HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

What is reproduction?

The production of new organisms existing from organisms of same species.

Importance of reproduction

1.Preservation of species.

2.Increase the population of species

3.Transmit favorable variations from one generation to another next line to continue the life of same
species on the Earth.

Do organisms create exact copy of themselves?

The basic event in reproduction is the creation of DNA copy. Cells used chemical reaction to build copies
of their DNA. This creates 2 species of their DNA in a reproducing cell and they will need to be separated
from each other. This process is called as karyokinesis. DNA copying is accompanied by the creation of an
additional cellular apparatus and then the DNA copy separate, each with its own cellular apparatus, giving
rise to two cells. This is called as cytokinesis.

No biochemical reaction is absolutely reliable. DNA will have some variation each time As a result, DNA
copies generated will be similar, but may not be identical to the original. This process leads to variation.
This inbuilt tendency for variation during reproduction is the basis for evolution.

Variation- It refers to the differences in the characteristics among the individuals of species.

What is the importance of variation? Explain with example.

1.Variation forms raw material for revolution.

2.It helps in development of new species.

3.It enables the Organism to adapt themselves to changing environment. Hence variation causes evolution.

For example- If there were a population of bacteria living in temperate waters, and if the water
temperature were to be increased by global warming, most of these bacteria would die, but the few
variants resistant to heat would survive and grow. Further variation is thus useful for the survival of species
overtime.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 It involves only one parent.

 There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
 The young ones formed are almost identical to each other as well as to the parent cell.
 Asexual reproduction generally occurs during favorable environmental conditions and when there
is an abundance of food.
 It is a faster method of reproduction.

Types of Asexual Reproduction is Unicellular Organism (Refer NCERT DIAGRAMS)

(i) Binary Fission: Seen in bacteria, protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium. (In these first pseudopodia
withdrawn (karyokinesis) the nucleus of the parent cell divides and then the cytoplasm divides
(cytokinesis) resulting in the formation of two daughter cells). It occurs during highly favorable
conditions. The cell division can occur in any plane as in case of Amoeba.

However, organisms like Leishmania. (causes Kala-azar), which have a whip like flagella at one end,
binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to the flagellum.

(ii) Multiple Fission: Seen in Plasmodium, (a malarial parasite). In this during unfavorable conditions, the
parent cell develops a thick resistant wall around itself forming a cyst. Within the wall, the cytoplasm
divides many times to form many plasmodia. When conditions become favourable, the cyst wall breaks
and the Plasmodium are released.
(iii) Budding: Seen in Yeast (a fungus). The parent yeast cell develops a protrusion or an outgrowth at its
upper end. The nucleus of the parent cell divides and one of them moves into the outgrowth which
grows bigger and finally separates from the parent cell to lead an independent existence. Very often if
the conditions are highly favorable, a chain of buds is formed.

Types of Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms

(i) Fragmentation: Seen in multicellular organisms (only in plants) which have a relatively simple body
organization like Spirogyra. Spirogyra has a filamentous body. (If it breaks into smaller pieces or
fragments). Each fragment has the capacity to form a new individual.

NOTE: However, all multicellular organisms cannot show cell-by-cell division as cells from tissues which
form organs. These organs are placed at definite positions in the body. Hence, they need to use more
complex methods of reproduction.

(ii) Regeneration: (Only in Animal Cells) Some organisms show have high regenerative capacity and use
it as a means of reproduction. For example; Planaria and Hydra. Regeneration is carried out by
specialized cells which re-divide to form a mass of cells from which different cells undergo changes to
become different cell types and tissues.

(iii) Budding :

 Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like structure is formed on the
parent’s body, which gives rise to a new individual.
 Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and become a new individual
(hydra).

(iv) Spore Formation: Seen in Rhizopus (a fungus). Rhizopus body is made up of thread-like structures
called hyphae. The erect hyphae bear sporangia inside which reproductive structures called spores are
formed. Spores are asexually reproducing bodies having a thick protective wall. If they are produced
during unfavorable times and help to tide over the unfavorable environmental conditions. When the
spores fall on a suitable medium, each one forms a new individual.

(v) Vegetative Propagation: Method by which plants reproduce by their vegetative parts such as roots,
stems, and leaves.

Vegetative propagation can be artificial or natural. Natural vegetative propagation happens through
leaves (e.g. bryophyllum), stem (e.g. turmeric, ginger), runners/stolon (e.g.grass runners, strawberry),
bulbs ( e.g. onion, lily), etc. Artificial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and plant tissue culture.
Advantages of vegetative propagation:

1. Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.

2. Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also reproduce by vegetative
propagation.
3. All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.
4. Seedless varieties can be obtained.
5. The property of vegetative propagation is used by horticulturists in developing methods like
layering, grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes.

Disadvantages of vegetative propagation

1. There is overcrowding as no dispersal occurs.

2. Since the daughter plants are identical to the parent plant, there is no variation.
3. The disease of the parent plant can get transferred to the daughter plants.

Artificial propagation.

It includes growing plants by man-made methods.

Cuttings of stem of sugar cane, grapes, etc. which when grown in soil develop into a new plant.

Grafting is a process in which branches of two similar plants, one potted plant and other of a good quality
plant, are obliquely cut and placed over each other and tied by a tape and left for a month or so. A new
plant thus develops.

In layering, the roots are induced to develop in the branch of rooted plant buried in the soil.

Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a nutrient medium under
aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient medium where it forms a mass of cells called
callus. This callus is then transferred to another nutrient medium where it differentiates and forms a new
plant.

Sexual Reproduction
The mode of reproduction that takes place with the involvement of two individuals of two different
sexes i.e. male and female.

Significance of Sexual Reproduction :

 Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well as cellular apparatus of two different organisms which
promotes diversity of characters in the offspring.
 Since gametes are derived from two different organisms, it results in a new combination of genes
which increases the chances of genetic variations.
 Sexual reproduction results in the origin of new species.
  Sexual reproduction involves division in the sex organs that reduces the DNA matter to half so that
the zygote formed after fusion has the same amount of DNA as the parents it maintains DNA in a
species.

Limitation of Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves the process of combining DNA from
two different organisms which may bring some undesirable features also.

Difference between male and female gamete done in class.

Two types of cell division are seen in eukaryotic organisms:

Mitosis

 Takes place in somatic cells

 Maintains the chromosome number

 Produces two, diploid daughter cells

 Required for asexual reproduction, development and growth, cell replacement and regeneration.

Meiosis

 Takes place in sex cells (gametes)

 Reduces the number of chromosomes by half

 Produces four haploid daughter cells

 Required for sexual reproduction, i.e gamete formation

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Structure of a flower:

The reproductive parts are present in the flower.

 The parts of the flower are sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.

 Sepals are green structures that protect the inner parts when the flower is in bud stage.

 Petals are colourful and attract the insects for pollination.

 Stamens are male reproductive parts and produce pollen grains that contain male gametes. Each
stamen has two parts— Filament i.e. stalk and Anther i.e. swollen top part which has large
number of pollen grains.

 The carpel is the female reproductive part and produces ovules that contain female gametes. It
has three parts—Stigma which is top sticky part and receives pollen grains during pollination.
 Style which is the middle long part and ovary which is the swollen part and contains ovules. Each
ovule has an egg cell i.e. female gamete.

Types of Flowers

•The flowers may be bisexual i.e. having both stamens and carpels for example; Mustard China Rose
(Hibiscus).
•The flower may be unisexual i.e. paving either stamens or carpels for example; Papaya, Watermelon.
They always show cross pollination.

Pollination

The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the flower is pollination. Two
types of pollination are:
(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or
another flower of the same plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower or
another flower of a different plant of the same species. It generally takes place with the help of some
agents like insects, birds, wind and water.

Fertilization: Fertilization is the process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote during
sexual reproduction. Pollination is followed by fertilisation in plants.

The events are-

•Pollen grains land on the stigma of the ovary.
•Pollen tubes grow out of the pollen grains, travel through the style and reach the ovary.
•Pollen tube has two male germ cells. Each ovule has two polar nuclei and a female germ cell
(egg).Pollen tube releases two male germ cells inside the ovule, one of them fuses with female germ cell
and forms a zygote which grows into the baby plant i.e. embryo, the fusion is known as syngamy. The
other male germ cell fuses with two polar nuclei, the process is known as triple fusion. So in flowering
plants two fusions take place during fertilisation. It is called double fertilisation.

Post-fertilisation changes: After fertilisation the following changes takes place in the flower.
Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo inside the ovule.

 The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
 Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.

Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e. embryo.

Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo Cotyledons store food for the future plant. It also has a
tough coat over it to protect from unfavourable environmental conditions.
Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and radicle develops into root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate conditions is known as
germination.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

PUBERTY and associated changes

Human beings become reproductively active from the onset of puberty. Puberty is the period during
adolescence when the rate of general body growth begins to slow down and reproductive tissues begin
to mature.

Onset of puberty in human males is between 11 to 13 years of age, while in human females is between
10 to 12 years of age.

Puberty is associated with many physical, mental, emotional and psychological changes in boys and girls
which occur slowly over a period of time. These are called secondary sexual characters. For instance
thick dark hair start growing in new parts of the body such as arm pits and genital area between the
thighs. Thinner hair appear on legs, arms and face. Skin becomes oily and pimples may appear on the
face. Individuals become more conscious of their bodies become more independent, more aggressive
etc.

In case of boys beard and mustache start appearing, voice begins to crack, reproductive organs develop
and start producing releasing sperms.
In case of girls, breast size begins to increase, skin of the nipples darkens, menstruation starts.
The act of mating between the male and female partner is termed as copulation.

Male Reproductive System:

Testes- One pair of testes are present in a bag-like structure called scrotum which lies outside the
abdominal cavity, hence they are extra abdominal in position. This is so because the testes have to be
maintained at 1-3 degree lesser temperature than the body in order to produce functional sperms.

Functions of testes

 To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.

 To produce a male reproductive hormone called testosterone which is responsible for
producing sperms as well as secondary sexual characteristics in males.

Attached to each testis is a highly coiled tube called epididymis. The sperms are stored here and they
mature in the epididymis.
Each epididymis leads into the sperm duct or the vas-deferens. Each vas-deferens rises up and enters
into the abdominal cavity. It unites with the duct coming from the urinary bladder to form a common
duct called urethra which passes through the penis and opens to the outside. Along the way the ducts of
the three glands also open and pour their secretions into the vas deferens.

Function of the vas-deferens: It is meant for the passage of the sperms in the male body.

Functions of the glands (seminary vesicle, prostate gland): They produce different secretions which
provide nutrition as well as medium for locomotion to the sperms.
The secretions of the three glands along with the sperms is known as semen.

Function of the urethra: It is the common passage for both semen and urine from the body to. the
outside.

Penis: It is the organ which is used to introduce semen into the female body. It is richly supplied with
blood vessels.

Female Reproductive System:

Each ovary is almond shaped and present inside the abdominal cavity. At the time of birth each girl child
already contains thousands of immature ova. These ova start maturing only from the time of puberty.
Only one ovum is produced by one ovary in one month and each ovary releases an ovum in alternate
months. The release of an ovum from the ovary into the abdominal cavity is known as ovulation.

Functions of ovary

 To produce and release ova

 To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.

There are two fallopian tubes. The end lying close to the ovary has finger like structures called fimbriae.
The two fallopian tubes unite to form an elastic bag like structure called uterus.

Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the site of fertilization between the male and the female gametes
and formation of the zygote early embryo.
The inner lining of the uterus is richly supplied with blood vessels and is known as endometrium. The
narrow end of the uterus is called cervix.

Function of the uterus: The embryo formed in the fallopian tube comes down and gets attached to the
endometrium (implantation) and develops for the next nine months till the baby is delivered.

Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina is a muscular tube through
which the baby is delivered at the end of nine months. It also serves as the canal for receiving the semen
at the time of copulation.
FERTILISATION and POST FERTILISATION

The semen is discharged into the vaginal tract during copulation. The sperms travel upwards and reach
the fallopian tube where one sperm fuses with the ovum to form the zygote. The zygote divides and
redivides as it descends into the uterus and the embryo gets implanted in the endometrium (inner lining
of uterus). The endometrium thickens so as to receive the embryo.

PLACENTA and functions

The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called placenta,
which is a disk-like structure embedded in the uterine wall. It contains finger-like villi on the embryo
side, while on the mother’s side blood spaces surround the villi.

Functions

 It possesses villi that increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients.
 It facilitates the passage of nutrition and oxygen to embryo from mother through
blood.
 Waste substances produced by embryo are removed through placenta into mother's
blood.

When the embryo starts resembling a human is formed, it is termed as a foetus. The foetus continues to
develop inside the uterus for almost nine months after which the baby is delivered as a result of
rhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.

What happens if egg is not fertilized?

If the egg is not fertilized, it lives for about one day. Since the ovary releases one egg every month, the
uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a fertilized egg. Its lining becomes thick and spongy.

Now, because fertilization has not taken place, this lining of the uterus is not needed any longer, so the
lining slowly breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucus. The cycle takes place every
month and is now known as menstruation. It usually lasts for about 2 to 8 days.

Reproductive Health:

Reproductive health means total well-being in all aspects of reproduction, i.e., physical, emotional,
social and behavioral.
A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual intercourse if one of the partners is infected. These are
known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s). They can be caused by bacteria for example; syphilis,
gonorrhea; or caused by a virus for example; HIV-AIDS, warts etc. The transmission of these diseases can
be avoided by using birth control measures such as wearing a condom during the sexual act.
HIV-AIDS discussed in class in detail.

Contraception: It is the avoidance of pregnancy through different methods.

Birth control measures: They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.

Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the follopian tube :
(i) Use of condoms: Condoms are thin rubber tubes worn over the penis before sexual intercourse. The
semen gets collected in this and is not discharged into the vagina.
(ii) Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over a flexible metal ring which is fitted over the cervix in a
woman’s body by a doctor.
(iii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop or Copper T: It is inserted in the uterus and its
insertion causes certain secretion which prevents the implantation of the embryo in the uterine wall.
Both methods (ii) and (iii) cause side effects.

Chemical methods

 Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-killing chemicals available in the form of
creams, jellies etc. which are injected into the vagina just before copulation.

 Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation but do not
stop menstruation.

Surgical methods

 Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males.

 Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating Reproductive organs the fallopian tubes in
females.
 Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions is carried out to eliminate the
developing embryo. This practice can, however, be misused to carry out female foeticide which involves
the killing of the female foetus. It should be avoided at all cost as it disturbs the male-female ratio in a
population.

Advantages of contraception: Help in birth control, prevent sexually transmitted diseases, prevent
unwanted pregnancies, keep population explosion in check.