Capacitance and Dielectrics

FIZ102E: Electricity & Magnetism

Yavuz Ekşi

İTÜ, Fizik Müh. Böl.

1
Outline

Capacitors and Capacitance

Calculating Capacitance: Capacitors in Vacuum
Capacitors in series and parallel
Capacitors in series
Capacitors in Parallel
Energy storage in capacitors and electric-field energy
Dielectrics
Induced Charge and Polarization
Dielectric Breakdown
Molecular model of induced charge
Gauss’ law in dielectrics

2
Learning Goals

• The nature of capacitors, and how to calculate a quantity

that measures their ability to store charge.
• How to analyze capacitors connected in a network.
• How to calculate the amount of energy stored in a
capacitor.
• What dielectrics are, and how they make capacitors more
effective.
• How a dielectric inside a charged capacitor becomes
polarized.
• How to use Gauss’s laws when dielectrics are present.

3
Introduction

• A capacitor is a device that

stores electric potential energy
and electric charge.
• Any two conductors insulated
from each other form a capacitor.
• To store energy in this device,
transfer charge from one
conductor to the other so that
one has a negative charge and the
other has an equal amount of
positive charge.

4
Introduction

• A capacitor is a device that

stores electric potential energy
and electric charge.
• Any two conductors insulated
from each other form a capacitor.
• To store energy in this device,
transfer charge from one
conductor to the other so that
one has a negative charge and the
other has an equal amount of
positive charge.

4
Introduction

• A capacitor is a device that

stores electric potential energy
and electric charge.
• Any two conductors insulated
from each other form a capacitor.
• To store energy in this device,
transfer charge from one
conductor to the other so that
one has a negative charge and the
other has an equal amount of
positive charge.

4
Introduction

• A capacitor is a device that

stores electric potential energy
and electric charge.
• Any two conductors insulated
from each other form a capacitor.
• To store energy in this device,
transfer charge from one
conductor to the other so that
one has a negative charge and the
other has an equal amount of
positive charge.

4
Introduction

• Work must be done to move the

charges through the resulting
potential difference between the
conductors.
• The work done is stored as
electric potential energy.

5
Introduction

• Capacitors have many practical

applications: electronic flash units
for photography, mobile phones,
airbag sensors for cars, and radio
and television receivers.
• For a particular capacitor, the ratio
of the charge on each conductor (Q)
to the potential difference between
the conductors (V ) is a constant,
called the capacitance (C).
• The capacitance depends on
• the sizes of the conductors
• the shapes of the conductors
• on the insulating material (if any) 6
Introduction

• Capacitors have many practical

applications: electronic flash units
for photography, mobile phones,
airbag sensors for cars, and radio
and television receivers.
• For a particular capacitor, the ratio
of the charge on each conductor (Q)
to the potential difference between
the conductors (V ) is a constant,
called the capacitance (C).
• The capacitance depends on
• the sizes of the conductors
• the shapes of the conductors
• on the insulating material (if any) 6
Introduction

• Capacitors have many practical

applications: electronic flash units
for photography, mobile phones,
airbag sensors for cars, and radio
and television receivers.
• For a particular capacitor, the ratio
of the charge on each conductor (Q)
to the potential difference between
the conductors (V ) is a constant,
called the capacitance (C).
• The capacitance depends on
• the sizes of the conductors
• the shapes of the conductors
• on the insulating material (if any) 6
Introduction

• Capacitors have many practical Q

applications: electronic flash units C=
V
for photography, mobile phones,
airbag sensors for cars, and radio
and television receivers.
• For a particular capacitor, the ratio
of the charge on each conductor (Q)
to the potential difference between
the conductors (V ) is a constant,
called the capacitance (C).
• The capacitance depends on
• the sizes of the conductors
• the shapes of the conductors
• on the insulating material (if any) 6
Introduction

• Capacitors have many practical

applications: electronic flash units
for photography, mobile phones,
airbag sensors for cars, and radio
and television receivers.
• For a particular capacitor, the ratio A
C = 0
of the charge on each conductor (Q) d
to the potential difference between
the conductors (V ) is a constant,
called the capacitance (C).
• The capacitance depends on
• the sizes of the conductors
• the shapes of the conductors
• on the insulating material (if any) 6
Introduction

• Capacitors have many practical

applications: electronic flash units
for photography, mobile phones,
airbag sensors for cars, and radio
and television receivers.
• For a particular capacitor, the ratio ra rb
C = 4π0
of the charge on each conductor (Q) rb − ra
to the potential difference between
the conductors (V ) is a constant,
called the capacitance (C).
• The capacitance depends on
• the sizes of the conductors
• the shapes of the conductors
• on the insulating material (if any) 6
Introduction

• Capacitors have many practical

applications: electronic flash units
for photography, mobile phones,
airbag sensors for cars, and radio
and television receivers.
• For a particular capacitor, the ratio
of the charge on each conductor (Q) 2π0 L
C=
to the potential difference between ln(rb /ra )
the conductors (V ) is a constant,
called the capacitance (C).
• The capacitance depends on
• the sizes of the conductors
• the shapes of the conductors
• on the insulating material (if any) 6
Introduction

• Capacitors have many practical

applications: electronic flash units
for photography, mobile phones,
airbag sensors for cars, and radio
and television receivers.
• For a particular capacitor, the ratio
of the charge on each conductor (Q)
to the potential difference between
C = KC0 , K>1
the conductors (V ) is a constant,
called the capacitance (C).
• The capacitance depends on
• the sizes of the conductors
• the shapes of the conductors
• on the insulating material (if any) 6
Introduction

• Compared to the case in which there

is only vacuum between the
conductors, the capacitance
increases when an insulating
material (a dielectric) is present.
• This happens because a
redistribution of charge, called
polarization, takes place within the
insulating material. C = KC0 , K>1

7
Introduction

• Compared to the case in which there

is only vacuum between the
conductors, the capacitance
increases when an insulating
material (a dielectric) is present.
• This happens because a
redistribution of charge, called
polarization, takes place within the
insulating material.

7
Capacitors and Capacitance
Capacitors and Capacitance

• Any two conductors separated by an

insulator (or a vacuum) form a
capacitor
• In most practical applications, each
conductor initially has zero net
charge and electrons are transferred
from one conductor to the other; this
is called charging the capacitor.
• One common way to charge a
capacitor is to connect these two
wires to opposite terminals of a
battery.

8
Capacitors and Capacitance

• Any two conductors separated by an

insulator (or a vacuum) form a
capacitor
• In most practical applications, each
conductor initially has zero net
charge and electrons are transferred
from one conductor to the other; this
is called charging the capacitor.
• One common way to charge a
capacitor is to connect these two
wires to opposite terminals of a
battery.

8
Capacitors and Capacitance

• Any two conductors separated by an

insulator (or a vacuum) form a
capacitor
• In most practical applications, each
conductor initially has zero net
charge and electrons are transferred
from one conductor to the other; this
is called charging the capacitor.
• One common way to charge a
capacitor is to connect these two
wires to opposite terminals of a
battery.

8
Capacitors and Capacitance

• The two conductors of a charged

capacitor have charges with equal
magnitude and opposite sign, and
the net charge on the capacitor as a
whole remains zero.
• When we say that a capacitor has
charge Q, or that a charge Q is
stored on the capacitor, we mean
that the conductor at higher
potential has charge +Q and the
conductor at lower potential has
charge −Q

9
Capacitors and Capacitance

• The prototype of a capacitor is the

conducting parallel plates.
• In circuit diagrams a capacitor is
represented by either of these
symbols:
• In practice cylindirical capacitors are
easier to manufacture.

10
Capacitors and Capacitance

• The prototype of a capacitor is the

conducting parallel plates.
• In circuit diagrams a capacitor is
represented by either of these
symbols:

• In practice cylindirical capacitors are

easier to manufacture.

10
Capacitors and Capacitance

• The prototype of a capacitor is the

conducting parallel plates.
• In circuit diagrams a capacitor is
represented by either of these
symbols:
• In practice cylindirical capacitors are
easier to manufacture.

10
Capacitors and Capacitance

• E at any point in the region between

the conductors is proportional to the
magnitude Q of charge on each
conductor.
• It follows that Vab between the
conductors is also proportional to Q.
• If we double the magnitude of charge
on each conductor, E at each point
doubles, and Vab doubles.
• However, Q/Vab does not change and is
called the capacitance of the capacitor:

Q
C=
Vab
11
Capacitors and Capacitance

• Capacitance is a measure of the

ability of a capacitor to store energy.

Q
C=
Vab

• The greater the capacitance C of a

capacitor, the greater the magnitude
Q of charge on either conductor for a
given potential difference Vab and
hence the greater the amount of
stored energy.

12
Unit of Capacitance

• The SI unit of capacitance is called

one farad (1 F),
• The definition of capacitance
Q
C=
Vab
implies that

1 F = 1 coulomb/volt

• 1 F is a very large capacitance. In

many applications 1 µF or 1 pF is
more convenient.
13
Unit of Capacitance

• The SI unit of capacitance is called

one farad (1 F),
• The definition of capacitance
Q
C=
Vab
implies that

1 F = 1 coulomb/volt

• 1 F is a very large capacitance. In

many applications 1 µF or 1 pF is
more convenient.
13
Unit of Capacitance

• The SI unit of capacitance is called

one farad (1 F),
• The definition of capacitance
Q
C=
Vab
implies that

1 F = 1 coulomb/volt

• 1 F is a very large capacitance. In

many applications 1 µF or 1 pF is
more convenient.
13
Calculating Capacitance: Capacitors in Vacuum

• We can calculate the capacitance C of a given capacitor by

finding the potential difference Vab between the conductors
for a given magnitude of charge Q and then using
Q
C=
Vab

• For now we’ll consider only capacitors in vacuum; that is,

empty space separates the conductors that make up the
capacitor.
• We will calculate the capacitance of parallel, spherical and
cylindrical capacitors.

14
Parallel-plate capacitor

• E = σ/0
• σ = Q/A
• E = Q/A0
• Vab = Ed
Q
Vab = d
A0

• Using C = Q/Vab

A
C = 0 , parallel plate capacitor
d

15
Parallel-plate capacitor

• E = σ/0
• σ = Q/A
• E = Q/A0
• Vab = Ed
Q
Vab = d
A0

• Using C = Q/Vab

A
C = 0 , parallel plate capacitor
d

15
Parallel-plate capacitor

• E = σ/0
• σ = Q/A
• E = Q/A0
• Vab = Ed
Q
Vab = d
A0

• Using C = Q/Vab

A
C = 0 , parallel plate capacitor
d

15
Parallel-plate capacitor

• E = σ/0
• σ = Q/A
• E = Q/A0
• Vab = Ed
Q
Vab = d
A0

• Using C = Q/Vab

A
C = 0 , parallel plate capacitor
d

15
Parallel-plate capacitor

• E = σ/0
• σ = Q/A
• E = Q/A0
• Vab = Ed
Q
Vab = d
A0

• Using C = Q/Vab

A
C = 0 , parallel plate capacitor
d

15
Parallel-plate capacitor

• The capacitance
A
C = 0 , parallel plate capacitor
d
depends on only the geometry of the
capacitor;
• it is directly proportional to the area
A of each plate and
• inversely proportional to their
separation d.
• Recall that
0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N · m2 . Check
that 0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m.

16
Exercise: 1.0 F capacitor

Question:
The parallel plates of a 1.0 F capacitor are 1.0 mm apart. What
is their area?

17
Exercise: 1.0 F capacitor

Question:
The parallel plates of a 1.0 F capacitor are 1.0 mm apart. What
is their area?

Solution:
Applying
A
C = 0
d
one finds that A = 1.1 × 108 m2 which correspond to a square of
∼ 10 km. Thus 1.0 F is indeed a large capacitance!

17
Exercise: Properties of a parallel-plate capacitor

Question:
The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum are 5.00 mm
apart and 2.00 m2 in area. A 10.0 kV potential difference is
applied across the capacitor. Compute (a) the capacitance; (b)
the charge on each plate; and (c) the magnitude of the electric
field between the plates.

18
Exercise: Properties of a parallel-plate capacitor

Question:
The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum are 5.00 mm
apart and 2.00 m2 in area. A 10.0 kV potential difference is
applied across the capacitor. Compute (a) the capacitance; (b)
the charge on each plate; and (c) the magnitude of the electric
field between the plates.

Solution:
• (a) C = 0 Ad gives C = 3.54 pF.
• (b) Q = CVab gives Q = 35.4 µC.
• (c) E = σ/0 gives E = 2.00 × 106 N/C
• We can also find E by E = Vab /d.

18
Exercise: Properties of a parallel-plate capacitor

Question:
The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum are 5.00 mm
apart and 2.00 m2 in area. A 10.0 kV potential difference is
applied across the capacitor. Compute (a) the capacitance; (b)
the charge on each plate; and (c) the magnitude of the electric
field between the plates.

Solution:
• (a) C = 0 Ad gives C = 3.54 pF.
• (b) Q = CVab gives Q = 35.4 µC.
• (c) E = σ/0 gives E = 2.00 × 106 N/C
• We can also find E by E = Vab /d.

18
Exercise: Properties of a parallel-plate capacitor

Question:
The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum are 5.00 mm
apart and 2.00 m2 in area. A 10.0 kV potential difference is
applied across the capacitor. Compute (a) the capacitance; (b)
the charge on each plate; and (c) the magnitude of the electric
field between the plates.

Solution:
• (a) C = 0 Ad gives C = 3.54 pF.
• (b) Q = CVab gives Q = 35.4 µC.
• (c) E = σ/0 gives E = 2.00 × 106 N/C
• We can also find E by E = Vab /d.

18
Condenser microphone

Inside a condenser microphone is a

capacitor with one rigid plate and one
flexible plate. The two plates are kept
at a constant potential difference Vab .
Sound waves cause the flexible plate
to move back and forth, varying the
capacitance C and causing charge to
flow to and from the capacitor in
accordance with the relationship
C = Q/Vab . Thus a sound wave is
converted to a charge flow that can be
amplified and recorded digitally.

19
Exercise: A spherical capacitor

Question:
Two concentric spherical conducting
shells are separated by vacuum. The
inner shell has total charge +Q and
outer radius ra , and the outer shell
has charge −Q and inner radius rb .
Find the capacitance of this spherical
capacitor.

20
Exercise: A spherical capacitor

Solution:
• The potential at any point
between the spheres is
V = Q/4π0 r.
• Hence the potential of the inner
(+) conductor at r = ra wrt that
of the outer (−) conductor at
r = rb is
Q Q
Vab = Va − Vb = −
4π0 ra 4π0 rb
 
Q 1 1
= −
4π0 ra rb

20
Exercise: A spherical capacitor

Solution:
•
Q Q
Vab = Va − Vb = −
4π0 ra 4π0 rb
 
Q 1 1
= −
4π0 ra rb

• Using C = Q/Vab gives

4π0 ra rb
C= 1 1 = 4π0 r − r
ra− rb b a

20
Exercise

How is this result

ra rb
C = 4π0
rb − ra
related to
A
C = 0
d
for the parallel plate capacitor?
Consider a spherical capacitor with inner sphere close to the
outer sphere: ra ' rb while rb − ra = d.
The area of the sphere is A ' 4πrb2 and we get C ' 0 Ad !

21
Capacitance of an isolated sphere

• Capacitance of an isolated
sphere can be found by
considering rb → ∞ in
4π0
C= 0
1 1

ra − 

rb
which gives

C = 4π0 ra

• The result is independent

of whether this is a
spherical shell or a solid
22
sphere.
Capacitance of the Earth

• The radius of the Earth is

6300 km. This gives

C = 4π0 ra
6.3 × 106 m
= ra /k =
9 × 109 m/F
∼ 10−3 F

• 1 F is indeed a large capacitance!

23
Exercise: charged balls

Question:
Two charged balls of charges q1 = 4Q and q2 = −Q with radii
r1 = a and r2 = 2a touch each other and seperated afterwards.
What are the final charges?

24
Exercise: charged balls

Question:
Two charged balls of charges q1 = 4Q and q2 = −Q with radii
r1 = a and r2 = 2a touch each other and seperated afterwards.
What are the final charges?

Question:
The total charge is 3Q. The balls will share the charges in
proportion to their capacitance which is proportional to their
radii. Thus q10 = Q and q20 = 2Q.

24
Exercise: A cylindrical capacitor

Question:
Two long, coaxial cylindrical
conductors are separated by vacuum.
The inner cylinder has outer radius ra
and linear charge density +λ. The
outer cylinder has inner radius rb and
linear charge density −λ. Find the
capacitance per unit length for this
capacitor.

25
Exercise: A cylindrical capacitor

Solution:
• The potential in the space
between the cylinders is:
λ r0
V = ln
2π0 r

• Then the potential difference

between the cylinders is
λ rb
Vab = ln
2π0 ra

25
Exercise: A cylindrical capacitor

Solution:
•
λ rb
Vab = ln
2π0 ra

• The total charge Q in a length L

is Q = λL and so
Q 2π0 L
C= =
Vab ln(rb /ra )

25
Exercise

How is this result

2π0 L
C=
ln(rb /ra )
related to
A
C = 0
d
for the parallel plate capacitor?
Consider a cylindirical capacitor with inner scylinder close to
the outer cylinder: ra ' rb while rb − ra = d  rb .
2π0 L 2π0 L 2π0 L
C= ra +d
=  ' d
ln ra ln 1 + rda ra

where we used Taylor expansion ln(1 + x) = x if x  1.

The area of the cylinder is A ' 2πra L and we get C ' 0 Ad !
26
Check your understanding

A capacitor has vacuum in the space between the conductors. If

you double the amount of charge on each conductor, what
happens to the capacitance?

(i) It increases;
(ii) it decreases;
(iii) it remains the same;
(iv) the answer depends on the size or shape of the conductors.

27
Check your understanding

A capacitor has vacuum in the space between the conductors. If

you double the amount of charge on each conductor, what
happens to the capacitance?

(i) It increases;
(ii) it decreases;
(iii) it remains the same;
(iv) the answer depends on the size or shape of the conductors.

27
Capacitors in series and parallel
Capacitors in series and parallel

• Capacitors are manufactured with

certain standard capacitances and
working voltages
• However, these standard values may
not be the ones you actually need in
a particular application.
• You can obtain the values you need
by combining capacitors; many
combinations are possible, but the
simplest combinations are a series
connection and a parallel connection.

29
Capacitors in series

• In a series connection the magnitude

of charge on all plates is the same.
• Vab = Vac + Vcb or V = V1 + V2
• Vac = V1 = Q/C1 &
Vcb = V2 = Q/C2
• Vab = V = Q( C11 + 1
C2 )

V 1 1
= +
Q C1 C2

30
Capacitors in series

• The equivalent capacitance Ceq of

the series combination is defined as
the capacitance of a single capacitor
for which the charge Q is the same
as for the combination, when the
potential difference V is the same.
• The combination can be replaced by
an equivalent capacitor of
capacitance Ceq = Q/V .

30
Capacitors in series

•
V 1 1 Q
= + , Ceq =
Q C1 C2 V
implies

1 1 1
= +
Ceq C1 C2

• The reciprocal of the equivalent

capacitance of a series combination
equals the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual capacitances.
30
Capacitors in series

• If there are N capacitors in series

1 1 1 1
= + + ··· Example:
Ceq C1 C2 CN
4 capacitors of 2 µF
connected in series
• If capacitors all have equal has the equivalent
capacitances (C = C1 = C2 = · · · = CN ) capacitance of 0.5 µF.
1 1 1 1 N
= + + ··· =
Ceq C C C C

and so Ceq = C/N .

• In a series connection the equivalent
capacitance is always less than any
individual capacitance. 30
Capacitors in Parallel

• In a parallel connection the potential

difference for all individual
capacitors is the same and is equal
to Vab = V .
• Q1 = C1 V & Q2 = C2 V
• The total charge Q of the
combination, and thus the total
charge on the equivalent capacitor, is
Q = Q1 + Q2 = (C1 + C2 )V

Q
= C1 + C2
V

31
Capacitors in Parallel

• The parallel combination is

equivalent to a single capacitor with
the same total charge Q = Q1 + Q2
and potential difference V as the
combination
Q
Ceq =
V

• Thus
Ceq = C1 + C2

31
Capacitors in Parallel

• In the same way we can show that

for N capacitors in parallel

Ceq = C1 + C2 + · · · + CN

The equivalent capacitance of a

parallel combination equals the sum
of the individual capacitances.
• If capacitors all have equal
capacitances (C = C1 = C2 = · · · = CN )
Ceq = N C
• In a parallel connection the
equivalent capacitance is always
greater than any individual
capacitance. 31
Exercise:

Let C1 = 6.0 µF, C2 = 3.0 µF, and

Vab = 18 V. Find the equivalent capacitance
and the charge and potential difference for
each capacitor when the capacitors are
connected
• (a) in series
• (b) in parallel

32
Exercise:

Let C1 = 6.0 µF, C2 = 3.0 µF, and

Vab = 18 V. Find the equivalent capacitance
and the charge and potential difference for
each capacitor when the capacitors are
connected
• (a) in series
• (b) in parallel

32
Exercise:

Let C1 = 6.0 µF, C2 = 3.0 µF, and

Vab = 18 V. Find the equivalent capacitance
and the charge and potential difference for
each capacitor when the capacitors are
connected
• (a) in series
• (b) in parallel

32
Solution:

• For a series combination

1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
Ceq C1 C2 6.0 µF 3.0 µF

⇒ Ceq = 2.0 µF
• The charge Q on each capacitor in
series is the same as that on the
equivalent capacitor:
Q = Ceq V = (2.0 µF)(18 V) = 36 µC
• The potential difference across each
capacitor is inversely proportional to its
capacitance:
Vac = V1 = CQ1 = 6.0
36 µC
µF = 6 V and
Q 36 µC
similarly Vcb = C2 = 3.0 µF = 12 V
33
Solution:

• For a parallel combination

Ceq = C1 +C2 = 6.0 µF+3.0 µF = 9.0 µF
• The potential difference across each of
the capacitors is the same as that across
the equivalent capacitor, 18 V.
• The charge on each capacitor is directly
proportional to its capacitance:
Q1 = C1 V = (6.0 µF)(18 V) = 108 µC
Q2 = C2 V = (2.0 µF)(18 V) = 54 µC

33
Exercise: A capacitor network

• Find the equivalent

capacitance of the
five-capacitor network
shown.
• 12 µF and 6 µF series
combination yields
C 0 = 4 µF.
• 3 µF, 11 µF & 4 µF
paralllel combination yields
C 00 = 18 µF.
• Finally, the 18 µF and 9 µF
capacitors in series gives
6 µF
34
Exercise: A capacitor network

• Find the equivalent

capacitance of the
five-capacitor network
shown.
• 12 µF and 6 µF series
combination yields
C 0 = 4 µF.
• 3 µF, 11 µF & 4 µF
paralllel combination yields
C 00 = 18 µF.
• Finally, the 18 µF and 9 µF
capacitors in series gives
6 µF
34
Exercise: A capacitor network

• Find the equivalent

capacitance of the
five-capacitor network
shown.
• 12 µF and 6 µF series
combination yields
C 0 = 4 µF.
• 3 µF, 11 µF & 4 µF
paralllel combination yields
C 00 = 18 µF.
• Finally, the 18 µF and 9 µF
capacitors in series gives
6 µF
34
Exercise: A capacitor network

• Find the equivalent

capacitance of the
five-capacitor network
shown.
• 12 µF and 6 µF series
combination yields
C 0 = 4 µF.
• 3 µF, 11 µF & 4 µF
paralllel combination yields
C 00 = 18 µF.
• Finally, the 18 µF and 9 µF
capacitors in series gives
6 µF
34
Energy storage in capacitors and
electric-field energy
Energy storage in capacitors and electric-field energy

energy stored in capacitor = work required to charge it.

discharge: stored energy is recovered as electrical work.
During charging, at the moment when the charge is q and the
potential difference is v = q/C, the work dW required to
transfer an additional charge dq is
qdq
dW = vdq =
C
The total work W needed to increase q from zero to Q is
Z W
1 Q Q2
Z
W = dW = qdq =
0 C 0 2C

Potential energy stored in a capacitor

Q2 1 1
U= = CV 2 = QV
2C 2 2
35
Energy in capacitor - analogy with strechted spring

Potential energy stored in a capacitor

Q2 1 1
U= = CV 2 = QV
2C 2 2

• Capacitance measures the ability of a capacitor to store

both energy and charge.
• At fixed V , increasing C gives a greater charge Q and
greater stored energy U = 21 CV 2 .
• To transfer fixed Q, W is inversely proportional to C, i.e.
the greater C, the easier it is to charge Q

Recall: elastic potential energy U = 12 kx2

Identify: Q ⇔ x and 1/C ⇔ k

36
Applications of Capacitors: Energy Storage

The Z machine has a large number of

capacitors in parallel. Arcs are
produced during discharge into a
spool of thread. Heats the target to
T > 2 × 109 K. For a brief space of
time: 80 times the power output of all
the electric power plants on earth
combined!
In other applications, the energy is released more slowly:
Similar to springs in the suspension of an automobile a
capacitor in an electronic circuit can smooth out unwanted
variations in voltage due to power surges.

37
Electric-Field Energy

Think of the energy as being stored in the field in the region

between the capacitor plates.
The energy density in a vacuum

1 2 1 2
2 CV 2 (0 A/d)(Ed) 1
u= = = 0 E 2
Ad Ad 2
Valid for any electric-field configuration in vacuum.
Remember: Electric-field energy is electric potential energy.
energy as being a shared property of all the charges
OR
energy as being a property of the E-field that the charges create

38
Example: Transferring charge/energy between capacitors

Question:
We connect a capacitor
C1 = 8.0 µF to a power supply,
charge it to a potential
difference V0 = 120 V, and
disconnect the power supply.
Switch S is open.
(a) What is the charge Q0 on C1 ?
(b) What is the energy stored in C1 ?
(c) Capacitor C2 = 4.0 µF is initially uncharged. We close
switch S. After charge no longer flows, what is the potential
difference across each capacitor, and what is the charge on each
capacitor?
(d) What is the final energy of the system?
39
Example: Transferring charge/energy between capacitors

Question:
We connect a capacitor
C1 = 8.0 µF to a power supply,
charge it to a potential
difference V0 = 120 V, and
disconnect the power supply.
Switch S is open.
(a) What is the charge Q0 on
C1 ?
Solution a:
The initial charge Q0 on C1 is
Q0 = C1 V0 = (8.0 µF)(120 V) = 960 µC

39
Example: Transferring charge/energy between capacitors

Question:
We connect a capacitor
C1 = 8.0 µF to a power supply,
charge it to a potential
difference V0 = 120 V, and
disconnect the power supply.
Switch S is open.
(b) What is the energy stored
in C1 ?
Solution b:
The energy initially stored in C1 is
Uinitial = 21 Q0 V0 = 12 (960 × 10−6 C)(120 V) = 0.058 J

39
Example: Transferring charge/energy between capacitors

Question:
We connect a capacitor C1 = 8.0 µF to a
power supply, charge it to a potential
difference V0 = 120 V, and disconnect the
power supply. Switch S is open.

(c) Capacitor C2 = 4.0 µF is initially uncharged. We close

switch S. After charge no longer flows, what is the potential
difference across each capacitor, and what is the charge on each
capacitor?
Solution c: 1 st step
When we close the switch, the positive charge Q0 is distributed
over the upper plates of both capacitors and the negative
charge −Q0 is distributed over the lower plates.
39
Example: Transferring charge/energy between capacitors

Question:
We connect a capacitor C1 = 8.0 µF to a
power supply, charge it to a potential
difference V0 = 120 V, and disconnect the
power supply.

(c) Capacitor C2 = 4.0 µF is initially uncharged. We close switch S. After charge

no longer flows, what is the potential difference across each capacitor, and what is
the charge on each capacitor?

Solution c: 2nd step

Let Q1 and Q2 be the magnitudes of the final charges on the
capacitors. Conservation of charge requires that Q1 + Q2 = Q0 .
The potential difference V between the plates is the same for
both capacitors because they are connected in parallel, so the
39
charges are Q1 = C1 V and Q2 = C2 V .
Example: Transferring charge/energy between capacitors

Question:
We connect a capacitor C1 = 8.0 µF to a
power supply, charge it to a potential
difference V0 = 120 V, and disconnect the
power supply.

(c) Capacitor C2 = 4.0 µF is initially uncharged. We close switch S. After charge

no longer flows, what is the potential difference across each capacitor, and what is
the charge on each capacitor?

Solution c: 3rd step

We now have three independent equations relating the three unknowns Q1 , Q2 ,
and V . Solving these, we find

Q0
V = = 80 V
C1 + C2

Q1 = 640 µC and Q2 = 320 µC 39

Example: Transferring charge/energy between capacitors

Question:
We connect a capacitor C1 = 8.0 µF to a
power supply, charge it to a potential
difference V0 = 120 V, and disconnect the
power supply.
(d) What is the final energy of the
system?
Solution d:
The final energy of the system is
1 1 1
Ufinal = Q1 V + Q2 V = Q0 V = 0.038 J
2 2 2
Note: Ufinal < Uinitial ; the difference was converted to energy of
some other form. The conductors become a little warmer
because of their resistance, and some energy is radiated as EM
waves. 39
Example: Electric-field energy

Question: What is the magnitude of the electric field required

to store 1.00 J of electric potential energy in a volume of 1.00 m3
in vacuum?

40
Example: Electric-field energy

Question: What is the magnitude of the electric field required

to store 1.00 J of electric potential energy in a volume of 1.00 m3
in vacuum?
The E-field can be calculated from the energy density
v  
3
u
r
2u
u 2 1.00J/m
= 4.75 × 105 V/m
t
E= =
0 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N · m2

Question: If the field magnitude is 10 times larger than that,

how much energy is stored per cubic meter?

40
Example: Electric-field energy

Question: What is the magnitude of the electric field required

to store 1.00 J of electric potential energy in a volume of 1.00 m3
in vacuum?
The E-field can be calculated from the energy density
v  
3
u
r
2u t
u 2 1.00J/m
E= = = 4.75 × 105 V/m
0 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N · m2

Question: If the field magnitude is 10 times larger than that,

how much energy is stored per cubic meter?
u is proportional to E 2 ,
if E increases by a factor of 10, then u increases by 102 = 100.
40
Example: Electric field energy stored in a uniform sphere
of charge Q and radius a

Hint:

• Outside the sphere E = Q/4π0 r2

• and so u = 21 0 E 2 ∝ 1/r4 .
• The total energy is U = V u dV where dV = 4πr2 dr.
R
R∞
• Uout = a u4πr2 dr =?
• Inside the sphere Qr/4π0 a3
• and so u = 21 0 E 2 ∝ r2 .
Ra
• Uin = 0 u4πr2 dr =?
3 Q2
• U = Uin + Uout = 5 4π0 a

41
Dielectrics
Dielectrics

Most capacitors have a

nonconducting material (dielectric)
between their conducting plates.
Why?
• maintains two large metal
sheets at a very small
separation without actual
contact
• prevents dielectric breakdown A common type of capacitor
• capacitance is greater with uses dielectric sheets to
dielectric compared to vacuum separate the conductors.

42
Dielectrics

Most capacitors have a

nonconducting material (dielectric)
between their conducting plates.
Why?
• maintains two large metal
sheets at a very small
separation without actual
contact
• prevents dielectric breakdown A common type of capacitor
• capacitance is greater with uses dielectric sheets to
dielectric compared to vacuum separate the conductors.

42
Dielectrics

Most capacitors have a

nonconducting material (dielectric)
between their conducting plates.
Why?
• maintains two large metal
sheets at a very small
separation without actual
contact
• prevents dielectric breakdown A common type of capacitor
• capacitance is greater with uses dielectric sheets to
dielectric compared to vacuum separate the conductors.

42
Dielectrics

Most capacitors have a

nonconducting material (dielectric)
between their conducting plates.
Why?
• maintains two large metal
sheets at a very small
separation without actual
contact
• prevents dielectric breakdown A common type of capacitor
• capacitance is greater with uses dielectric sheets to
dielectric compared to vacuum separate the conductors.

42
Dielectric constant of a material K

A sensitive electrometer is a device

that measures the potential difference
between two conductors without
letting any appreciable charge flow
from one to the other.
• without dielectric: charge Q and
potential V0
• with dielectric: charge Q and
potential V < V0
• C = Q/V increases ⇒ C > C0
• dielectric constant of the material

K = C/C0 and V = V0 /K

43
Dielectric constant of a material K

A sensitive electrometer is a device

that measures the potential difference
between two conductors without
letting any appreciable charge flow
from one to the other.
• without dielectric: charge Q and
potential V0
• with dielectric: charge Q and
potential V < V0
• C = Q/V increases ⇒ C > C0
• dielectric constant of the material

K = C/C0 and V = V0 /K

43
Dielectric constant of a material K

A sensitive electrometer is a device

that measures the potential difference
between two conductors without
letting any appreciable charge flow
from one to the other.
• without dielectric: charge Q and
potential V0
• with dielectric: charge Q and
potential V < V0
• C = Q/V increases ⇒ C > C0
• dielectric constant of the material
K>1
K = C/C0 and V = V0 /K

43
Values of Dielectric Constant K at 20◦ C

44
Water as a dielectric?

• While water has a very large value of K = 80!

• Would we use it in capacitors?
• No! Why?
• While pure water is a very poor conductor, it is also an
excellent ionic solvent.
• Any ions that are dissolved in the water will cause charge
to flow between the capacitor plates, so the capacitor
discharges.

45
Water as a dielectric?

• While water has a very large value of K = 80!

• Would we use it in capacitors?
• No! Why?
• While pure water is a very poor conductor, it is also an
excellent ionic solvent.
• Any ions that are dissolved in the water will cause charge
to flow between the capacitor plates, so the capacitor
discharges.

45
Water as a dielectric?

• While water has a very large value of K = 80!

• Would we use it in capacitors?
• No! Why?
• While pure water is a very poor conductor, it is also an
excellent ionic solvent.
• Any ions that are dissolved in the water will cause charge
to flow between the capacitor plates, so the capacitor
discharges.

45
Water as a dielectric?

• While water has a very large value of K = 80!

• Would we use it in capacitors?
• No! Why?
• While pure water is a very poor conductor, it is also an
excellent ionic solvent.
• Any ions that are dissolved in the water will cause charge
to flow between the capacitor plates, so the capacitor
discharges.

45
Water as a dielectric?

• While water has a very large value of K = 80!

• Would we use it in capacitors?
• No! Why?
• While pure water is a very poor conductor, it is also an
excellent ionic solvent.
• Any ions that are dissolved in the water will cause charge
to flow between the capacitor plates, so the capacitor
discharges.

45
Leakage Current

• No real dielectric is a perfect insulator.

• Hence there is always some leakage current between the
charged plates of a capacitor with a dielectric.
• We tacitly ignored this effect when we derived expressions
for the equivalent capacitances of capacitors in series
(C −1 = C1−1 + C2−1 ) and in parallel (C = C1 + C2 ).
• But if a leakage current flows for a long enough time to
substantially change the charges from the values we used to
derive these equations, they may no longer be accurate.

46
Leakage Current

• No real dielectric is a perfect insulator.

• Hence there is always some leakage current between the
charged plates of a capacitor with a dielectric.
• We tacitly ignored this effect when we derived expressions
for the equivalent capacitances of capacitors in series
(C −1 = C1−1 + C2−1 ) and in parallel (C = C1 + C2 ).
• But if a leakage current flows for a long enough time to
substantially change the charges from the values we used to
derive these equations, they may no longer be accurate.

46
Leakage Current

• No real dielectric is a perfect insulator.

• Hence there is always some leakage current between the
charged plates of a capacitor with a dielectric.
• We tacitly ignored this effect when we derived expressions
for the equivalent capacitances of capacitors in series
(C −1 = C1−1 + C2−1 ) and in parallel (C = C1 + C2 ).
• But if a leakage current flows for a long enough time to
substantially change the charges from the values we used to
derive these equations, they may no longer be accurate.

46
Leakage Current

• No real dielectric is a perfect insulator.

• Hence there is always some leakage current between the
charged plates of a capacitor with a dielectric.
• We tacitly ignored this effect when we derived expressions
for the equivalent capacitances of capacitors in series
(C −1 = C1−1 + C2−1 ) and in parallel (C = C1 + C2 ).
• But if a leakage current flows for a long enough time to
substantially change the charges from the values we used to
derive these equations, they may no longer be accurate.

46
Induced Charge and Polarization
Induced Charge and Polarization

• Vacuum E0 , E
with dielectric

E = E0 /K

K>1
• induced
charge of the
opposite sign
appears on
each surface of
the dielectric
 
σ σ − σi 1
E0 = and E = so that σi = σ 1 −
0 0 K
47
Capacitance and energy with dielectric

The permittivity of a dielectric is denoted by .

 = K0 , K>1

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with dielectric

A A
C = KC0 = K0 =
d d

Electric energy density in a dielectric

1 1
u = K0 E 2 = E 2
2 2
48
A capacitor with and without a dielectric

Adding a dielectric between the plates of a capacitor increases

the capacitance by a factor of K.
For a given amount of charge, adding the dielectric also reduces
V , E-field, the electric energy density, and the total stored
energy, all by a factor of 1/K.
Energy storage with and without a dielectric

1 Q2 1 Q2
U0 = > =U ⇒ energy decreases at fixed Q
2 C0 2 C

As a result there is force pulling

the dielectric slab into the
capacitor.
49
Dielectric Breakdown
Dielectric Breakdown

• When a dielectric is subjected to

a sufficiently strong electric field,
dielectric breakdown takes place
and the dielectric becomes a
conductor.
• Lightning is a dramatic example
of dielectric breakdown in air.

Dielectric breakdown occurs when the E-field is so strong that

e− are ripped loose from their molecules and crash into other
molecules, liberating even more e− s. This avalanche of moving
charge forms a spark or arc discharge.

50
Dielectric Strength

The maximum E-field magnitude that a material can withstand

without the occurrence of breakdown is called its dielectric
strength.

This quantity is affected significantly by temperature, trace

impurities, small irregularities in the metal electrodes, and
other factors that are difficult to control.
The dielectric strength of dry air is about 3 × 106 V/m.

51
Molecular model of induced
charge
Polar molecules in E-field

(a) When no electric field is present

in a gas or liquid with polar
molecules, the molecules are
oriented randomly

(b) In an electric field, however, they

tend to orient themselves.
Because of thermal agitation, the
alignment of the molecules with
~ is not perfect.
E

52
Polar molecules in E-field

(a) When no electric field is present

in a gas or liquid with polar
molecules, the molecules are
oriented randomly

(b) In an electric field, however, they

tend to orient themselves.
Because of thermal agitation, the
alignment of the molecules with
~ is not perfect.
E

52
Nonpolar molecules in E-field

(a) A molecule that is not

ordinarily polar will become a
dipole when placed in an E~
~ the positive
field because E
and negative charges in the
molecules in opposite
directions.
(b) This causes a redistribution of
charge within the molecule.
Such dipoles are called
induced dipoles.

53
Nonpolar molecules in E-field

(a) A molecule that is not

ordinarily polar will become a
dipole when placed in an E~
~ the positive
field because E
and negative charges in the
molecules in opposite
directions.
(b) This causes a redistribution of
charge within the molecule.
Such dipoles are called
induced dipoles.

53
Molecular model of induced charge

With polar/nonpolar molecules, the redistribution of charge

caused by the field leads to the formation of a layer of charge on
each surface of the dielectric material.

• surface charge densities σi

• these charges are not free to move
indefinitely
• called bound charges
• in the interior of the material the net
charge per unit volume remains zero
• this redistribution of charge is called
polarization
• the material is said to be polarized.
54
Capacitor with dielectric

(a) the original field inside the capacitor without dielectric slab

55
Capacitor with dielectric

(a) the original field inside the capacitor without dielectric slab
(b) dielectric has been inserted but no rearrangement of charges

55
Capacitor with dielectric

(a) the original field inside the capacitor without dielectric slab
(b) dielectric has been inserted but no rearrangement of charges
(c) additional field set up in the dielectric by its induced surface
charges (opposite to the original field
55
Capacitor with dielectric

(a) the original field inside the capacitor without dielectric slab
(b) dielectric has been inserted but no rearrangement of charges
(c) additional field set up in the dielectric by its induced surface
charges (opposite to the original field
(d) the resultant field in the dielectric, decreased in magnitude 55
Force on an uncharged object by a charged object

• induced positive charges on B

experience a force toward the
right
• force on the induced negative
charges is toward the left
• the negative charges are closer to
A, and thus are in a stronger field
• the force toward the left is
stronger (attraction)
• works similarly for conductors

56
Gauss’ law in dielectrics
Gauss’ law in dielectrics

Apply Gauss’ law to the rectangular box shown by purple lines

• The left side is embedded in the

conductor ⇒ E = 0
• The right side is embedded in the
dielectric with field magnitude E
• E⊥ = 0 on other four sides
• Qencl = (σ − σi )A
• EA = Qencl /0 gives

(σ − σi )A
EA =
0
Not clear since σi and E in dielectric
unknown. 57
Gauss’ law in dielectrics

Apply Gauss’ law to the rectangular box shown by purple lines

• Recall σi = σ(1 − 1/K) which is

equivalent to σ − σi = σ/K
(σ−σi )A
• Using this with EA = 0 we get
KEA = σA/0
• We thus write Gauss’ law in dielectrics
as I
KE ~ = Qencl−free
~ · dA
0

• Equation says that the flux of KE, not

E, through the Gaussian surface is
equal to the enclosed free charge σA 57
A spherical capacitor with dielectric

Problem: Use Gauss’s law to find the capacitance of the

spherical capacitor of if the volume between the shells is filled
with an insulating oil with dielectric constant K.
Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius ra < r < rb .

58
A spherical capacitor with dielectric

Problem: Use Gauss’s law to find the capacitance of the

spherical capacitor of if the volume between the shells is filled
with an insulating oil with dielectric constant K.
Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius ra < r < rb .
I I I

Q
~ ~
K E · dA = KEdA = KE dA = KE 4πr2 =
0

58
A spherical capacitor with dielectric

Problem: Use Gauss’s law to find the capacitance of the

spherical capacitor of if the volume between the shells is filled
with an insulating oil with dielectric constant K.
Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius ra < r < rb .
I I I

Q
~ ~
K E · dA = KEdA = KE dA = KE 4πr2 =
0

Using E(r) = Q/ 4πK0 r2 , the potential difference is

 
Q 1 1
V = −
4πK0 ra rb

58
A spherical capacitor with dielectric

Problem: Use Gauss’s law to find the capacitance of the

spherical capacitor of if the volume between the shells is filled
with an insulating oil with dielectric constant K.
Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius ra < r < rb .
I I I

Q
~ ~
K E · dA = KEdA = KE dA = KE 4πr2 =
0

Using E(r) = Q/ 4πK0 r2 , the potential difference is

 
Q 1 1
V = −
4πK0 ra rb
and the capacitance follows as
Q 4πK0 ra rb
C= =
V rb − ra
58
Exercise: Repeat when capacitor is partially filled.