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Building Web APIs with ASP.NET Core MEAP
V11
1. Copyright_2022_Manning_Publications
2. welcome
3. 1_Web_APIs_at_a_glance
4. 2_Our_first_Web_API_project
5. 3_RESTful_principles_and_guidelines
6. 4_Working_with_data
7. 5_CRUD_operations
8. 6_Data_validation_and_error_handling
9. 7_Application_logging
10. 8_Caching_techniques
11. 9_Authentication_and_authorization
12. 10_Beyond_REST
13. 11_API_documentation
14. 12_Release_and_deployment
15. Appendix
MEAP Edition Manning Early Access Program Building Web APIs with
ASP.NET Core Version 11

Copyright 2022 Manning Publications

©Manning Publications Co. We welcome reader comments about anything in
the manuscript - other than typos and other simple mistakes. These will be
cleaned up during production of the book by copyeditors and proofreaders.
https://livebook.manning.com/#!/book/building-web-apis-with-asp-net-
core/discussion

For more information on this and other Manning titles go to

manning.com
welcome
Thanks for purchasing the MEAP of ASP.NET Core Web API. I hope that
you'll like what you'll get access to! If you're looking for an efficient and
structured way to create stable, secure, and reliable Web API projects for
enterprise markets, I'm confident that you won't be disappointed by what
you've got.

Since this book is written for web developers, it takes for granted that the
reader already has some basic knowledge regarding Object-Oriented
Programming, HTTP request/response lifecycle, data-retrieval tasks, data
exchange formats such as JSON, and so on. However, no prior .NET or
ASP.NET Core knowledge is required: the main reason I've chosen to write a
book about this framework is that it is easy to learn and has a shallow
learning curve, especially if the concepts are presented clearly and with a
task-oriented, practical approach - which is precisely what I've wanted to
adopt in this book.

The book is divided into four parts:

Part 1 is a brief overview of what we're going to do: the development

technology, the IDE we'll be using, the REST architecture core concepts,
and a minimalistic boilerplate to start playing with.
Part 2 is all about database, data modeling and data management tasks:
we'll make extensive use of Entity Framework Core, a set of ORM and
abstraction technologies designed to help ASP.NET Core developers to
interact with data in a standardized and structured way.
Part 3 delves into some advanced concepts, such as caching,
performance tuning, and authentication mechanisms.
Part 4 is dedicated to deployment and publishing: we'll learn how to
release our Web API in production, thus facing the challenges of some
typical on-premises and cloud-based environments.

Each topic introduced with the various chapters will be treated as an

additional requirement to the Web API project, emulating a typical “new
feature request” coming from the product owner; at the end of most chapters,
you'll also find some wrap-up exercises that will hopefully help you to
memorize the lesson learned.

I sincerely hope that you'll like what I've wrote so far: please let me know
your thoughts in the liveBook Discussion forum - I can't wait to read them!

Thanks again for your interest and for purchasing the MEAP!

—Valerio De Sanctis

In this book

Copyright 2022 Manning Publications welcome brief contents 1 Web APIs at

a glance 2 Our first Web API project 3 RESTful principles and guidelines 4
Working with data 5 CRUD operations 6 Data validation and error handling
7 Application logging 8 Caching techniques 9 Authentication and
authorization 10 Beyond REST 11 API documentation 12 Release and
deployment
Appendix
1 Web APIs at a glance
This chapter covers
Web API overview and real-world case samples
Types of Web API and their pros & cons
ASP.NET Core overview
Main ASP.NET Core architectural principles

Almost all applications need data. This is especially true for web-based
applications, where large numbers of clients interact with a centralized entity
- typically a HTTP-based service - to access information and possibly update
or manipulate them. In this book we’ll learn how to design and develop a
specific type of HTTP-based service that has the sole purpose of providing
data to these clients, allowing them to interact with the information they
require in a uniform, structured and standardized way: a Web API.

In the first section of this chapter, we’ll see the distinctive characteristics of a
Web API and how such concept can be applied to several real-world
scenarios. In the second section we’ll familiarize with ASP.NET Core, the
web framework we’ll be using to create Web APIs throughout this book.

1.1 Web APIs

An Application Programming Interface (API) is a type of software interface
that exposes tools and services that can be used by different computer
programs to interact with each other by exchanging information; the
connection between these parties required to perform such exchange is
established using common communication standards (protocols), given sets
of available operations (specifications), and data exchange formats (JSON,
XML, and the likes).

From that definition we can easily see how the main purpose of an API is to
allow different parties to communicate using a common syntax (or
abstraction) that simplifies and standardizes what happens under each hood.
The overall concept is not different from real-world interfaces, which also
provide a common “syntax” to allow different parties operate: a perfect
example of that is the plug socket, an abstraction used by all national
electrical systems to allow household appliances and electronic devices to
interact with the power supply through given voltage, frequency, and plug
type standards.

Figure 1.1 A common example of interface: the AC power plug socket

The above diagram shows the main components that form an electrical grid:
an interconnected network for generating, transmitting, and delivering
electricity from producers to residential consumers. As we can see, each
component handles electricity in a different way and communicates with the
other using various “protocols” and “adapters” – cable lines, transformers,
and so on – with the ultimate goal of bringing it to people’s houses. Once the
residential units are connected to the grid, the electricity can be used by the
home appliances – TV, oven, fridge, and so on – through a secure, protected,
and easy-to-use interface: the AC Power Plug. If we think at how those
sockets work, we can easily understand how much they simplify the technical
aspects related to the underlying power grid: as a matter of fact, none of the
home appliances have to know how such system actually works, as long as
they can deal with that interface.

A Web API is nothing less than the same concept explained above brought to
the world-wide web: an interface accessible through the world-wide web that
exposes one or more plugs (the endpoints) which can be used by other parties
(the clients) to interact with the power supply (the data) using common
communication protocols (HTTP) and standards (JSON/XML formats).

Throughout this book, the term Web API will be used interchangeably to
mean both the interface and the actual web application.

1.1.1 Overview
Let's now visualize the purpose of a Web API within a typical Service-
Oriented Architecture (SOA) diagram – an architectural style built around the
separation of responsibility between various independent services that
communicate over a network.

Figure 1.2 The role of a Web API in a typical SOA-based environment

As we can see, the Web API plays a key role, since it has the responsibility of
retrieving the data from the underlying DBMS and making them available to
each service:

Web App #1, such as a React informative website, that fetches data
from the Web API to display them to the end-users through HTML
pages and components.
Mobile App #1, such as an Android app, as well as Mobile App #2
(which can be the iOS port of the same app), that also fetches data and
shows them to end-users through its native UI.
Web App #2, such as a PHP management website, accessing the Web
API to allow the administrators to interact with and possibly modify the
data.
Cloud Service #1, such as a Data Warehouse, that periodically pulls
data from the Web API to feed its internal repository (for example to
persist some access logs).
Cloud Service #2, for example a Machine Learning software, that
periodically retrieves some test data from the Web API and uses them to
 perform predictions and provide useful insights.

What we’ve just described is an interesting scenario that can help us to

understand the role of a Web API within a rather common service-based
ecosystem. However, we are still discussing an impersonal, theoretical
approach. Let’s see how we can adapt the same architecture to a specific,
real-case scenario.

1.1.2 Real-case example

Let’s see how we can instantiate the abstract concept depicted by the previous
diagram into a concrete, credible, and realistic scenario.

Everyone knows what a Board Game is, right? We’re talking of those
tabletop games with dice, cards, miniatures, and stuff like that. Suppose we
work in the IT department of a board gaming club; our club has a database of
board games with their gaming info such as Name, Publication Year, Min-
Max players, Play Time, Minimum Age, Complexity, and Mechanics, as well
as some ranking stats (number of ratings and average rating) given by club
members, guests, and other fellow players over time.

Let’s also assume that the club wants to use this database to feed some web-
based services and applications, such as:

An end-user website, accessible to everyone, to showcase the board

games and their ratings, as well as allowing some additional features to
registered users (such as creating lists).
A mobile app, also publicly accessible, with the same features of the
website and an optimized UI/UX for smartphone and tables.
A management portal, accessible only to a restricted list of authorized
users, to perform Create, Read, Update, and Delete (CRUD) operations
to the database and other administration-based tasks.
A data analysis service hosted on a third-party platform.

As we can easily guess, a great way to fulfill such requirement would be

implementing a dedicated Web API: such approach will allow us to feed all
these services without having to expose the database server – and its
underlying data model – to any of them.
Here’s a diagram showing how the whole architecture would look like:

Figure 1.3 Several board-game related web applications and services feeded by a single
MyBGList Web API

Again, the Web API is the playmaker here, fetching the data source
containing all the Board Games relevant data (MyBGList DBMS) and
making them available for the other services. Let’s give a more detailed
description for each one of them:

MyBGList Website, a ReactJS website entirely hosted in a Content-

Delivery Network (following the Jamstack approach) where users can
browse the Board Games catalogue and add them to a set of pre-defined
lists: owned, want to try, want to buy, and so on, as well as adding their
own custom lists.
MyBGList Mobile App, a React Native app available for Android and
iOS that allows its users to perform the same actions available with the
MyBGList Website (browse and add to lists).
MyBGList Management Portal, an ASP.NET web application hosted
on a dedicated VM Server within a secure Private Cloud that system
 administrators can access to add, update, and delete Board Games, as
well as perform maintenance-based tasks.
MyBGList Insights, a SaaS service that will periodically pull data from
the Web API to feed its internal repository and perform logging,
monitoring, performance analysis, and business intelligence tasks.

Since we've mentioned Jamstack early on, it might be worth to briefly explain
the meaning of this term. Jamstack (JavaScript, API and Markup) is a
modern architecture pattern based on pre-rendering the website into static
HTML pages and loading the content using JavaScript and Web APIs. For
further information regarding the Jamstack approach, check out the following
URL: https://jamstack.org/

For a comprehensive guide to developing standards-based static websites

using the Jamstack approach, check out the following book:
https://www.manning.com/books/the-jamstack-book

Without further ado, that’s the Web API we’ll be working with through the
following chapters.

1.1.3 Types of Web API

Now that we know the general picture, we can spend some time exploring the
various types, architectures, and messaging protocols available to Web API
developers nowadays: as we’ll be able to see, each of them comes with its
own set of characteristics, pros and cons that makes it suitable for different
applications and businesses.

For reasons of space, I’ve intentionally restricted this book’s topics to HTTP
Web APIs only, thus skipping other application layer protocols such as
Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP). If you’re interested in
knowing more about message-based applications through AMQP, I strongly
suggest reading the RabbitMQ in Depth book, available at the following
URL: https://www.manning.com/books/rabbitmq-in-depth

Before looking at the various architectures, let’s briefly summarize the four
main scopes of use where in which each Web API commonly falls: public
(open), partner, internal (private) or composite.

Public APIs. Also called open APIs (to not be confused with the
OpenAPI specification). As the name suggests, such term refers to those
APIs that are meant to be available for use by any third-party, often
without access limitations. These APIs typically involve no
authentication and authorization (if they are free to use), or a key or
token authentication mechanism if they need to identify the caller for
various reasons (such as applying per-call cost). Furthermore, since their
endpoints are usually accessible from the world-wide web, Public APIs
often make use of various throttling, queueing and security techniques to
avoid being crippled by a massive number of simultaneous requests, as
well as Denial of Service attacks.
Partner APIs. The APIs that fall into this category are meant to be only
available to specifically selected and authorized partners, such as:
external developers, system integrator companies, whitelisted external
IPs, and the likes. Partner APIs are mostly used to facilitate Business-to-
Business (B2B) activities, such as an e-commerce website that wants to
share its customer data to a third-party business partner that needs to
feed its own CRM and Marketing Automation systems. These APIs
typically implement strong authentication mechanisms and IP restriction
techniques to prevent them to be accessed by unauthorized users, and
they’re definitely not meant to be consumed by end-users or “public”
clients such as standard web sites.
Internal APIs. Also known as private APIs. These APIs are meant for
internal use only, such as to connect different services owned by the
same organization and often hosted within the same Virtual Private
Network, Web Farm or Private Cloud. For example, an internal API can
be used by the internal Enterprise Resource Planning software to
retrieve the data from various internal business sources (payroll, asset
management, project management, procurement, and so on), as well as
creating high-level reports, data visualizations, and more. Since these
APIs are not exposed to the outside, they often implement mild
authentication techniques, depending on the organization’s internal
security model, and scarce performance and load-balancing tweaks.
Composite APIs. Sometimes referred to as API gateways. These APIs
 combine multiple APIs to execute a sequence of related or
interdependent operations with a single call: in a nutshell, they allow
developers to access several endpoints at once. Such approach is mostly
used in microservice architecture patterns, where executing a complex
task can require the completion of a chain of sub-tasks handled by
several services in a synchronous or asynchronous way. A composite
API, mostly acts as an API orchestrator, ensuring that the various sub-
tasks required to perform the main call are successful and capable to
return a valid result (and invalidating the whole process in case they
aren’t). A common usage scenario is when we need to ensure that
multiple third-party services fulfill their respective job, such as when we
need to permanently delete a user record (and all its personal info) in our
internal database AND in several external data sources without the risk
of creating atomicity issues – such as leaving some potentially sensitive
data somewhere. Since the orchestrated calls can be of multiple types
(private, partner or private), composite APIs often end up being an
hybrid mix: that’s the reason why they are generally considered a whole
different type.

1.1.4 Architectures and Message Protocols

To be able to fulfill its role of data exchange between parties a Web API
needs to define a clear and unambiguous set of rules, constraints, and
formats. In this book we’ll deal with the four most used Web API
architectural styles and message protocols as of today: REST, RPC, SOAP
and GraphQL. Each one of them comes with their distinctive characteristics,
tradeoffs, and supported Data Interchange Formats, which makes them more
or less viable for different purposes.

REST

Acronym for Representational State Transfer. An architectural style

specifically designed for network-based applications that uses the standard
HTTP GET, POST, PUT and DELETE request methods (first defined in RFC
2616, https://www.w3.org/Protocols/rfc2616/rfc2616.html) to access and
manipulate data. More specifically, GET is used to read data, POST to create
a new resource or perform a state change, PATCH to update an existing
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
this river; we also saw a few cows, but until lately little attention was
given to breeding them; now, however, that a steady demand has
arisen in Labuan, many of the natives have been induced to collect
herds.
After passing the Trusan no more Malay houses are to be seen;
the inhabitants being the aborigines, the Bisayas, Muruts, and a few
Kadayans; their villages occupy nearly every reach. A glance at the
map will show what a winding course this river takes; the soil being
alluvial offers no obstruction to its changing its direction, and there
are many signs of its having altered its bed.
We pulled on to the village of Kruei (Argus pheasant), the
residence of Orang Kaya Upit, a son of one of the Adang people,
who had promised to accompany us. I had with me a chop or firman
from the Sultan, in order to render my procuring guides a work of
less difficulty, but, though not refusing, the Orang Kaya was unwilling
to start immediately. It would have been very unreasonable of me to
have expected a man to be ready at a day’s notice, but this Orang
Kaya had settled for some months to accompany me. I agreed to
stay a day, as I wished to procure a couple of light boats; in the
evening a messenger arrived from the Sultan with orders for every
assistance to be given me.[2]
26th.—As this was a day of enforced delay I determined to divide
my men; some, under Musa, I sent away to purchase or borrow
boats, called here sampirs; they are long and narrow, being simply a
canoe, with a plank on either side tied on with rattans and then
roughly caulked; they have a front and stem piece fastened in the
same way; they are not strong, but are light and very suited to up-
country work, varying in length from thirty to sixty feet, and in breadth
from one and a half to three feet: as might be expected, they are any
thing but stiff.
While Musa was away on this duty, I pulled back to the Gadong
hills to take bearings. I was disappointed in not being able to
distinguish Molu, but I had some good views of other mountain
ranges. The appearance of the country from this elevation (682 feet)
was very pretty; to the east of us were alternate diminutive plains
and low hills, with rice fields whose bright green contrasted well with
the sombre brushwood; farmhouses were scattered here and there;
to the west it was but a confused mass of hills and valleys. The
course of the river is clearly visible, with its extraordinary windings
and its patches of cultivation scattered along its banks; even here in
the neighbourhood of the capital two-thirds of the land is still jungle
or brushwood.
Towards evening Musa returned, and I was glad to find that he
had arranged to buy a sampir and borrow two more, and to leave our
canoe behind.
27th.—This morning the peak of Molu was visible, and I
immediately went ashore to get a good bearing, as the boat rocked
too much to allow me to do it aboard. I find it 9° E. of S. The Adang
Muruts give the name of Batu Barit to the mountain, or to one peak
of it; Barit is the same as the Malay “berlukis,” ornamented; they say
they call it by that name on account of some tracings observed on
the rocks, probably fanciful, or from the stone being discoloured in
various parts of the precipices. They talk also of a very large palm,
the Riman, that grows in great plenty at the foot of the mountain; this
yields in abundance a very superior kind of sago, but; baniak,
“much,” has a very different signification in their mouths, it may mean
a few trees scattered about, or a forest of palms.
Yesterday the Orang Kaya Upit went in search of the Merasam
people, who had agreed to accompany the expedition; they are full
of delays, but talk of following to-morrow: I shall push on to look for
other guides in case these fail us; every day’s delay lessens our
stock of food; I have tried to procure some rice in these villages, but
nothing is to be had. In fact, they will seldom sell me any food, as the
Borneans would make that an excuse to squeeze more out of them
after my departure. The Orang Kaya has begged for one of my
sampirs, and as it is on my business he is going, the request is but
reasonable, so I have given him one, and also some cloth to procure
provisions.
We pushed on at 9 a.m., and as we advanced we found all the
villages deserted on account of the cholera; the visitation was nearly
over, but the Muruts were too alarmed to return to their houses; as
no one was to be found at Bidang, the residence of the Orang Kaya
Napur, an Adang man, we continued our course to Danau, where it
was said we should find him; but on arriving, we heard that he was
some distance inland; I therefore sent old Japer to look for him.
5 p.m.—Here is the Orang Kaya Napur, but there is evidently no
getting him to accompany us; he has many reasons for not going,
some of them good ones; among others, he is planting his rice farm.
I explained I only wanted a guide, not a train of followers. Towards
evening my old friend Orang Kaya Panglima Prang, of the village of
Blimbing, came to see me; he followed me to Molu in both of my
former expeditions, and is half inclined to come now, but as he does
not know the country beyond six days’ pull, he would not be very
useful. He has deserted Blimbing, having too few followers to hold
his own even against a small Kayan expedition, and so now he lives
here until the Pañgeran Tumanggong can afford him some support,
not very likely to be given at present. The cholera has attacked all
the villages, but does not seem to have carried off many; the fright
was great, and still continues, so that most of the people are yet
living in the woods. All those who do not expect to be connected with
my expedition, say that this is the proper season, and that the rain is
exceptional, while the others whom I want to accompany me, assure
me that by waiting two months I shall have fine weather. It certainly
looks rainy, but we must do our best even if freshes do come down,
and we may yet reach Adang by perseverance. This place is called
Danau, on account of a diminutive lake, or large pond, that lies at the
back of the village; the entrance, now dry, is at the end of the reach
ahead.
28th.—Last night a heavy squall, which appeared to spring from
the south-east, but soon veered round to the south-west, made me
fear a fresh in the morning, but (7 a.m.) as yet it has not come down
upon us. There is much matter held in suspension by the water, as
every glass of it we take from the river proves; this, however,
appears its normal state, as I have seen it the same at different
seasons, as in October, November, December, May, and now,
August; not exactly the same, as the water after heavy freshlets is
muddy. The banks appear to be generally formed of alluvial deposits;
occasionally only have I observed hard banks of clay, and nowhere
are there rocks, except where a hill abuts on the river. At the
entrance of the Limbang there are many alluvial deposits, and two
low islands called Pulau Bharu, or the new islands, are said by the
natives to have been formed within the memory of their old men;
they are but little raised above high-water mark, and are excellent
rice grounds.
A glance at the map will show the serpentine course of the
Limbang, and how the river is eating into its banks; in several places
they are nearly worn through. I imagine (and examination almost
confirms it) that the origin of the numerous ponds to be found a short
distance from the banks arises from the alteration of the river’s bed.
There is in the Sarawak river a short cut between two reaches, which
appears within a few years likely to become the main stream—
nature assisted by man: sandbanks are already forming, which
yearly tend to increase the force of the current through the short
passage, and will doubtless ultimately close up the old channel,
leaving a lake of a couple of miles in length on the right bank.
I may here notice, in order to test the value of native geographical
information, the various accounts I have received of the journey
before us. Casting aside the stories of its being one, two, or three
months’ distance, I will simply enter what I have reduced to
something like reason. They say from Blimbing to Madalam is two
days’ pull; to Salindong, two; to Madihit, two; to Busoi or Saledan,
three; to Adang, seven, or sixteen days from the last inhabited village
(since abandoned) to the Adang landing-place: from that to the
houses, from one to six days.
I do not understand the great discrepancy in the land journey,
except that the Adangs have removed farther inland. It is certainly a
voyage of discovery, but my only anxiety is with respect to the
provisions. From the amount of water that was in the river above
Madalam, I cannot think it so far. Busoi appears to mean a cataract,
and there, they say, the river falls over rocks, and the boats have to
be dragged along the shore for a distance which varies with the
stories from fifty yards to a mile. Enormous overhanging rocks occur
at the cataract, almost shutting in the river, but above it the water is
smooth, and the pulling easy for seven days; this is not very likely.
The river is said to abound in fine fish. The story of the wild goats is
beginning to fade away, and is replaced by tame ones in the
possession of the Muruts. One of the greatest curiosities, the natives
say, is the formation of two mountains, which rise from the plain in
lofty peaks of the shape of needles; they have never been to them,
but have seen them from a distance; they are the pillars of the gate
of some enchanted palace, and I heard it whispered to one of my
men that all were not privileged to see even these pillars; it requires
some incantation; so that there is a chance of the needle mountains
vanishing into thin air.
I may remark that when the natives speak of the journey
sometimes occupying two or three months, they mean for a Murut
party. The reason is that they start with, perhaps, two days’
provisions, and trust to hunting for their food. If they find a spot
where game is plentiful, they stay there till it is exhausted; if the
jungle produce no sport, they live on the cabbages taken from the
palms, on the edible fern, on snakes, or anything, in fact, that they
can find. If they come across bees’ nests, they stop to secure the
wax and honey. Time is of no value to them, as they generally start
after the harvest, and many parties are said to have taken six
months.
It is curious to hear the Islam-converted old Pakatan Japer talk.
He says dreams were sent by God to be a teaching and a warning to
us; when he is going up a river on an expedition, if he dream of his
wife or of his children, or of ascending a river, it is good; if of
descending a river, or of fire, or of anything disagreeable, he is sure
to meet an enemy or some misfortune. If his añgei, or omen bird, cry
to the right, it is good luck; his cried to the right when he left Kanowit
eight years ago, and he has not had a misfortune since. I asked him
how it came to pass then that his house was plundered and burnt
down by the Kayans last year; he was silenced for a moment, and
having waited till the men had had their laugh, he said his people
considered it a punishment for living among the bad Tabuns;[3]
however, the Pakatans have avenged him by burning down a Kayan
village.
It is two p.m., and no sign of Orang Kaya Upit yet; this delay is
very provoking, as we can get no provisions here. Last night, at six, I
sent a party with Orang Kaya Napur down the river to find Kadayan,
an Adang man, and try and induce him to follow us; he promises to
come in the morning. We had a long talk last night about various
matters. Old Japer was telling us of the belief of the wild tribes.
Having been converted, however, he laughs at the follies of his
countrymen, and therefore spoils his narration. His conversion,
however, is but skin deep. He says they believe in antus, or spirits,
one of whom is far greater than the rest; he it was who “made the
woods, the mountains, and the streams, and is above all and over
all.” The Pakatans call him Guha, the Kayans, Totaduñgan.
He denies that head-hunting is a religious ceremony among them;
it is merely to show their bravery and manliness, that it may be said
so and so has obtained heads; when they quarrel, it is a constant
phrase, “How many heads did your father or grandfather get?” If less
than his own number, “Well, then, you have no occasion to be
proud!” That the possession of heads gives them great consideration
as warriors and men of wealth; the skulls being prized as the most
valuable of goods. “Alas! when I was a Kapir (infidel) I took more
than forty heads,” hypocritical sorrow, but real pride, in his tone. He
adds that hunting is the greatest pleasure of the wild tribes, and that
the wild boar is exceedingly fierce, and makes a good fight; it
requires much skill to conquer him. “It is a delight for me to look back
on my hunting days.” The China trader that lives at the Pangkalan
Tarap came and promised his assistance in getting sago, which we
must use as a substitute for rice.
29th.—A little rain last night, and a dirty-looking morning. No
Orang Kaya Upit. We are now opposite the Chinaman’s house. I
shall push on to-morrow morning, guide or no guide, and trust to
their following us.
2 p.m.—Kadayan and a companion have come, and promise to
be guides, but as they have to return to their houses, I have no
confidence that they will follow, but only cause us fresh delays;
however, as I have obtained a pikul[4] of raw sago, and seven
gantangs[5] of beans, I can better afford to wait. They put every
difficulty in the way, and lie like troopers as to the distance, declaring
it to be a journey of six months for us who take food; they say, also,
that they are in debt at Adang, and in debt here. I have given each a
piece of blachu,[6] to buy food for their families; and I have sent a
crew away to try and borrow a couple of sampirs.
30th.—This morning the lazy Orang Kaya Upit joined us with three
men; their omen bird, they said, had uttered a warning cry, and they
had been unable to join me before, an excuse to which I am now
somewhat used.
I am going to try and perform the journey in my own garei, as I
can find no more sampirs at these villages to buy or borrow, and with
a little extra trouble she will do, and be twice as comfortable for me.
Were we to be utterly stopt, the men say we can make some bark
canoes for those that cannot get into the sampirs.
Pangkalan Tarap is becoming an important village, as by orders of
the Pañgeran Tumanggong the people are collecting there to show a
better fight to the Kayans, and now number “two hundred men who
can hold a shield.” The detached house system, so progressive with
security, does not answer in a country exposed to periodical
incursions. It is lamentable to see this fine district, once well
cultivated, now returning to brushwood; formerly, when the
population extended a hundred miles beyond the last village at
present inhabited, the supply of provisions was ample for Brunei;
now that the Muruts are decreasing, while Brunei is perhaps as
numerous as ever, the demands made are too great even for native
forbearance, and in disgust they are gradually abandoning all garden
cultivation; already brushwood is taking the place of bananas and
yams; few of either can now be had. The people say it is useless for
them to plant for others to eat the whole produce.
The aborigines must gradually disappear from this river if the
same process continues, as with food becoming daily scarcer, the
area of cultivation continually lessened, as they fear to move far from
their houses except in large armed parties, on account of the head-
hunting Kayans, their powers of natural increase must be stopped;
add to this their losses from cholera, small-pox, and the enemy, and
we have sufficient data to speculate on their eventual extermination
from the Limbang. They are gradually retreating down the river;
twenty miles of bank have been abandoned during the last two
years.
Nor must it be omitted, that as the nobles are yearly less enabled
to obtain supplies from them, they are selling their children by
dozens into slavery, which enables Brunei to keep up its population.
Directly they arrive there, they are circumcised, and from that
moment care no more for their tribes, whom they despise as infidels,
and they then may be said to have joined the ranks of the
oppressors. No lad could well refuse to turn Mahomedan; he would
be teased to death by his companions, and if he long retained any
affection for his family, he would be ashamed to show it. Generally
they are taken away young, and the girls added to the numerous
concubines of the rajahs: after a year or two they get tired of them,
and give them in marriage to their followers.
At the back of this village is a large pond, and beyond there is
another of far greater extent, which they consider a great protection
against surprise. I am nursing my feet, much knocked about in
ascending Kina Balu, so do not land to examine. Obtained two pikuls
more of sago.
We are pulling up quietly; passed Pangkalan Jawa. The Limbuak
peak bears about W. by S. At the back of the houses, at the foot of
the Ladan range, Orang Kaya Kiei and his family were cut off in a
farmhouse by the Kayans last February. The Kayans set fire to the
rice stalks under the house, and as the family rushed out they were
killed; a few, who either saw the fall of their companions, or were
bewildered by the smoke, stayed in the house and were burnt to
death; ten women and children lost their lives. The mode of death is
conjectured from finding seven headless trunks at the doorway, and
four bodies charred, without losing their heads. The summit of the
Ladan range presents many instances of extensive landslips. Stayed
for bearings at Tampasong. I find but few changes will be necessary
in my previous map, in fact, except in the position of the ranges,
which I am carefully taking, it will not be essentially improved as far
as refers to the direction of the reaches; but as to their length, I think
many we have passed to-day will require shortening. We were here
joined by Kadayan and Si Nuri, two Adang men.
5 p.m.—I am delighted to find myself at Batang Parak, long past
the last houses, and above sixty miles from Brunei. Batang Parak
was formerly inhabited by Chinese, who cultivated pepper; the
Malays say that they gradually died out, no fresh immigrants coming
to recruit their strength, and some of the older Muruts remembered
them well, and could repeat their names. Casual observations,
however, prove that the above was not the way in which the Chinese
always disappeared, as on passing the Madalam, a Bisaya chief
pointed to a hill; formerly, he said, the Chinese built a fort there, but
they were attacked and all killed.
But to return. I can now settle matters myself, and have nobody to
wait for. At about four, the rain and wind came in great force from the
S.W., which is a little unpleasant, but I hope it will not affect the river
above the Madalam. Slight rain continues. The men are on shore,
searching for vegetables, pumpkins, cucumbers, and fruit at the site
of the Tabun village, burnt down last year by the Kayans. The plants
grew up in great strength round the ruins, and afford supplies to
every visitor. This is the fourth time we have helped ourselves, but
to-day the pig-hunters having been before us, there are but few left.
The fruit-trees are covered with a young crop, but none are ripe;
everything, however, is eagerly appropriated by my men, who have
brought but little to eat with their rice. I leave off my journal to turn to
a miserable dinner of dried fish and stale bread, there being no time
to cook, but a bottle of porter made it palatable.
I noticed when passing the deserted village of Blimbing, which
was formerly the residence of my old friend, the Orang Kaya
Panglima Prang, that even the old posts of the houses were
removed; the reason is this, that being made of iron wood they will
last for a century. In fact, in many of the villages they have them,
descended, it is said, from a long line of ancestors, and these they
remove with them wherever they may establish themselves. Time
and wear have reduced many of them to less than five inches in
diameter, the very heart of the tree, now black with age and
exposure.
When I first ascended the Limbang, and spent a few days at the
village of Blimbing, I found a large party of armed men assembled
who were preparing to collect sago palms, which grow in immense
forests at the foot of the Ladan range. They fell the palms there, and
clearing them of leaves, drag them to the banks of the small
streams, and float them to the village. They always say there are two
species of sago palms, one covered with thorns, the other free; the
former is more safe from the attacks of wild pigs, the latter perhaps
more productive. Nature has indeed stocked these countries with
easily acquired food, as this palm, for instance, though improved by
cultivation, will yet reproduce itself in extraordinary abundance.
After the first three or four years, the freshly planted palm is
surrounded by smaller ones springing from its roots, so that when
the time has arrived to secure its sago, which is after about eight
years, there is a crop of young ones approaching maturity; in fact, in
a well managed and old established plantation, a tree can yearly be
cut from the same clump. The natives know directly when the palm is
ripe by the appearance of the flower, but if it be allowed to fruit, the
whole pith is spoilt for the purposes of commerce. At present the
trees in these districts are seldom permitted to pass their fifth year,
as the aborigines fear to penetrate far into the forests, and trust to
those which grow near the banks of the river.
31st.—Got away this morning at 6.20, and arrived at the end of
the west reach, beyond Suñgei Damit at 9.25. Just above Suñgei
Damit is the site of the great Kayan encampment. A force of above
three thousand of these wild warriors, in March and April, 1857, kept
the capital in a state of great alarm: and near here also, on the left
bank, is a famous fish-pond, Luagan Kura, and on its banks are
some grassy slopes, where the Tambadaus, or wild cattle, love to
congregate. I may mention that Mr. De Crespigny reached this spot
in 1857.
 There is little to notice, except that the banks are generally flat,
fringed with a low jungle, at the back of which the Muruts formerly
farmed. A stranger passing up the river would be apt to infer that no
population had tenanted this district for a century, as there are no
signs of cultivation, but the natives generally prefer farming in spots
not exposed to floods or intrusion. I have been out deer-snaring in
this neighbourhood, which made me notice that at the back of the
belt of jungle which lines the river banks there are signs of a former
extensive rice-planting.
Sagan on the right bank is a fine hill, perhaps 1,500 feet in height;
between it and Suñgei Damit is the low range of Rudi, running along
the edge of one of the reaches, and terminating a little below the
Damit. This tributary is now very low, there having been but little rain
to the S. E., so that I hope the discoloured water of the Limbang
comes from the Madalam branch. The water, however, is much
higher than it was when we ascended the river last February, as the
Batang rapids are concealed; these rapids are caused by a
collection of logs, mixed with sand and mud, and extend for several
hundred yards.
I noticed the rocks occasionally cropping out of the banks. At the
mouth of the Damit I took the dip and strike: dip N. E. by N., angle
31·5; strike S. E. by E. There is a high peak to the southward (S. by
E.) which is apparently the end of the Molu range; it bends, the
natives say, towards the Limbang: if not, it is a separate range, but
the same that I see from the back of the Consulate at Brunei. I think
that the thousands of pigs which inhabit this jungle contribute to the
discoloration of the water: every night they descend to the banks and
rout up the soft mud into heaps, which are easily washed away by
rain or the rise of the river.
The fish we have caught are all small, though there are fine ones
in the centre of the stream where the net cannot be used: we see
them occasionally rise to the surface, causing a great commotion.
Japer tells me that the people of Adang occasionally obtain their
salt from traders of the east coast, but their usual supply is derived
from salt springs, and this is confirmed by Orang Kaya Upit. Japer
adds that, when head-hunting round the great mountain of Tilong, in
the centre of Borneo, he saw a salt spring that burst from the ground
in a volume of about fifteen inches in diameter, rising three feet, and
then spreading in a shower around: this is the source, he says, of the
Bangermasin, and the reason of its being so called (masin, briny).
He thinks there must be a passage all the way from the sea to cause
this salt spring, and no reasoning will convince him to the contrary:
his companions confirm his belief by their implicit belief. There is
also a large lake at the foot of Tilong; he saw it, but did not go near
it, as it might be the residence of spirits.
At 11.20 we again got under way, and soon reached Naga Surei,
the first stone rapid: to the Orang Kaya Upit this place had a fearful
interest; some years since about a hundred of his countrymen came
down the river to trade in wax, and on their return stopped at this
pebbly bank to cook, and while a party went inland to hunt, others
collected wood. Suddenly three or four hundred Kayans came
sweeping round the point, and were on them before they could
recover from their surprise; seventy lost their lives, but thirty
escaped.
We stopped for the night at 1.45, as the men pulled too late
yesterday, and we must prepare for the rapids and freshes that may
be expected: so I have sent them in inland to collect poles, and
rattans for making ropes to secure us at night during freshes. It is a
good plan whilst travelling in Borneo to make it a general rule to stop
by 2 p.m., as one is never sure of not having showery weather after
that, and unless the men have proper time to erect the tents and
prepare the evening meal whilst fine, they don’t work willingly. (This
journey will show what exceptions are required to general rules.) The
sky is covered with broken clouds, with occasional patches of blue. I
am afraid we shall have more rain, and the river is high enough
already, though that is better than being very low until we get into the
interior, where the rush of waters after heavy rain is terrific.
I think a traveller in Borneo will notice how few spots there are
where birds are to be observed; whilst writing this line a little bird has
perched itself before me, and by its song would induce me to alter
what I have written, but notwithstanding this appeal, I reiterate that
birds are but seldom seen. At certain hours and places a few
pigeons or doves, more rarely crows; along the banks an occasional
wagtail or kingfisher, and a songster in the trees above sometimes
attracts your attention. A solitary teal now and then rises from the
least frequented rivers, and the kite sails slowly above us.
Hornbills are seen round mountains, and sparrows abound in
grassy plains near the sea; some species are now and then
abundant, as a white crane (padi bird, or Kanawei), and various
kinds of curlew (pimpin), but on the whole, birds are rare. In some
districts pheasants and partridges are caught in snares, but as they
are birds which merely run along the surface of the ground, flying
being almost out of the question in the thick underwood, they are
only noticed when brought in by the natives. Monkeys in the northern
part of Borneo are also rarely observed. In the Limbang river I have
seen but few: an occasional baboon, a few wawahs in the Madalam
branch, and a large reddish monkey at about 1,000 feet up Molu. At
Kina Balu I do not remember any. In Sarawak, however, they are
plentiful.
Pigs are very numerous here, and wild cattle and deer are also
abundant. We have as yet seen no traces of alligators, though in the
Madalam branch they are said to abound, and last spring I saw a
very large one; it was a disgusting-looking object, a great fat slimy-
looking thing,—a tail stuck on a hogshead. They are not, however,
dreaded, as they can obtain a very plentiful supply of food from the
pigs which constantly swim from bank to bank. Otherwise, it would
be unpleasant to have to steer a boat, as the man-devouring reptile
strikes his victim from the stern with a blow of his tail. This happened
to an unfortunate Malay in the Siol branch of the Sarawak, who was
pulling up that river with his wife in a small canoe.
The death of this man drew attention to the monster alligator I
have previously referred to, and Mr. Crookshank and Sadam, a very
courageous Malay, went down to place a bait on the banks of the
Siol. When this was done, they pulled back, Mr. Crookshank
steering. They had seen nothing of their enemy, so that Sadam
jumped up, and, flourishing his spear, began in a loud voice to defy
the alligator, using very insulting terms. Suddenly he dropt his
weapon and seizing his paddle, began pulling away with might and
main, for the animal had just risen to the surface of the water not
twenty yards from the boat.
Though the steersman’s position was by no means an agreeable
one, Mr. Crookshank could not help laughing at the change of
countenance of his companion, who excused himself by saying it
was the suddenness of his challenge being accepted that made him
pull away in an excited manner. “But now,” he added, rising to his
feet, “let him show himself again, and I will not attempt to run.” He
had scarcely uttered the words, when the alligator, which was
accustomed to follow boats, again rose to the surface. There was no
more boasting, but a frantic attempt to get out of the Siol branch.
The alligator took the bait, but got rid of the long rattan fastened to
it, by accidentally or purposely winding it round a tree, then breaking
it off. However, though his body was not secured, it was most
probable he died from the lacerations of the stomach caused by his
endeavours to break the rattan, as I have not heard of his being
seen since. It was up the Siol branch that a place was found where
the body of one of his victims appeared to have been beaten, to
break the bones, previously to swallowing. The Malays say the
alligators do it by repeated blows of their ponderous head; in fact,
one of the large teeth of the reptile was found snapped off on the
above-mentioned spot.
As I have told the story of Sadam’s alarm at the sudden
appearance of the alligator, I ought in justice to him, to mention an
occurrence which took place last year. He and his brother Dand were
wandering near Tanjong Po, a rocky point near the entrance of the
Sarawak river, when they came to a cave; hearing some movement
inside, they entered, and saw two huge alligators at the farther end.
Knowing that these ferocious reptiles are not very active, except on
soft mud, or in the water, they determined to attack them. They were
armed with spears and swords, and entering the cave, Sadam
approached the first beast, and actively springing clear to avoid its
rush, drove his spear into the soft side, and with his brother’s aid
soon severed the head from its body. Encouraged by their success
they advanced to attack the second, which was vainly endeavouring
to escape over the broken rocks, and soon succeeded in destroying
it.
I was conversing one day with a French priest who had resided
many years in Siam, and he told me he had seen men there catch
the alligator in the following manner:—In the upper Menam, where
the river is broad and shallow, but with deep pools occasionally, the
alligators are both numerous and fierce; yet the inhabitants, who are
very fond of eating the flesh, pursue them with great courage and
skill. Six or seven men proceed to a pool where one of these reptiles
is supposed to lurk, and with long poles, sound every portion of it; if
an animal be there he is soon disturbed, and driven towards the
shallower part of the river, even to the sandbanks, where expert men
throw their lassoes round his feet and tail. When they think him
somewhat exhausted, a bold hunter, springing on the alligator’s
back, places his hands over the creature’s eyes, which then always
remains quiet. A noose is quickly slipped over his head, and the
animal hauled ashore.
Alligators lay their eggs in the jungle. I remember hearing the late
Mr. Brereton tell the following story: He was one day hunting in the
jungle near the Sakarang fort, when his dogs gave tongue. He
followed up quickly, and found they had disturbed a female alligator
laying her eggs. Directly she saw him, she gave chase, and he had
some difficulty in getting away from her, though the dogs distracted
her attention.
Alligators very seldom attack boats, but a case occurred in the
Sambas river, where a man was dragged out of a large prahu from
among twenty of his companions. My own party was never in danger
from them but once, when a large alligator rose within three feet of
the boat; but before he could do anything, I had put a rifle-ball into
his side, as I happened at that moment to be looking out for a shot at
them on the mud banks.
Having stopped so early, we had plenty of leisure-time on our
hands; and being seated on a pretty pebbly bank, I commenced a
game of ducks and drakes in the water, in which I was soon joined
by the whole party—it afforded them great amusement. I may here
remark that you may allow this kind of freedom with your native
followers, without their ever taking advantage of it another time. If
they see you inclined to chat, or to amuse yourself with them, they
are delighted; if you desire to be quiet, they never disturb you by any
intrusion or undue familiarity.
My cook Ahtan, who was very much annoyed last night by having
to set before me so poor a dinner as stale bread and salt fish,
determined, as he had a long afternoon before him, to devote it to
cooking, particularly as I always divided it into two portions, one for
him, and one for myself. The curry he produced was admirable, and
having secured a cucumber last night, he was enabled to add what
the Malays call a sambal, of which there are many kinds; the one he
made was of the sliced cucumber, and green and red chillies cut into
fine threads; others are of dried salt fish finely powdered, or fish
roes, or hard-boiled eggs, or the tender shoots of the bamboo, but
with all, or nearly all, red or green chillies are added. The most
delicious I have ever seen put on table was made of prawns about
an inch long, partly boiled, then seasoned with freshly prepared curry
mixture, and at last slightly moved over the fire in a frying-pan, taking
care not to burn it; if chillies are added judiciously, so as not to
render it too fiery, it causes a keen appetite to all but a confirmed
invalid.
Malay cookery is sometimes very tasty; I remember spending a
fortnight in the Sultan’s palace, and we were fed daily from his
kitchen; sometimes the stewed fowls were admirable, and there was
a particular kind of rice-cake sent in very hot, which was delicious.
But the triumph of Malay cookery is to send in the sambals in
perfection, particularly the one called blachang; the best is
composed of the very finest prawns, caught, I imagine, soon after
the little ones have burst from their eggs, and pounded up with red
chillies, and a little ginger. Coarser kinds are made from the larger
prawn, or even from the smallest fish caught on the river’s banks.
Sometimes the material is first exposed to the sun in order to be
completely dried, or it would not keep or mix very well, though it is
often soaked till nearly decomposed, and that is perhaps the
favourite way when it emits a rather powerful scent, but it is very
tasty. Prawns and fish are cooked in a great variety of ways, but
roasting them over a fire as abobs, is an excellent fashion, if you first
sprinkle them with curry mixture.
I have mentioned the admirable curry which Ahtan put before me;
perhaps I ought to explain how we make that dish in the Far East; it
appears a very different thing from what I have tasted in England
under the name of curry: a fowl is cut up into small pieces, and four
dried and two green onions, five chillies, half a turmeric, one
teaspoonful of coriander seed, one of white cumin, and one of sweet
cumin are provided. You must well pound the seeds, turmeric and
chillies, and slice the onions fine; then take the saucepan, and after
buttering it, slightly brown the onions, then add the pounded
ingredients with just sufficient water to reduce them to a paste, and
throw in the fowl and well mix them up, till the meat has a yellow tint,
and lastly, add the cocoa-nut milk, and boil till the curry be
thoroughly cooked. I hope my teaching is sufficiently clear to be
understood, but I must add, the cocoa-nut milk is made by scraping
the meat of half of an old nut very fine, then soaking it in warm water,
and after squeezing out the milk, throw the fibre away. I watched the
whole process of cooking with great interest, and almost fancy I
could make a curry myself.
After dark, while the men were sitting in their tents, I had a talk
with the Orang Kaya Upit about the treatment of the aborigines. Now
that we are away from the influence of the rajahs, he will speak out,
and tell me anecdotes that otherwise would never reach my ears:
they are admirably illustrative of the present method of governing
this country. A few years ago, a Murut of the Limpasong village killed
a tax-gatherer. There was little doubt that the Murut could only
excuse himself by urging oppression; and that had he been seized
and executed, nothing could very well be said on the subject; but the
present Sultan thought differently: instead of killing the offending
Murut, he determined to destroy the village of about two hundred
souls. He collected a force of Malays to attack the houses from the
river, and promised the Muruts the heads, slaves, and plunder, if
they attacked by land. The Limpasong people surrounded by a
couple of thousand men had no chance; they made a slight
resistance, then fled. The Muruts in the woods fell upon them, killed
about fifty, and took about the same number of women and children
prisoners; the rest escaped. The Orang Kaya thought nothing of this;
but the grievance was that the Sultan took away all the prisoners as
his slaves, and likewise defrauded the Muruts of the most valuable
plunder.
Again, in 1850, the nephew of the late Sultan was dunning a
Bisaya for an imaginary debt; the man, to escape annoyance, tried to
jump out of the verandah, when a follower of the noble wounded him
with a sharp stick. This roused his friends, and they killed the whole
party. Directly they had done so, they remembered the gravity of the
act, and formed a league with the neighbouring villages to resist the
force that was sure to attack them from the capital. They erected a
stockade, and a few of their bravest men defended it for a short time:
there was much firing and great beating of gongs, but little damage.
The noise, however, frightened the Bisayas and Muruts, and they
fled; but as they left the stockade, Orang Kaya Upit fired his musket,
and killed a Bornean. This was enough to prevent all idea of pursuit.
Now was the time for the wily Makota to settle matters: he sent a
flag of truce, and after some discussion, it was agreed that four
persons should be given up to suffer death in satisfaction for those
who were killed with the Sultan’s nephew. Now comes the infamous
part of the story. The aborigines gave up a stranger, who had
married in the country, and who had had nothing whatever to do with
the original murders: they gave him up, with his wife, his grandfather,
and grandmother, and his two children—the last were kept as slaves
by Makota, the other four executed.
I mentioned the Sultan’s nephew was dunning for an imaginary
debt: I must explain this. There is a system in this country called
“serra,” or “serra dagang,” or forced trade, which I have before
referred to, but it is carried on in the neighbourhood of the capital to
an extent unknown elsewhere. Every noble of any influence that
thinks proper goes to a tribe with some cloth, and calling the chief,
orders him to divide it among his tribe; he then demands as its price
from twenty to a hundred times its value. He does not expect to get
the whole at once, but it enables him to dun the tribe for years after.
Not content with taking their goods for these imaginary debts, they
constantly seize their young children and carry them off as slaves.
The tribe who killed the Sultan’s nephew had actually paid their serra
to thirty-three different nobles that year, and had been literally
stripped of all their food, before giving way to passion, they
destroyed the whole party above referred to.
Makota was enabled to settle the matter quickly, because without
the food they get from Limbang, the capital would starve. I little
thought that within three months of my writing the above lines,
Makota would likewise have lost his life by his infamous oppressions.
A system very much encouraged by the Borneans is to induce the
Orang Kayas to sell as slaves all the orphans of a tribe, or the
children of any poor Murut who cannot pay his debts: they are
systematically corrupting the tribes. In hearing these stories of the
Sultan and his nobles, which, I may add, I have no doubt are quite
correctly and fairly told by the Muruts, as I have often heard the
same or similar ones from the Borneans, I was reminded of the old
Malay saying of the four qualities which a ruler should possess. The
Borneans, though they know the words, have forgotten the spirit: a
sovereign should be brave, just, patient, and yet possess the power
of being angry.
Old Japer makes me long to visit the great mountain of Tilong. I
asked him to give me some idea of it; he answered, “Imagine the flat
summit of Kina Balu carried higher till it ended in a peak;” it is
occasionally white at the top, but rarely remains so for many hours
after sunrise, so it does not reach the regions of perpetual snow. I
should like to organize an expedition to explore it; he says it is quite
practicable. I may even see the great diamond now in the hands of a
Malau chief, who would even give it me if I would help him to destroy
a Malay noble who attacked his house in order to get possession of
this famous stone: the Malay was driven off, not however before he
had lodged a ball in the jaw of the Malau chief. “To avenge this
wound he would give you anything.” I told him I would go to see the
mountain and the diamond, if he would take me; but he says he
hopes to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca towards the end of the
year, if I will assist him. He wants to see the land that “God made
holy, and where He performed so many wonderful works.” He fears
that, as now he is an old man, he may die without fulfilling the desire
of his life.
Speaking of the Malau diamond reminds me of the famous one
formerly said to be possessed by the Sultan of Matan, for which he
was offered immense sums. Borneo, however, has always been
famous for its diamonds, which are worked at the present time by the
Chinese and Malays at Landak, a country lying farther inland than
Sambas; and there are two streams in Sarawak, the Santah, and a
branch of the Quop, where diamonds of a very fine water have been
found, but those places have not yet been regularly explored.
Occasionally very pretty diamonds are brought over from the Dutch
territories to Sarawak, but I have seldom examined them. It is never
safe to trust to reports respecting diamonds; for instance, I was once
informed that a noble in Brunei had a very large diamond which he
wished to part with, but when we came to examine it, we found it
was a pinkish topaz, as large as a pullet’s egg, and he asked a
thousand pounds for it.