in!"
"Use your gun."
"They got impervious hides. No use. Gahh! And that was a pretty
chase, eh, Click?"
"Yeah. Sure. You enjoyed it, every moment of it."
"I did that." Irish grinned, showing white uneven teeth. "Now, what
will we be doing with these uninvited guests at our door?"
"Let me think—"
"Lots of time, little man. Forty more minutes of air, to be exact."

They sat, staring at the monsters for about a minute. Hathaway felt
funny about something; didn't know what. Something about these
monsters and Gunther and—
"Which one will you be having?" asked Irish, casually. "A red one or
a blue one?"
Hathaway laughed nervously. "A pink one with yellow ruffles—Good
God, now you've got me doing it. Joking in the face of death."
"Me father taught me; keep laughing and you'll have Irish luck."
That didn't please the photographer. "I'm an Anglo-Swede," he
pointed out.
Marnagan shifted uneasily. "Here, now. You're doing nothing but
sitting, looking like a little boy locked in a bedroom closet, so take
me a profile shot of the beasties and myself."
Hathaway petted his camera reluctantly. "What in hell's the use? All
this swell film shot. Nobody'll ever see it."
"Then," retorted Marnagan, "we'll develop it for our own benefit;
while waitin' for the U.S. Cavalry to come riding over the hill to our
rescue!"
Hathaway snorted. "U.S. Cavalry."
Marnagan raised his proton-gun dramatically. "Snap me this pose,"
he said. "I paid your salary to trot along, photographing, we hoped,
my capture of Gunther, now the least you can do is record peace
negotiations betwixt me and these pixies."
Marnagan wasn't fooling anybody. Hathaway knew the superficial
palaver for nothing but a covering over the fast, furious thinking
running around in that red-cropped skull. Hathaway played the
palaver, too, but his mind was whirring faster than his camera as he
spun a picture of Marnagan standing there with a useless gun
pointed at the animals.
Montage. Marnagan sitting, chatting at the monsters. Marnagan
smiling for the camera. Marnagan in profile. Marnagan looking grim,
without much effort, for the camera. And then, a closeup of the
thrashing death wall that holed them in. Click took them all, those
shots, not saying anything. Nobody fooled nobody with this act.
Death was near and they had sweaty faces, dry mouths and frozen
guts.
When Click finished filming, Irish sat down to save oxygen, and used
it up arguing about Gunther. Click came back at him:
"Gunther drew us down here, sure as Ceres! That gravity change we
felt back on that ridge, Irish; that proves it. Gunther's short on men.
So, what's he do; he builds an asteroid-base, and drags ships down.
Space war isn't perfect yet, guns don't prime true in space,
trajectory is lousy over long distances. So what's the best weapon,
which dispenses with losing valuable, rare ships and a small bunch
of men? Super-gravity and a couple of well-tossed meteors. Saves all
around. It's a good front, this damned iron pebble. From it, Gunther
strikes unseen; ships simply crash, that's all. A subtle hand, with all
aces."
Marnagan rumbled. "Where is the dirty son, then!"
"He didn't have to appear, Irish. He sent—them." Hathaway nodded
at the beasts. "People crashing here die from air-lack, no food, or
from wounds caused at the crackup. If they survive all that—the
animals tend to them. It all looks like Nature was responsible. See
how subtle his attack is? Looks like accidental death instead of
murder, if the Patrol happens to land and finds us. No reason for
undue investigation, then."
"I don't see no Base around."

Click shrugged. "Still doubt it? Okay. Look." He tapped his camera
and a spool popped out onto his gloved palm. Holding it up, he
stripped it out to its full twenty inch length, held it to the light while
it developed, smiling. It was one of his best inventions. Self-
developing film. The first light struck film-surface, destroyed one
chemical, leaving imprints; the second exposure simply hardened,
secured the impressions. Quick stuff.
Inserting the film-tongue into a micro-viewer in the camera's base,
Click handed the whole thing over. "Look."
Marnagan put the viewer up against the helmet glass, squinted. "Ah,
Click. Now, now. This is one lousy film you invented."
"Huh?"
"It's a strange process'll develop my picture and ignore the asteroid
monsters complete."
"What!"
Hathaway grabbed the camera, gasped, squinted, and gasped again:
Pictures in montage; Marnagan sitting down, chatting
conversationally with nothing; Marnagan shooting his gun at
nothing; Marnagan pretending to be happy in front of nothing.
Then, closeup—of—NOTHING!
The monsters had failed to image the film. Marnagan was there, his
hair like a red banner, his freckled face with the blue eyes bright in
it. Maybe—
Hathaway said it, loud: "Irish! Irish! I think I see a way out of this
mess! Here—"
He elucidated it over and over again to the Patrolman. About the
film, the beasts, and how the film couldn't be wrong. If the film said
the monsters weren't there, they weren't there.
"Yeah," said Marnagan. "But step outside this cave—"
"If my theory is correct I'll do it, unafraid," said Click.
Marnagan scowled. "You sure them beasts don't radiate ultra-violet
or infra-red or something that won't come out on film?"
"Nuts! Any color we see, the camera sees. We've been fooled."
"Hey, where you going?" Marnagan blocked Hathaway as the smaller
man tried pushing past him.
"Get out of the way," said Hathaway.
Marnagan put his big fists on his hips. "If anyone is going anywhere,
it'll be me does the going."
"I can't let you do that, Irish."
"Why not?"
"You'd be going on my say-so."
"Ain't your say-so good enough for me?"
"Yes. Sure. Of course. I guess—"
"If you say them animals ain't there, that's all I need. Now, stand
aside, you film-developing flea, and let an Irishman settle their
bones." He took an unnecessary hitch in trousers that didn't exist
except under an inch of porous metal plate. "Your express purpose
on this voyage, Hathaway, is taking films to be used by the Patrol
later for teaching Junior Patrolmen how to act in tough spots. First-
hand education. Poke another spool of film in that contraption and
give me profile a scan. This is lesson number seven: Daniel Walks
Into The Lion's Den."
"Irish, I—"
"Shut up and load up."
Hathaway nervously loaded the film-slot, raised it.
"Ready, Click?"
"I—I guess so," said Hathaway. "And remember, think it hard, Irish.
Think it hard. There aren't any animals—"
"Keep me in focus, lad."
"All the way, Irish."
"What do they say...? Oh, yeah. Action. Lights. Camera!"
Marnagan held his gun out in front of him and still smiling took one,
two, three, four steps out into the outside world. The monsters were
waiting for him at the fifth step. Marnagan kept walking.
Right out into the middle of them....

That was the sweetest shot Hathaway ever took. Marnagan and the
monsters!
Only now it was only Marnagan.
No more monsters.
Marnagan smiled a smile broader than his shoulders. "Hey, Click,
look at me! I'm in one piece. Why, hell, the damned things turned
tail and ran away!"
"Ran, hell!" cried Hathaway, rushing out, his face flushed and
animated. "They just plain vanished. They were only imaginative
figments!"
"And to think we let them hole us in that way, Click Hathaway, you
coward!"
"Smile when you say that, Irish."
"Sure, and ain't I always smilin'? Ah, Click boy, are them tears in
your sweet grey eyes?"
"Damn," swore the photographer, embarrassedly. "Why don't they
put window-wipers in these helmets?"
"I'll take it up with the Board, lad."
"Forget it. I was so blamed glad to see your homely carcass in one
hunk, I couldn't help—Look, now, about Gunther. Those animals are
part of his set-up. Explorers who land here inadvertently, are chased
back into their ships, forced to take off. Tourists and the like.
Nothing suspicious about animals. And if the tourists don't leave, the
animals kill them."
"Shaw, now. Those animals can't kill."
"Think not, Mr. Marnagan? As long as we believed in them they
could have frightened us to death, forced us, maybe, to commit
suicide. If that isn't being dangerous—"
The Irishman whistled.
"But, we've got to move, Irish. We've got twenty minutes of oxygen.
In that time we've got to trace those monsters to their source,
Gunther's Base, fight our way in, and get fresh oxy-cannisters." Click
attached his camera to his mid-belt. "Gunther probably thinks we're
dead by now. Everyone else's been fooled by his playmates; they
never had a chance to disbelieve them."
"If it hadn't been for you taking them pictures, Click—"
"Coupled with your damned stubborn attitude about the accident—"
Click stopped and felt his insides turning to water. He shook his head
and felt a film slip down over his eyes. He spread his legs out to
steady himself, and swayed. "I—I don't think my oxygen is as full as
yours. This excitement had me double-breathing and I feel sick."
Marnagan's homely face grimaced in sympathy. "Hold tight, Click.
The guy that invented these fish-bowls didn't provide for a sick
stomach."
"Hold tight, hell, let's move. We've got to find where those animals
came from! And the only way to do that is to get the animals to
come back!"
"Come back? How?"
"They're waiting, just outside the aura of our thoughts, and if we
believe in them again, they'll return."
Marnagan didn't like it. "Won't—won't they kill us—if they come—if
we believe in 'em?"
Hathaway shook a head that was tons heavy and weary. "Not if we
believe in them to a certain point. Psychologically they can both be
seen and felt. We only want to see them coming at us again."
"Do we, now?"
"With twenty minutes left, maybe less—"
"All right, Click, let's bring 'em back. How do we do it?"
Hathaway fought against the mist in his eyes. "Just think—I will see
the monsters again. I will see them again and I will not feel them.
Think it over and over."
Marnagan's hulk stirred uneasily. "And—what if I forget to remember
all that? What if I get excited...?"
Hathaway didn't answer. But his eyes told the story by just looking at
Irish.
Marnagan cursed. "All right, lad. Let's have at it!"
The monsters returned.

A soundless deluge of them, pouring over the rubbled horizon,

swarming in malevolent anticipation about the two men.
"This way, Irish. They come from this way! There's a focal point, a
sending station for these telepathic brutes. Come on!"
Hathaway sludged into the pressing tide of color, mouths, contorted
faces, silvery fat bodies misting as he plowed through them.

Marnagan was making good progress ahead of Hathaway. But he

stopped and raised his gun and made quick moves with it. "Click!
This one here! It's real!" He fell back and something struck him
down. His immense frame slammed against rock, noiselessly.
Hathaway darted forward, flung his body over Marnagan's, covered
the helmet glass with his hands, shouting:
"Marnagan! Get a grip, dammit! It's not real—don't let it force into
your mind! It's not real, I tell you!"
"Click—" Marnagan's face was a bitter, tortured movement behind
glass. "Click—" He was fighting hard. "I—I—sure now. Sure—" He
smiled. "It—it's only a shanty fake!"
"Keep saying it, Irish. Keep it up."
Marnagan's thick lips opened. "It's only a fake," he said. And then,
irritated, "Get the hell off me, Hathaway. Let me up to my feet!"
Hathaway got up, shakily. The air in his helmet smelled stale, and
little bubbles danced in his eyes. "Irish, you forget the monsters. Let
me handle them, I know how. They might fool you again, you might
forget."
Marnagan showed his teeth. "Gah! Let a flea have all the fun? And
besides, Click, I like to look at them. They're pretty."
The outpour of animals came from a low lying mound a mile farther
on. Evidently the telepathic source lay there. They approached it
warily.
"We'll be taking our chances on guard," hissed Irish. "I'll go ahead,
draw their attention, maybe get captured. Then, you show up with
your gun...."
"I haven't got one."
"We'll chance it, then. You stick here until I see what's ahead. They
probably got scanners out. Let them see me—"
And before Hathaway could object, Marnagan walked off. He walked
about five hundred yards, bent down, applied his fingers to
something, heaved up, and there was a door opening in the rock.
His voice came back across the distance, into Click's earphones. "A
door, an air-lock, Click. A tunnel leading down inside!"
Then, Marnagan dropped into the tunnel, disappearing. Click heard
the thud of his feet hitting the metal flooring.
Click sucked in his breath, hard and fast.
"All right, put 'em up!" a new harsh voice cried over a different radio.
One of Gunther's guards.
Three shots sizzled out, and Marnagan bellowed.
The strange harsh voice said, "That's better. Don't try and pick that
gun up now. Oh, so it's you. I thought Gunther had finished you off.
How'd you get past the animals?"
Click started running. He switched off his sending audio, kept his
receiving on. Marnagan, weaponless. One guard. Click gasped.
Things were getting dark. Had to have air. Air. Air. He ran and kept
running and listening to Marnagan's lying voice:
"I tied them pink elephants of Gunther's in neat alphabetical bundles
and stacked them up to dry, ya louse!" Marnagan said. "But, damn
you, they killed my partner before he had a chance!"
The guard laughed.

The air-lock door was still wide open when Click reached it, his head
swimming darkly, his lungs crammed with pain-fire and hell-rockets.
He let himself down in, quiet and soft. He didn't have a weapon. He
didn't have a weapon. Oh, damn, damn!
A tunnel curved, ending in light, and two men silhouetted in that
yellow glare. Marnagan, backed against a wall, his helmet cracked,
air hissing slowly out of it, his face turning blue. And the guard, a
proton gun extended stiffly before him, also in a vac-suit. The guard
had his profile toward Hathaway, his lips twisting: "I think I'll let you
stand right there and die," he said quietly. "That what Gunther
wanted, anway. A nice sordid death."
Hathaway took three strides, his hands out in front of him.
"Don't move!" he snapped. "I've got a weapon stronger than yours.
One twitch and I'll blast you and the whole damned wall out from
behind you! Freeze!"
The guard whirled. He widened his sharp eyes, and reluctantly,
dropped his gun to the floor.
"Get his gun, Irish."
Marnagan made as if to move, crumpled clumsily forward.
Hathaway ran in, snatched up the gun, smirked at the guard.
"Thanks for posing," he said. "That shot will go down in film history
for candid acting."
"What!"
"Ah: ah! Keep your place. I've got a real gun now. Where's the door
leading into the Base?"
The guard moved his head sullenly over his left shoulder.
Click was afraid he would show his weak dizziness. He needed air.
"Okay. Drag Marnagan with you, open the door and we'll have air.
Double time! Double!"
Ten minutes later, Marnagan and Hathaway, fresh tanks of oxygen
on their backs, Marnagan in a fresh bulger and helmet, trussed the
guard, hid him in a huge trash receptacle. "Where he belongs,"
observed Irish tersely.
They found themselves in a complete inner world; an asteroid
nothing more than a honey-comb fortress sliding through the void
unchallenged. Perfect front for a raider who had little equipment and
was short-handed of men. Gunther simply waited for specific cargo
ships to rocket by, pulled them or knocked them down and swarmed
over them for cargo. The animals served simply to insure against
suspicion and the swarms of tourists that filled the void these days.
Small fry weren't wanted. They were scared off.
The telepathic sending station for the animals was a great bank of
intricate, glittering machine, through which strips of colored film with
images slid into slots and machine mouths that translated them into
thought-emanations. A damned neat piece of genius.
"So here we are, still not much better off than we were," growled
Irish. "We haven't a ship or a space-radio, and more guards'll turn
up any moment. You think we could refocus this doohingey, project
the monsters inside the asteroid to fool the pirates themselves?"
"What good would that do?" Hathaway gnawed his lip. "They
wouldn't fool the engineers who created them, you nut."
Marnagan exhaled disgustedly. "Ah, if only the U.S. Cavalry would
come riding over the hill—"

"Irish!" Hathaway snapped that, his face lighting up. "Irish. The U.S.
Cavalry it is!" His eyes darted over the machines. "Here. Help me.
We'll stage everything on the most colossal raid of the century."
Marnagan winced. "You breathing oxygen or whiskey?"
"There's only one stipulation I make, Irish. I want a complete picture
of Marnagan capturing Raider's Base. I want a picture of Gunther's
face when you do it. Snap it, now, we've got rush work to do. How
good an actor are you?"
"That's a silly question."
"You only have to do three things. Walk with your gun out in front of
you, firing. That's number one. Number two is to clutch at your
heart and fall down dead. Number three is to clutch at your side, fall
down and twitch on the ground. Is that clear?"
"Clear as the Coal Sack Nebula...."
An hour later Hathaway trudged down a passageway that led out
into a sort of city street inside the asteroid. There were about six
streets, lined with cube houses in yellow metal, ending near
Hathaway in a wide, green-lawned Plaza.
Hathaway, weaponless, idly carrying his camera in one hand, walked
across the Plaza as if he owned it. He was heading for a building
that was pretentious enough to be Gunther's quarters.
He got halfway there when he felt a gun in his back.
He didn't resist. They took him straight ahead to his destination and
pushed him into a room where Gunther sat.
Hathaway looked at him. "So you're Gunther?" he said, calmly. The
pirate was incredibly old, his bulging forehead stood out over
sunken, questioningly dark eyes, and his scrawny body was lost in
folds of metal-link cloth. He glanced up from a paper-file, surprised.
Before he could speak, Hathaway said:
"Everything's over with, Mr. Gunther. The Patrol is in the city now
and we're capturing your Base. Don't try to fight. We've a thousand
men against your eighty-five."
Gunther sat there, blinking at Hathaway, not moving. His thin hands
twitched in his lap. "You are bluffing," he said, finally, with a firm
directness. "A ship hasn't landed here for an hour. Your ship was the
last. Two people were on it. The last I saw of them they were being
pursued to the death by the Beasts. One of you escaped, it
seemed."
"Both. The other guy went after the Patrol."
"Impossible!"
"I can't respect your opinion, Mr. Gunther."
A shouting rose from the Plaza. About fifty of Gunther's men,
lounging on carved benches during their time-off, stirred to their feet
and started yelling. Gunther turned slowly to the huge window in
one side of his office. He stared, hard.
The Patrol was coming!
Across the Plaza, marching quietly and decisively, came the Patrol.
Five hundred Patrolmen in one long, incredible line, carrying
paralysis guns with them in their tight hands.
Gunther babbled like a child, his voice a shrill dagger in the air. "Get
out there, you men! Throw them back! We're outnumbered!"
Guns flared. But the Patrol came on. Gunther's men didn't run,
Hathaway had to credit them on that. They took it, standing.
Hathaway chuckled inside, deep. What a sweet, sweet shot this was.
His camera whirred, clicked and whirred again. Nobody stopped him
from filming it. Everything was too wild, hot and angry. Gunther was
throwing a fit, still seated at his desk, unable to move because of his
fragile, bony legs and their atrophied state.
Some of the Patrol were killed. Hathaway chuckled again as he saw
three of the Patrolmen clutch at their hearts, crumple, lie on the
ground and twitch. God, what photography!
Gunther raged, and swept a small pistol from his linked corselet. He
fired wildly until Hathaway hit him over the head with a paper-
weight. Then Hathaway took a picture of Gunther slumped at his
desk, the chaos taking place immediately outside his window.
The pirates broke and fled, those that were left. A mere handful.
And out of the chaos came Marnagan's voice, "Here!"

One of the Patrolmen stopped firing, and ran toward Click and the
Building. He got inside. "Did you see them run, Click boy? What an
idea. How did we do?"
"Fine, Irish. Fine!"
"So here's Gunther, the spalpeen! Gunther, the little dried up pirate,
eh?" Marnagan whacked Hathaway on the back. "I'll have to hand it
to you, this is the best plan o' battle ever laid out. And proud I was
to fight with such splendid men as these—" He gestured toward the
Plaza.
Click laughed with him. "You should be proud. Five hundred
Patrolmen with hair like red banners flying, with thick Irish brogues
and broad shoulders and freckles and blue eyes and a body as tall as
your stories!"
Marnagan roared. "I always said, I said—if ever there could be an
army of Marnagans, we could lick the whole damn uneeverse! Did
you photograph it, Click?"
"I did." Hathaway tapped his camera happily.
"Ah, then, won't that be a scoop for you, boy? Money from the
Patrol so they can use the film as instruction in Classes and money
from Cosmic Films for the news-reel headlines! And what a scene,
and what acting! Five hundred duplicates of Steve Marnagan,
broadcast telepathically into the minds of the pirates, walking across
a Plaza, capturing the whole she-bang! How did you like my death-
scenes?"
"You're a ham. And anyway—five hundred duplicates, nothing!" said
Click. He ripped the film-spool from the camera, spread it in the air
to develop, inserted it in the micro-viewer. "Have a look—"
Marnagan looked. "Ah, now. Ah, now," he said over and over.
"There's the Plaza, and there's Gunther's men fighting and then
they're turning and running. And what are they running from? One
man! Me. Irish Marnagan! Walking all by myself across the lawn,
paralyzing them. One against a hundred, and the cowards running
from me!
"Sure, Click, this is better than I thought. I forgot that the film
wouldn't register telepathic emanations, them other Marnagans. It
makes it look like I'm a mighty brave man, does it not? It does. Ah,
look—look at me, Hathaway, I'm enjoying every minute of it, I am."
Hathaway swatted him on his back-side. "Look here, you egocentric
son of Erin, there's more work to be done. More pirates to be
captured. The Patrol is still marching around and someone might be
suspicious if they looked too close and saw all that red hair."
"All right, Click, we'll clean up the rest of them now. We're a
combination, we two, we are. I take it all back about your pictures,
Click, if you hadn't thought of taking pictures of me and inserting it
into those telepath machines we'd be dead ducks now. Well—here I
go...."
Hathaway stopped him. "Hold it. Until I load my camera again."
Irish grinned. "Hurry it up. Here come three guards. They're
unarmed. I think I'll handle them with me fists for a change. The
gentle art of uppercuts. Are you ready, Hathaway?"
"Ready."
Marnagan lifted his big ham-fists.
The camera whirred. Hathaway chuckled, to himself.
What a sweet fade-out this was!
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MONSTER
MAKER ***

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