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 Programming and
­Interfacing with Arduino
 Programming and
­Interfacing with Arduino

Dr. Yogesh Misra

First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2022 Yogesh Misra

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
­publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of
their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
­reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and
let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known
or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.
com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA
01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact m
­ pkbookspermissions@
tandf.co.uk

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-1-032-05985-3 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-06316-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-20170-0 (ebk)

Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................. xiii
Author ...................................................................................................................... xv
Abbreviations Used in This Book ..........................................................................xvii

Chapter 1 Introduction to Arduino UNO Board ...................................................1

Learning Outcomes ..............................................................................1
1.1 Features of Arduino UNO Board ..............................................1
1.2 Arduino IDE Software ..............................................................3
1.2.1 Editor ............................................................................3
1.2.2 Compiler .......................................................................3
1.2.3 Linker ........................................................................... 3
1.2.4 Locator .........................................................................4
1.2.5 Hex Converter .............................................................. 4
1.2.6 Loader...........................................................................4
1.3 Arduino IDE Download ............................................................4
1.4 Working with Arduino IDE .......................................................5
1.5 Introduction to ATmega 328 ...................................................... 7
1.6 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Communication Protocol ...... 9
1.6.1 Steps of SPI Data Transmission – The Steps for
Data Transmission in SPI Protocols are as Follows: .... 9
1.6.2 Advantages of SPI Data Transmission –
The Advantages of Data Transmission in
SPI Protocols are as Follows: ..................................... 11
1.6.3 Disadvantages of SPI Data Transmission –
The Disadvantages of Data Transmission in
SPI Protocols are as Follows: ..................................... 11
1.7 Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C) Communication Protocol......... 11

Chapter 2 Arduino Programming Constructs ..................................................... 15

Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 15
2.1 Structure of Arduino Programming ........................................ 15
2.1.1 Setup() .................................................................... 15
2.1.2 Loop() ...................................................................... 15
2.1.3 Variables ..................................................................... 15
2.1.4 Constant...................................................................... 16
2.1.5 Integer......................................................................... 16
2.2 Function ................................................................................... 16
2.2.1 pinMode(pin, mode)........................................... 16
2.2.2 digitalWrite(pin, value) ............................... 17

v
vi Contents

2.2.3 digitalRead(pin)................................................. 18
2.2.4 analogRead(pin) .................................................. 19
2.2.5 analogWrite(pin, value) ................................20
2.2.6 delay(value) .........................................................20
2.2.7 for loop ..................................................................... 21
2.2.8 Serial.begin(rate) ............................................ 21
2.2.9 Serial.print(“argument”) ............................... 21
2.2.10 Serial.println(“argument”) .......................... 21
2.2.11 if statement ............................................................... 22
2.2.11.1 Simple if.................................................... 22
2.2.11.2 if/else ..................................................... 23
2.2.11.3 Multiple if/else.......................................24
2.2.12 map function...............................................................25

Chapter 3 I/O Devices, Actuators, and Sensors .................................................. 27

Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 27
3.1 Light-Emitting Diode (LED) ................................................... 27
3.1.1 LED under Forward Bias ........................................... 27
3.1.2 LED under Reverse Bias ............................................ 27
3.1.3 Interfacing of LED with Arduino UNO ..................... 29
3.2 Switch ...................................................................................... 29
3.3 Seven-Segment Display ........................................................... 31
3.3.1 Common Cathode Seven-Segment Display (CC)....... 31
3.3.2 Common Anode Seven-Segment Display (CA) .........34
3.4 LCD Module............................................................................ 35
3.5 Potentiometer ........................................................................... 37
3.5.1 Internal Schematic of Potentiometer .......................... 38
3.5.2 Working of Potentiometer .......................................... 38
3.6 Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) .......................................40
3.6.1 Pin Description of ADC 804 ......................................40
3.6.2 Analog to the Digital Data Conversion Process in
ADC 804 .................................................................... 42
3.6.3 Important Terminology of ADC ................................ 43
3.6.4 Analog Inputs in Arduino UNO Board ......................44
3.7 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) ............................................44
3.7.1 Working of PWM Concept......................................... 45
3.7.2 Applications of PWM................................................. 45
3.7.3 PWM Pins in Arduino UNO Board ...........................46
3.8 Temperature Sensor LM35 ...................................................... 47
3.9 Humidity and Temperature Sensor DHT11 ............................. 48
3.9.1 Pin Description of DHT11.......................................... 48
3.9.2 General Features of DHT11 ....................................... 48
3.9.3 Working Principle of DHT11 ..................................... 49
3.9.4 Timing Diagram of DHT11 ........................................ 50
3.9.5 Data Format of DHT11............................................... 50
Contents vii

3.10 Motor Driver L293D................................................................ 51

3.10.1 Pin Description of L293D .......................................... 51
3.10.2 Working of L293D ..................................................... 52
3.10.3 Description of L293D Motor Driver Module ............. 57
3.11 Relay ........................................................................................ 58
3.11.1 Pin Description of the Relay ...................................... 58
3.11.2 Working of Relay ....................................................... 59
3.11.3 Interfacing of Relay .................................................... 59
3.11.4 Relay Board ................................................................ 62
3.12 Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR) ............................................ 62
3.12.1 Working Principle of LDR ......................................... 62
3.12.2 Construction of LDR .................................................. 63
3.12.3 Applications of LDR ..................................................64
3.13 Keypad Matrix......................................................................... 65
3.13.1 Single-Dimensional Interfacing Approach of
Switches...................................................................... 65
3.13.2 Algorithm to Find Out Which Switch is Pressed
in Single-Dimensional Interfacing Approach ............66
3.13.3 Disadvantage of Single-Dimensional Interfacing
Approach ....................................................................66
3.13.4 Two-Dimensional Interfacing Approach
of Switches .................................................................66
3.13.5 Algorithm to Find Out Which Switch is
Pressed in Two-Dimensional Interfacing
Approach (Key Matrix) ..............................................66
3.13.6 A 4 × 4 Keypad ........................................................... 68
3.14 Optical Sensor ......................................................................... 70
3.14.1 Retro-Reflective Optical Sensor ................................. 70
3.14.2 Retro-Reflective Optical Sensor Module ................... 72
3.15 Capacitive Touch Sensor.......................................................... 73
3.15.1 Capacitive Touch Sensor Working Principle .............. 74
3.15.2 Capacitive Touch Sensor Module ............................... 75
3.16 Gas Sensor ............................................................................... 76
3.16.1 Working of the Gas Sensor (MQ2)............................. 77
3.16.2 Gas Sensor Module (MQ2) ........................................ 77
3.16.3 Calibration of Gas Sensor (MQ2) Module ................. 78
3.17 Rain Detector Sensor (FC-07)................................................. 78
3.17.1 Rain Board ................................................................. 78
3.17.2 Rain Sensor Control Board ........................................ 78
3.17.3 Working of Rain Detector Sensor (FC-07) ................ 79
3.18 Ultrasonic Sensor (HC-SR04) .................................................80
3.18.1 Pin Description and Other Details of Ultrasonic
Sensor Module (HC-SR04) ........................................80
3.18.2 Working Principle of Ultrasonic Sensor Module
(HC-SR04) .................................................................. 81
viii Contents

3.19 Bluetooth Module (HC-05) ..................................................... 83

3.19.1 Pin Description and Other Details
of Bluetooth Module (HC-05) ....................................84
3.20 GSM Module (SIM900A) ........................................................ 85
3.21 Soil Moisture Sensor (YL-69) ................................................. 86
3.21.1 Moisture-Sensing Probe Module................................ 86
3.21.2 Moisture-Sensing Control Module ............................. 87
3.21.3 Working of Moisture Sensor ...................................... 88

Chapter 4 Interfacing and Programming with Arduino ..................................... 93

Learning Outcomes ............................................................................ 93
4.1 LED Interfacing and Programming ........................................ 93
4.2 Display in Serial Monitor ........................................................ 98
4.3 Push-Button Interfacing and Programming .......................... 105
4.4 Seven-Segment Display Interfacing and Programming ........ 112
4.5 Miscellaneous Programs Related to LED ............................. 125
4.6 LCD Interfacing and Programming ...................................... 131
4.7 Potentiometer Interfacing and Programming ........................ 140
4.8 Arduino Programming Using PWM Techniques .................. 150
4.9 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino with LM35 ......... 157
4.10 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino with
Humidity and Temperature Sensor DHT11 ........................... 163
4.11 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino
with DC Motor ...................................................................... 168
4.12 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino with
High-Voltage Device and Relay............................................. 183
4.13 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR) .......................................... 189
4.14 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
4 × 4 Keypad .......................................................................... 194
4.15 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
Optical Sensor ....................................................................... 201
4.16 Interfacing of Capacitive Touch Sensor with
Arduino UNO ........................................................................208
4.17 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
Smoke Detector Sensor ......................................................... 213
4.18 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
Rain Detector Sensor (FC-07)............................................... 217
4.19 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
Ultrasonic Sensor (HC-SR04) ............................................... 221
4.20 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
Bluetooth Module (HC-05) ...................................................224
4.21 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO with
GSM Module (SIM900A) ...................................................... 228
Contents ix

4.22 Interfacing and Programming of Arduino UNO Using

I2C Protocol........................................................................... 231

Chapter 5 ­Arduino-Based Projects.................................................................... 235

5.1 ­Arduino-Based Obstacle Detection and Warning System..... 235
5.2 ­Arduino-Based Gas Leakage Detection................................. 238
5.3 Arduino-Based Burglar Detection.........................................240
5.4 ­Arduino-Based Weather Monitoring System......................... 243
5.5 ­Arduino-Based Mobile ­Phone-Controlled Light.................... 247
5.6 ­Arduino-Based Plant Watering System.................................. 250

Appendix 1: Answers to Check Yourself............................................................ 255

References.............................................................................................................. 257
Index....................................................................................................................... 259
Preface
This book provides a platform to the beginners to get started with the development
of application by using Arduino UNO board. The objective of this book is to provide
programming concepts of Arduino UNO board along with the working and interfac-
ing of sensors, input/output devices, communication modules, and actuators with
Arduino UNO board.
Arduino is an open-source hardware, which can be used to develop embedded
systems with the help of open-source software. Arduino has gained huge popularity
among the students and hobbyists for making a working model. The reasons behind
the popularity of Arduino are its low cost, availability of software, and easy-to-inter-
face possibility.
When someone is working with Arduino, he needs knowledge of three domains.
First, he must understand the Arduino hardware board. Second, he must understand
the Integrated Development Environment (IDE) required for the development of
software, which actually guides the hardware to perform the desired task. Third, he
must understand the working principle of various sensors, input and output devices,
and actuators, which may be required to gather information from the surrounding for
the processing by Arduino. The contents of this book are developed in keeping of
the view of providing all information which is required for enhancing the expertise
of all the domains required for the development of prototypes by using Arduino and
associated peripherals. This book will be helpful in the development of employability
skills in engineering undergraduate students.
After carefully understanding the exact requirements of the students and begin-
ners, I am quite confident that easy-to-understand language of this book will make
them efficient to learn Arduino. An outstanding and distinguished feature of this
book is large number of programs with description and interfacing diagram associ-
ated with each program.

BOOK ORGANIZATION
This book starts with the explanation of Arduino UNO board and Integrated
Development Environment (IDE). Various constructs required for the development
of software are also covered. The working principle of various sensors is explained in
depth; programming and interfacing examples with Arduino are taken up and finally
some moderate-level projects.
Chapter 1 “Introduction to Arduino UNO Board” gives a detailed informa-
tion regarding various components mounted on Arduino UNO board, IDE, and
ATmega328 microcontroller.
Chapter 2 “Arduino Programming Constructs” gives an in-depth understanding
of various constructs required for the programming of Arduino. Readers will also
learn in this chapter about various operators, data types, and functions, which will be
helpful to them when they start developing software for some specific applications.

xi
xii Preface

Chapter 3 “I/O Devices, Actuators, and Sensors” deals with the construction and
working of various sensors, input devices, output devices, and actuators. The readers
will learn in this chapter the working principle and function of various pins of LED,
seven-segment display, liquid crystal display (LCD), temperature sensor (LM35),
humidity and temperature sensor (DHT11), light-dependent register, touch sensor,
smoke detector (MQ2), rain detector (FC-07), ultrasonic sensor (HC-SR04), soil
moisture sensor (YL-69), Bluetooth module (HC-05), GSM module (SIM 900A),
switch, keypad matrix, potentiometer, analog-to-digital converter IC, motor driver
board (L293D), and relay board.
Chapter 4 “Interfacing and Programming with Arduino” gives detailed information
about how to interface input and output devices, viz., switch, keypad matrix, LED,
seven-segment display, liquid crystal display (LCD) with Arduino UNO board, and
the process of developing application programs for the interfaced circuit.
Chapter 5 “Arduino-Based Projects” covers interfacing and programming
concepts with a large number of circuit diagrams of few projects based on Arduino.
All efforts have been made to keep this book free from errors. I sincerely feel
that this book proves to be useful and helpful to the students for understanding
the interfacing and programming of Arduino. Constructive criticism and sugges-
tions from faculty members and dear students will be highly appreciated and duly
acknowledged.

Dr. Yogesh Misra

Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Girish J, Director Education,
GMR Varalakshmi Foundation; Dr. C.L.V.R.S.V Prasad, Principal, GMR Institute of
Technology, Andhra Pradesh, India; and Dr. M.V Nageshwara Rao, HOD, Department
of ECE, GMR Institute of Technology, Andhra Pradesh, India, for their continuous
substantial co-operation, motivation, and support; without them, this work would not
have been possible.
My special thanks to all my colleagues for helping me in reaching the logical
conclusion of my idea in the form of this textbook.
I am indebted to my dear students as the interaction with them helped me a lot in
understanding their needs.
Expressing gratitude publicly to wife is almost missing in Hindu society but I
would like to extend my sincere thanks and appreciation to my wife Dr. Pratibha
Misra for sparing me from day-to-day work for completing this work. I am also
thankful to my son Ishan and daughter Saundarya for providing me special ideas
about this book.
I acknowledge the support from Arduino for using their product images and data
to demonstrate and explain the working of the systems. I thank Taylor & Francis/
CRC Press team for encouraging and supporting me continuously to complete my
idea about this book.
Utmost care is taken for the circuits and programs mentioned in the text. All the
programs are tested on real hardware but in case of any mistake, I extend my sincere
apologies. Any suggestions to improve the contents of this book are always welcome
and will be appreciated and acknowledged.
I am also very much thankful to all who are directly or indirectly involved in the
accomplishment of this task.

Dr. Yogesh Misra

xiii
Other documents randomly have
different content
from the sittings. Our newspapers ought to publish regularly lists of
such absentees. Please see that is done.”
Called up again later and commissioned to explain in the press
the attitude of Prussia towards those Prelates who oppose the Curia
in Rome. The Chancellor said: “The newspapers express a desire
that the Government should support the German Bishops on the
Council. You should ask if those writers have formed a clear idea as
to how we should set about that task. Should Prussia perhaps send
a Note to the Council, or to Antonelli, the Papal Minister, who does
not belong to that body? or is she to secure representation in that
assembly of Prelates, and protest (of course in vain) against what
she objects to? Prussia will not desert those Bishops who do not
submit themselves to the yoke, but it is for the Prelates in the first
place to maintain a determined attitude. We cannot take preventive
measures, as they would be of no value, but it is open to us to adopt
a repressive policy in case a decision is come to in opposition to our
wishes. If, after that decision has been arrived at, it should prove to
be incompatible with the mission and interests of the State, then
existing legislation, if found inadequate, can be easily supplemented
and altered. The demand that the Prussian Government should
support the more moderate Bishops is a mere empty phrase so long
as no practical means of giving effect to it can be discovered.
Moreover, the course which I now indicate will in any case be
ultimately successful, although success may not at once be
completely achieved.”
March 25th.—The Chief wishes Klaczko’s appointment in Vienna
to be discussed. He said to me: “Beust intends in that way to revive
the Polish question. Point to the journalistic activity of that
indefatigable agitator, and to his bitter hatred both of ourselves and
Russia. Quote Rechenberg’s confidential despatch of the 2nd of
March from Warsaw, where he says that the Polish secret political
societies which are engaged at Lemberg in preparing for a
revolution, with the object of restoring Polish independence, have
sent a deputation to Klaczko congratulating him on his appointment
to a position where he is in direct communication with the Chancellor
of the Empire. Send the article first to the Kölnische Zeitung, and
afterwards arrange for similar articles in the provincial newspapers.
We must finally see that this reaches Reuss (the Ambassador in St.
Petersburg), in order that he may get it reproduced in the Russian
press. It can also appear in the Kreuzzeitung, and it must be brought
up again time after time in another form.”
Afternoon.—Geheimrath Abeken desires me, on the instructions
of the Minister, to take note of the following document, which is
apparently based on a despatch: “It is becoming more and more
difficult to understand the attitude of the Austrian Government
towards the Council. All the organs of public opinion are on the side
of the Austrian Bishops, who are making such a dignified and
decisive stand in Rome. The reports which the Government thought
well to allow the press to publish respecting the steps which they
have taken in Rome were in harmony with this attitude. The news
from Rome, however, speaks only of the tameness and indecision
with which the Government’s policy is being carried into execution.
The most contradictory accounts are now coming in. It is said that
the Austrian Ambassador has supported the action of the French
Ambassador, which is known not to have been very effective.
Expressions have been attributed to Count Beust showing that, in his
opinion, the only effectual course would be for all the Powers to take
common or collective action. On the other hand, it is asserted that he
gave a negative answer, reciting different objections, to the proposal
of another Catholic State (Bavaria) to join it in a decisive declaration
in Rome. In presence of this indecision on the part of the Catholic
Powers the Bishops will doubtless be obliged to follow their own
consciences and decide for themselves what their course of action is
to be. We are convinced however that if the Prelates themselves
resolved to make a determined stand on behalf of their consciences
the situation would immediately undergo a change in their favour,
and that ultimately no Government would desert its own Bishops
even if they were in a minority.
“Bismarck has already explained to the Prussian Ambassador in
Paris that he is prepared to support every initiative taken on the
Catholic side in the matter of the Council. He at the same time
discussed the subject with Benedetti, expressing himself in a similar
sense, but in the meantime making no positive proposal. On the
other hand, he asked incidentally whether it might not be desirable to
consider in a general conference the attitude to be adopted by the
various Governments towards the Council. Benedetti replied that
such a course would only hasten the Council’s decision. Bismarck
urged that a conference might be useful, even were it no longer
possible to influence the Council, and were the question to be
considered merely how far the injurious effects of its decisions on the
peace of Church and State could be minimised.
“Benedetti sent a report of this informal conversation to Paris,
representing it as a proposal to hold a conference. Daru replied in a
despatch which pointed out the difficulty of carrying that idea into
execution. Who should take part in the conference? Russia
maintained such an unfriendly attitude towards the Catholic Church,
and Italy was so hostile to the Curia that they could hardly join in any
common action. Spain wished to confine herself to the repression of
any eventual breach of the laws of the country, and England ignored
the official declarations of the Roman Church. Many Powers had
Concordats, while others occupied a more independent position
towards the Curia, therefore, in that respect also, an understanding
would be difficult. Finally, Daru feared that Rome, on hearing of an
intended conference, would reply with a fait accompli. For these
reasons he declined the proposal. He would, however, like to afford
the other Powers an opportunity of supporting the measures taken
by France on her own initiative. In case he received a negative
answer to his demand that France should be represented on the
Council he would officially communicate to the other Governments
his declaration to the Secretary of State, Cardinal Antonelli, that the
rights and interests of the State would be defended against any
encroachment on the part of the Spiritual Power, and urge them to
support his action in Rome. Bismarck thanked Daru for this
communication, and said that the Government at Berlin (when it had
satisfied itself that such a course on the part of France was
calculated to promote the interests of Prussian Catholics) would
endeavour to strengthen the impression made thereby; and that
further communications were awaited with interest.
“The French Government looks forward with anxiety to the
consequences of the Council, but hesitates to take any serious and
decisive measures, and is not disposed to enter upon any common
action with the other Powers. Bray, at Munich, seemed less
disinclined to such a course. He thought a declaration might possibly
be made that the Government considered the œcumenical and
authoritative character of the Council to be affected by the
promulgation of the dogma of infallibility notwithstanding the
opposition of a minority of the Bishops, as also the legal position
assured to the Prelates under the Concordats, and that the dogma in
question was to be regarded as null and void. Bray was anxious that
Austria should join in this declaration. Beust, however, would not
consent, as he believed that such a declaration would merely induce
the Council to come to an unanimous decision which would then be
binding upon the Governments. An unequivocal attitude of any kind
is not to be expected from Vienna.
“If the Catholic Governments will not take the initiative the
question remains what course the Bishops themselves will adopt.
We hold to the principle of not acting directly and in our own name
with the Roman See, while at the same time powerfully and
steadfastly supporting every effort made by the Catholics
themselves, and particularly by the German Bishops to prevent
illegal changes being made in the constitution of the Catholic
Church, and to preserve both Church and State from a disturbance
of the peace. We do not find ourselves called upon to take up a
prominent attitude towards the Council; but our readiness to support
energetically every well-meant effort of the Catholic Powers, whose
duty it is to intervene in the first place, or of the Bishops within the
Council, remains unaltered.”
Evening.—I am to refer to England and the way in which the
press is treated there. “The Liberals always appeal to English
example when they want to secure some fresh liberty for the press.
Such appeals, it is well known, rest largely upon mistaken notions. It
would be desirable to examine more closely the Bill which has just
been passed for the preservation of order in Ireland. What would
public opinion in Germany, and particularly what would the people of
Berlin say, if our Government could proceed against any of our
democratic journals, even against the most violent, according to the
following provisions, and that too without even a state of minor
siege? Then quote the provisions, and add that the Bill was carried
by a large majority.”[3]
March 28th.—The Chancellor desires that the question of the
Council should be again dealt with somewhat to the following effect:
“The press has repeatedly expressed a desire to know what position
will be taken by Prussia towards the policy of the majority of the
Council, and several proposals have been made in this connection.
In our opinion the answer to that question is to be found in the
character of Prussia as a Protestant Power. In that capacity Prussia
must leave the initiative in this matter to the Catholic Governments
who are more directly threatened. If these do not take action the
question remains what course the Bishops who form the minority in
the Council will adopt, a question which will be answered by the
immediate future. If the Catholic Governments decide to take steps
against the majority of the Council, Prussia ought to join in that
action if she considers it to be in the interests of her Catholic
subjects. But it is less the duty of Prussia than of any other State to
rush into the breach.... If the Bishops defend the constitution of their
Church, their episcopal rights, and peace between Church and State
in a fearless and determined protest against the encroachments of
the Ultramontane party in the Council, it may then be confidently
hoped that the Prussian Government will extend to them a powerful
support.”
Some of the last sentences repeated almost literally the
conclusion of the document brought to me by Abeken.
March 30th.—The Count sent down a report from Rome for use
in the press. This report says: “The tourists who visited St. Peter’s on
the 22nd instant were several times disturbed by a dull noise which
rolled through the aisles like a storm, proceeding from the direction
of the Council Chamber. Those who remained a little longer saw
individual Bishops, with anxious looks, hurriedly leave the church.
There had been a terrible scene amongst the reverend fathers. The
theme de erroribus, which was laid before the Council about three
weeks ago and then returned to the Commission, was again being
discussed in an amended form. This discussion had now lasted five
or six (eight) days. Strossmayer criticised one of the paragraphs of
the Proemium which characterised Protestantism as the source of all
the evils which now infect the world in the forms of pantheism,
materialism, and atheism. He declared that this Proemium contained
historical untruths, as the errors of our time were much older than
Protestantism. The Humanist movement, which had been
imprudently protected by the highest authority (Pope Leo X.) was in
part responsible for them. The Proemium lacked the charity due to
Protestants. (First uproar.) It was, on the contrary, amongst
Protestants that Christianity had found its most powerful defenders,
such as Leibnitz and Guizot, whose meditations he should wish to
see in the hands of every Christian. (Renewed and increased uproar,
while closed fists are shown at the speaker, and cries are heard of
‘Hæreticus es! Taceas! Descendas! Omnes te condemnamus!’ and
now and then ‘Ego eum non condemno!’) This storm also subsided,
and Strossmayer was able to proceed to another point, namely, the
question to which the Bishops referred in their protest, that is to say,
that a unanimous vote is indispensable for decisions on dogma.
Strossmayer’s remarks on this theme caused the indignation of the
majority to boil over. Cardinal Capalti interrupted him. The assembly
raged like a hurricane. After a wordy war of a quarter of an hour’s
duration between the speaker and the Legates, Strossmayer retired,
three times repeating the words: ‘Protestor non est concilium.’ It is
worthy of note that a Congregation has been held to-day at which
the Bishop of Halifax and others are understood to have expressed
views similar to those of Strossmayer and that no attempt was made
to interrupt them. It would therefore appear as if the storm raised
against the Bishop of Bosnia were a party manœuvre with the object
of ruining the most important of the Princes of the Church.”
March 31st.—Commissioned by the Chief to tell Zitelmann (an
official of the Ministry of State in charge of press matters) that the
newspaper extracts which his office prepares for submission to the
King (through the Minister) should be better sifted and arranged.
Those that are suitable for the King are to be gummed on to
separate sheets and detached from those that are not suitable for
him. Particularistic lies and stupidities, such as those from Kiel of the
25th and Cassel of the 28th, belong to the latter category and must
not be laid before him. If he sees that kind of thing printed in black on
white he is apt to believe it. He does not know the character of those
papers.
I am to secure the insertion in the press of the following
particulars, which have reference to a paragraph in a newspaper
which the Minister did not name to me. It is a well-known fact that
Howard, the English representative at Munich, although he is
married to a Prussian lady (Schulenberg), exercises, in opposition to
the views of his own Government, a decidedly anti-Prussian
influence, not so much in a pro-Austrian as in a Guelph sense. He
was Minister at Hanover up to the events of 1866.
April 1st.—The Minister’s birthday. When I was called to him in
the evening his room was perfumed with flowers presented to him.
He lay on the sofa, booted and spurred, smoking a cigar, and
reading newspaper extracts. After receiving my instructions, I offered
my congratulations, for which he thanked me, reaching me his hand.
“I hope,” he said, “we shall remain together for a very long time.” I
replied that I hoped so too, that I could find no words to say how
happy I felt to be near him, and to be able to work for him. “Well,” he
answered, smiling, “it is not always so pleasant, but you must not
notice every little thing.”
My instructions referred to Lasker and Hoverbeck. They were as
follows:—“Just take Lippe and Lasker as your subject for once.
Lasker has, it is true, been taken to task for one of his latest
utterances by Bennigsen, the chief of his fraction, but it can do no
harm to deal with the affair once more in the press—and repeatedly.
He, like Lippe, wants the Constitution to be placed above our
national requirements. Les extrêmes se touchent. Lippe is the
representative of the Particularistic Junkers with the tendency to
absolutism, Lasker that of the Parliamentary Junkers with
Particularistic leanings. Vincke, who was just such another,
succeeded, with his eternal dogmatism, in ruining and nearly
destroying a great party in a few months, notwithstanding favourable
circumstances. Please send the article to the Norddeutsche
Allgemeine Zeitung for publication, and let it be afterwards
reproduced in another form by the Literary Bureau.” (...)
 April 4th.—It was well that I carried out the Minister’s orders at
once. On being called to him this morning he received me with the
words: “I asked you recently to write an article on the subject of
Lippe and Lasker. Have you done so?” I replied “Yes, Excellency,
and it has already appeared. I did not submit it to you as I know that
you see the Norddeutsche daily.” He then said, “I have had no time
as yet, I will look it up immediately.”
In a quarter of an hour I was again sent for, and on appearing
before him the Minister said: “I have now read the article—it was
amongst the extracts. It is excellent, exactly what I wished. Let it now
be circulated and reproduced in the provincial journals. In doing so it
may be further remarked that if Count Bismarck were to charge
Lasker and his fraction with Particularism—I do not mean all the
National Liberals, but principally the Prussians, the Lasker group—
the accusation would be well founded. Lippe has also laid down the
principle that the Prussian Diet is independent of the Federal Diet.”
The Minister then continued: “Here is the Kölnische Zeitung
talking of excitability. It alleges that I have manifested an excitability
which recalls the period of ‘conflict.’ That is not true. I have merely
repelled passionate attacks in the same tone in which they were
delivered, according to the usual practice in Parliament. It was not
Bismarck but Lasker and Hoverbeck who took the initiative. They
began again with offensive personal attacks, and I begged of them in
a friendly way not to return to that style. Ask whether the writer had
not read the report of the sitting, as it showed that it was not Count
Bismarck who picked this quarrel. Apart from its pleadings on behalf
of the claims of Denmark, the Kölnische Zeitung was a sensible
newspaper. What had Count Bismarck done to it that it should allow
its correspondents to send such a garbled account of the facts?
Moreover, Bennigsen had reprimanded Lasker. They now
themselves recognised that the tone they adopted was wrong, as
Lasker came to me on Saturday to excuse himself.”
 April 6th.—Under instructions from the Minister I dictated the
following paragraph to Doerr for circulation through the Literary
Bureau: “The position of the Bishops who form the opposition in the
Council does not appear to be satisfactory, if one may judge from the
attitude of the Catholic Governments and particularly of the Vienna
Cabinet. Probably Count Beust has not yet made up his mind in this
matter. He seems to have sent somewhat energetic remonstrances
to the Ambassador in Rome, but it is obvious that Count
Trautmansdorf has delivered them in a very diluted form. According
to certain newspapers the Austrian Chancellor has also endeavoured
to bring about a common action of the Powers, while others report
an incident which renders it doubtful whether any such attempt has
been made. The French also maintain an attitude of exceptional
prudence and reserve, and the Bishops would thus appear to stand
well nigh alone.... The initiative must come from the Bishops
themselves.”
Between the 6th and the 10th of April I wrote an article on the
question of North Schleswig from the Minister’s instructions. This
attracted great attention on its publication in the Norddeutsche
Allgemeine Zeitung, principally on the ground that there seemed to
be no occasion for its appearance at a time when the political
horizon was absolutely clear. (It may possibly have arisen through a
Russian reminder and approval of the pretended claims of
Denmark.) The article was to the following effect: “It is a wilful
falsehood to maintain that according to the peace of Prague the
population of North Schleswig has to decide the question of the
frontier. Prussia alone, and no one else, is authorised to do that.
Moreover, the Treaty of Prague does not mention North Schleswig at
all, but only refers, quite vaguely, to the northern districts of
Schleswig, which is something quite different. The parties to the
treaty were not called upon, and, as the wording selected by them
proves, never intended to deal with any such conception as ‘North
Schleswig,’ and have not even used that term. But the Danes and
their friends have so long and so persistently endeavoured to make
the world believe that paragraph 5 of the treaty stipulated for the
cession of North Schleswig, that they have come to believe it
themselves.
“The Prussians alone have to decide as to the extent of those
districts. Prussia has no further political interest in negotiating with
Denmark if the latter is not content with the concessions which the
former is prepared to make. Finally, only Austria has a right to
demand that the matter shall be settled in any form.... If Prussia and
Austria,” so concluded the Minister’s directions, “now come to an
understanding as to cancelling that paragraph of the treaty—
probably on the basis of further concessions on the part of Prussia—
absolutely no one has any right to object.” Two articles were to be
written on this subject, one for the Norddeutsche Allgemeine
Zeitung, in which the reference to Austria was to be omitted, and one
for the Spenersche Zeitung, which was to contain it.
April 12th.—The Count desires to have an article written for the
Kölnische Zeitung, part of which he dictated to me. It ran as follows:
“The Constitutionnel speaks of the way in which French manners are
being corrupted by foreign elements, and in this connection it
mentions Princess Metternich and Madame Rimsky-Korsakow. It
would require more space than we can afford to this subject to show
in its true light all the ignorance and prejudice exhibited by the writer
of this article, who has probably never left Paris. Princess Metternich
would not act in Vienna as she is represented by the Constitutionnel
to have acted in Paris; and Madame Rimsky-Korsakow is not a
leader of society in St. Petersburg. The contrary must be the case.
Paris must be responsible if the two ladies so conduct themselves,
and exercise such an influence as the French journal asserts they
do. As a matter of fact the idea that Paris is the home and school of
good manners is now only to be met with in other countries, in old
novels, and amongst elderly people in the most remote parts of the
provinces. It has long since been observed, and not in European
Courts alone, that the present generation of Frenchmen do not know
how to behave themselves. In other circles it has also been
remarked that the young Frenchman does not compare favourably
with the youth of other nations, or with those few countrymen of his
own who have, far from Paris, preserved the traditions of good
French society. Travellers who have visited the country at long
intervals are agreed in declaring that the forms of polite intercourse,
and even the conventional expressions for which the French
language so long served as a model, are steadily falling into disuse.
It is therefore quite conceivable that the Empress Eugénie, as a
sensitive Spaniard, has been painfully affected by the tone and
character of Parisian society, but it would show a lack of judgment on
her part if, as stated by the Constitutionnel, she sought for the origin
of that evil abroad. But we believe we are justified in directly
contradicting that statement, as we know that the Empress has
repeatedly recommended young Germans as models for the youth of
France. The French show themselves to be a decadent nation, and
not least in their manners. It will require generations to recover the
ground they have lost. Unfortunately, so far as manners are
concerned, all Europe has retrograded.”
From the 13th of April to the 28th of May I did not see the
Minister. He was unwell, and left for Varzin on Easter Eve. It was
said at the Ministry that his illness was of a bilious character, and
was due to the mortification he felt at the conduct of the Lasker
fraction, together with the fact that he had spoilt his digestion at a
dinner at Camphausen’s.
On the 21st of May the Minister returned to Berlin, but it was not
until seven days later that I was called to him. He then gave me the
following instructions: “Brass (the Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung)
must not plead so strongly for the Austrians nor speak so warmly of
the Government of Napoleon. In the case of Austria we have to
adopt a benevolently expectant attitude, yet the appointment of
Klaczko and his connection with the Ministry is for us a suspicious
symptom. The appointment of Grammont to the French Foreign
Office is not exactly agreeable to us. The Czechs must be treated
with all possible consideration; but, on the other hand, we must deal
with the Poles as with enemies.”
I afterwards asked as to his health. He said he still felt weak, and
would not have left Varzin if things had not looked so critical in
Parliament. As soon as matters were once more in order there, he
would be off again, if possible on an early day, in order to undertake
a cure with Karlsbad water, going to some seaside resort.
On being called to the Count on Whit Sunday I found him highly
indignant at the statement of a correspondent of the Kölnische
Zeitung, who reported that there was a scarcity of labour in the
Spandau cartridge factory. “Therefore unusual activity in the
preparation of war material!” he said. “If I were to have paid two visits
to the King at Ems it would not cause so much anxiety abroad as
thoughtless reports of this kind. Please go to Wehrmann and let him
ascertain at the Ministry of War if they are responsible for that article,
and if possible get them to insert a correction in the Kölnische
Zeitung or in the Norddeutsche, as it must appear in an influential
paper.”
A diary entry on an undated slip of paper, but written in May:
“Bohlen yesterday bantered Bucher about his ‘Easter mission,’ which
appears to have been to Spain.”
On the 8th of June the Minister again left Berlin for Varzin.
Immediately on the commencement of the difficulties with France
respecting the election to the Spanish throne of the Hereditary
Prince of Hohenzollern, letters and telegrams began to arrive which
were forwarded by Bucher under instructions from the Chief. These
consisted in part of short paragraphs and drafts of articles, as well as
some complete articles which only required to be retouched in the
matter of style, or to have references inserted with regard to matters
of fact. These directions accumulated, but owing to the spirit and
energy inspired by the consciousness that we were on the eve of
great events, and that it was an honour to co-operate in the work,
they were promptly dealt with, almost all being disposed of on the
day of their arrival. I here reproduce some of these instructions, the
order of the words and expressions in the deciphered telegrams
being slightly altered, while the remainder are given exactly as they
reached me.
July 7th, evening.—A telegram to me from Varzin: “The semi-
official organs should indicate that this does not seem to be the
proper time for a discussion of the succession to the Spanish throne,
as the Cortes, who are alone entitled to decide the question, have
not yet spoken. German Governments have always respected
Spanish independence in such matters, and will do so in future, as
they have no claim or authority to interfere and lay down regulations
for the Spaniards. Then, in the non-official press, great surprise
should be expressed at the presumption of the French, who have
discussed the question very fully in the Chamber, speaking as if that
assembly had a right to dispose of the Spanish throne, and
apparently forgetting that such a course was as offensive to Spanish
national pride as it was conducive to the encouragement of
Republican tendencies. This may be safely construed into a further
proof of the false direction which the personal régime is taking. It
would appear as if the Emperor, who has instigated this action,
wanted to see the outbreak of a new war of succession.”
A letter from Bucher, which was handed to me on the evening of
the 8th of July, further developed the idea contained in the last
sentence of the foregoing telegram. This letter ran: “Previous to 1868
Eugénie was pleased to play the part of an obedient subject to
Isabella, and since the September revolution that of a gracious
protectress. She unquestionably arranged the farce of the
abdication, and now, in her rage, she incites her consort and the
Ministers. As a member of a Spanish party she would sacrifice the
peace and welfare of Europe to the intrigues and aspirations of a
corrupt dynasty.
“Please see that this theme, a new war of succession in the
nineteenth century, is thoroughly threshed out in the press. The
subject is inviting, especially in the hands of a correspondent
disposed to draw historical parallels, and more particularly parallels
ex averso. Have the French not had experience enough of Spain
with Louis XIV. and Napoleon, and with the Duc d’Angoulême’s
campaign for the execution of the decrees of the Verona Congress?
Have they not excited sufficient hatred by all those wars and by the
Spanish marriage of 1846?
“Bring personal influence to bear as far as possible on the editors
who have been intimidated by the Stock Exchange, representing to
them that if the German press takes up a timid and hesitating
attitude in presence of the rhodomontades of the French, the latter
will become more insolent and put forward intolerable demands in
other questions affecting Germany still more closely. A cool and
determined attitude, with a touch of contempt for those excited
gentlemen who would like to slaughter somebody, but do not exactly
know whom, would be the most fitting means for putting an end to
this uproar and preventing serious complications.”
Bucher added: “Protestants were still sent to the galleys under
the Spanish Government which was overthrown in 1868.”
Another communication of Bucher’s from Varzin of the same date
runs: “The precedents furnished by Louis Philippe’s refusal of the
Belgian throne on behalf of the Duc de Nemours in 1831, on the
ground that it would create uneasiness, and by the protest which
England would have entered against the marriage of the Duc de
Montpensier to the sister of Queen Isabella, are neither of them very
applicable, as the Prince of Hohenzollern is not a son of King
William, but only a remote connection, and Spain does not border on
Prussia.”
The following was a third subject received from Varzin on the
same day: “Is Spain to inquire submissively at the Tuileries whether
the King whom she desires to take is considered satisfactory? Is the
Spanish throne a French dependency? It has already been stated in
the Prussian speech from the throne that our sole desire in
connection with the events in Spain was that the Spanish people
should arrive at an independent decision for the maintenance of their
own prosperity and power. In France, where on other occasions so
much is said of national independence, the attempt of the Spanish
people to decide for themselves has immediately revived the old
diplomatic traditions which led to the Spanish war of succession 160
years ago.”
On the same day, the 8th of July, a telegram was also received
from the Chancellor by the Secretary of State, and it was handed to
me for my information. It was to the following effect: “I have now
before me in the despatch of Count Solms the official text of the Duc
de Grammont’s speech, and I find his language more brusque and
presumptuous than I had anticipated. I am in doubt whether that is
due to stupidity or the result of a decision taken beforehand. The
probability of the latter alternative seems to be confirmed by the
noisy demonstrations which will most likely render it impossible for
them to draw back. I am reluctant to protest officially against
Grammont’s speech on international grounds, but our press should
attack it very severely, and this should be done in as many
newspapers as possible.”
July 9th.—A telegram from Bucher to the Secretary of State,
saying that the direction to the press to deal with Grammont’s
speech in very strong language is not to apply to the Norddeutsche
Allgemeine Zeitung.
Another telegram of the same date to Thile, which he brought to
me: “Any one intending to summon a Congress to deal with a
debatable question ought not first to threaten a warlike solution in
case the opposite party should not agree to his wishes.”
Further, the Secretary of State handed me a telegram from Berlin
to the Chancellor, which was returned by the latter with comments. I
was to get these circulated in the non-official journals. The telegram
was to the effect that Grammont had stated, in reply to an
interpellation by Cochery, that Prim had offered the Spanish throne
to the Hereditary Prince of Hohenzollern, (Remark: “He can do
nothing of the kind. Only the Cortes,”) and that the Prince had
accepted it. (Remark: “He will only declare himself after he has been
elected.”) The Spanish people has not yet, however, expressed its
wishes. (Remark: “That is the main point.”) The French Government
do not recognise the negotiations in question. (Remark: “There are
no negotiations excepting those between Spain and the eventual
candidates for the throne.”) Grammont therefore begged that the
discussion might be postponed, as it was purposeless for the
moment. (Remark: “Very.”) The French Government would maintain
the neutral attitude which they had observed up to the present, but
would not permit a foreign Power to place a Prince upon the Spanish
throne, (“Hardly any power entertains such an intention, except
perhaps France,”) and endanger the honour and dignity of France.
They trusted to the wisdom of the Germans, (Remark: “Has nothing
to do with it,”) and to the friendship of the Spanish people. (Remark:
“That is the main point.”) Should they be deceived in their hopes they
would do their duty without hesitation or weakness. (Remark: “We
also.”)
Bucher sent me a whole packet of sketches for articles:—
 1. “If Spain records her decision to establish a government which
shall be peaceful, and tolerant in religious matters, and which may
be expected to be friendly to Germany, who is also devoted to
peace, can it be in our interest to prevent the execution of that
resolve, and for that purpose to take measures of doubtful legality?
Shall we, because of a threat of war made in pursuit of an arbitrary
and dynastic object, take steps to frustrate a reorganisation of
Spanish affairs advantageous to Germany? Is it not rather an act of
insolent presumption on the part of France to address such a
demand to Germany? Obviously France lacks either the courage or
the means to enforce her views at Madrid; and it appears from
Grammont’s speech of the 4th of July that in her anger at what has
happened in Spain she is prepared to throw herself upon Germany
in a blind fit of rage. That speech is to a certain extent a declaration
of war against the person of the Prince of Hohenzollern, in case he
should decide to accept the offer of the Spanish people. France
demands that Prussia shall undertake the office of policeman in case
a German Prince who has attained his majority shows a disposition
to meet the wishes of the Spaniards. For a North German
Government to interfere with a citizen who should wish to exercise
his right to emigrate and adopt the Spanish nationality would raise a
very questionable point of law from a constitutional standpoint. Even
if such a power existed, the dignity of Germany would demand that it
should only be applied in her own interests. The calm consideration
of those interests is not in the least affected by the warlike threats of
a neighbouring State, which, instead of arguments, appeals to its
400,000 soldiers. If France lays claim in this manner to the
guardianship of adjoining nations, the maintenance of peace can for
the latter be only a question of time, which may be decided at any
moment. On Grammont’s appointment to the French Foreign Office it
was feared in many quarters that the choice by the Emperor
Napoleon of a statesman who was only remarkable for his personal
impetuosity and his hostility to Germany indicated a desire to secure
for himself greater liberty in breaking the peace. Unfortunately the
haughty and aggressive tone of the Duke’s speech is not calculated
to remove the apprehensions entertained at that time. He is not a
minister of peace, but rather the instrument of a personal policy
which shrinks from no responsibility. In itself the question as to who
is to be the ruler of Spain is not one for which Germany would go to
war. But the French demand that the German Government, in
opposition to its own interests, should put artificial difficulties in the
way of the Spaniards manifests a depth of self-conceit which
scarcely any government amongst the independent States of Europe
could submit to at the present day. We seek no quarrel, but if any
one tries to force one upon us he will find us ready to go through with
it to the bitter end.”
2. In another article (there was too much material to be disposed
of in one) the following considerations were to be developed. This
was not to be communicated to the official organs, but either to the
Kölnische Zeitung or the Spenersche Zeitung, while it was to be
given in a curtailed form to Hahn’s Literary Bureau. “If the
candidature of Alphonso had up to the present any prospect of
success in Spain, it would have been most prejudicially affected by
the foolish uproar raised in France, which stamped it with a French
official character. No worse service could be done to that Prince than
to represent him as a French candidate. Montpensier had already
suffered under the reproach that he was a Frenchman. The
Bourbons had formerly been imposed upon the Spaniards, and had
proved themselves no blessing. The manner in which the succession
to the throne is now discussed in France would offend a nation even
less proud than the Spaniards.”
3. “Between the years 1866 and 1868, and particularly before the
fall of Isabella, France schemed a great deal against Germany with
Austria, Italy, and also with Spain. Those intrigues were set at
nought by the Revolution of September, to which Count Bismarck
referred when he said at that time in Parliament that the danger of
war, which had been very imminent, had been dispelled by an
unforeseen event. So long as France maintains her warlike
intentions towards Germany, she will desire to see on the Spanish
throne a dynasty favourable to those schemes, possibly an
Ultramontane one, as in case of an attack on Germany it would
make a difference of about 50,000 men to France whether she had a
benevolent, or at least a neutral neighbour on the other side of the
Pyrenees or one whose attitude might be suspected. It is true that
France has nothing to fear directly from Spain if the French, who for
the past eighty years have been unable to make up their own minds,
and who cannot govern themselves, would give up the attempt to
play the part of tutor to other nations. Let the period 1848–1850 in
France be compared with that of 1868–1870 in Spain, and the
comparison will not be to the advantage of the nation qui marche à la
tête de la civilisation.”
4. “England is accustomed to look upon the Peninsula as a
dependency of her own, and doubtless believes that her influence
can be more easily made to prevail in a state of insecurity than under
the rule of a powerful dynasty. It is not wise of the English to recall
certain incidents of Spanish history, a course in which they are
followed by the French newspapers. The Spanish version of the
history of the wars against the First Napoleon is very different to the
English one. In Buen Retiro every traveller is shown the site of a
once prosperous porcelain manufactory, which was needlessly
burned to the ground by the British allies of Spain.”
5. Still another subject. “Very pleased with the article in the
Spenersche Zeitung (this was addressed to me). Please again call
attention in a somewhat similar manner to the impetuosity of
Grammont therein referred to. What is the real ground for all this
alarm? A paragraph in the Agence Havas to the effect that the affair
had been settled without the concurrence of the Cortes. It is