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Chapter 4:

Molecules and Compounds

4.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water

Review of the Law of Definite

Proportions

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4.2 Types of Chemical Bonds

• Compounds are composed of atoms held together by
chemical bonds.
• Chemical bonds result from the attractions between the
charged particles (the electrons and protons) that compose
atoms.
• Chemical bonds are classified into two main types:
– Ionic
– Covalent

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4.2 Types of Chemical Bonds (2)

• Ionic Bonds form between a metal and a nonmetal and involve a

transfer of electrons.
– The resulting compound is called an ionic compound.
• Covalent bonds form between two nonmetals and involve sharing
electrons.
– The resulting compound is called a molecule.

4.2 Types of Chemical Bonds: Ionic

Bonds

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4.2 Types of Chemical Bonds: Covalent

Bonds
• Consider H2 (simplest molecule)

4.2 Types of Chemical Bonds: Covalent

Bonds (2)

He - - - - He no min. = no bond

4.3 Representing Compounds:

Chemical Formulas and Molecular
Models
• A compound can be represented by its chemical
formula.
• A chemical formula indicates the type and
number of each element present in the
compound.
• Examples:
– Water is represented as H2O.
– Carbon dioxide is represented as CO2.
– Sodium chloride is represented as NaCl.
– Carbon tetrachloride is represented as CCl4.

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4.3a Types of Chemical Formulas

• Chemical formulas can generally be
categorized into three different types:
– Empirical formula: simplest whole-number
representation of the type and number of
elements present in a compound
– Molecular formula: gives the actual number of
atoms of each element in a compound.
– Structural formula: a sketch or diagram of how the
atoms in the molecule are bonded to each other

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Example
Hydrogen peroxide
• Empirical formula: HO
• Molecular formula: H2O2
• Structural formula:

• Shorthand structural formula: H-O-O-H or HOOH

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4.3b Molecular Models

• A molecular model is a more accurate and
complete way to specify a compound.
• A ball-and-stick molecular model represents
atoms as balls and chemical bonds as sticks;
how the two connect reflects a molecule’s
shape.
– The balls are typically color-coded to specific
elements.
• In a space-filling molecular model, atoms fill
the space between each other to more closely
represent our best estimates for how a
molecule might appear if scaled to visible size.

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Examples 1

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Example 2: Ethyl Alcohol

Shorthand Structural Formula: CH3CH2OH

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Example 3: Dimethyl Ether

1. Chemical Formula: C 2H6O
– Same as ethanol
2. Structural Formula:

3. Shorthand Structural Formula: CH3OCH3

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Example 4: Glucose

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Example 5: Daptomycin
1. Chemical Formula: C72H101N17O26

2. Structural Formula:

In general (take home message), be able to go from:

Molecular Model → Structural Formula →
Chemical Formula → Empirical Formula
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4.4 The Lewis Model: Representing

Valance Electrons with Dots
• The Lewis Model:
– Valence electrons are represented as dots.

• Lewis electron-dot structures (Lewis structures) depict

the structural formula with its valence electrons.
• Lewis structures focus on valence electrons because
chemical bonding involves the transfer or sharing of
valence electrons between two or more atoms.

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Example: Lewis Dot Symbols for

Selected Main Group Atoms

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The Octet (and Duet) Rule

• When atoms bond, they tend to gain, lose, or
share electrons to result in a noble gas–like
electron configuration.
– Especially true for main group elements
– Nonmetals (period 3 on down in the periodic
table) follow the octet rule when they are not the
center atom.
• When they are the center atom, they can
accommodate more than eight electrons using empty
valence d orbitals (also predicted by quantum theory).

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4.5 Ionic Bonding: The Lewis Model

and Lattice Energies
• Ionic compounds are
cations (usually one or
more metals) and anions
(usually one or more
nonmetals) bound
together by electrostatic
interactions (ionic bonds).
• Formula Unit: the
smallest, electrically
neutral collection of ions
that represent the ionic
compounds composition
(it is not a discrete thing
like a molecular formula).

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4.5a Ionic Bonding and Electron

Transfer
• Draw Lewis Dot Symbols for Na and Cl atoms
and ions (on board).

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Example: NaCl Formation

• Really more like…

• Note: (s) = solid (l) = liquid

(g) = gas (aq) = aqueous

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Example: NaCl Formation (2)

• This reaction gives off heat (ΔE ≈ - 400 kJ/mol)

– Maybe the sum of IE and EA?

IE (Na) = +495.8 kJ/mol

EA (Cl) = -348.6 kJ/mol
Δ E = +147.2 kJ/mol

• There must be more going on here than ion

formation!
– What are we missing?

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Example: NaCl Formation

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4.5b Lattice Energy: The Rest of the

Story
• lattice energy:
– the energy released when an ionic solid forms from
separate ions in the gas state.
– always exothermic

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4.5c Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality

• Model: implies the positions of the ions in the crystal lattice
are critical to the stability of the structure and predicts that
moving ions out of position should therefore be difficult:
ionic solids should be hard.
• Reality: Ionic solids are relatively hard compared to most
molecular solids.

• Model: implies that if the ions are displaced from their

position in the crystal lattice, repulsive forces should occur
and predicts that the crystal will become unstable and
break apart: ionic solids should be brittle.
• Reality: Ionic solids are brittle. When struck, they shatter.

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4.5c Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality

• Model: implies that ions in ionic
solids are locked in position and
cannot move around and predicts
that ionic solids should not conduct
electricity. (To conduct electricity, a
material must have charged particles
that are able to flow through the
material.)
• Reality: ionic solids do not conduct
electricity.

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4.5c Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality

• Model: implies that liquid ionic
solids (both high temperature
and dissolved in solution) will
produce free ions that can
move around.
• Reality: ionic compounds
conduct electricity in the liquid
state or when dissolved in
water.

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4.6 Ionic Compound: Formulas and

Names
• Ionic compounds contain at least one metal
and nonmetal (for now).
• If we know the common cations and anions
(based on Lewis symbols and the octet (duet)
rule) we can predict the empirical formula of
ionic compounds.

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4.6a Writing Formulas for Ionic

Compounds
• Ionic compounds always contain positive and
negative ions
• In a chemical formula, the sum of the charges
of the cations and anions must equal zero (the
must be neutral)
• The formula of an ionic compound reflects the
smallest whole-number ratio of ions.

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Example: What are the formulas for

the following combination of
elements? (on board)
• Calcium and Fluorine
• Lithium and Iodine
• Aluminum and Oxygen
• Magnesium and Sulfur

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4.6b Naming Ionic Compounds

• Binary Ionic Compounds
1. Cation is named first – use element name
2. Anion is named second – use first part of element
name with –ide ending (Table 4.2 – next slide)
3. If the cation can exists with more than one ion state,
use Roman numerals to show the charge.
Examples: M+ metal (I) ______ide
M2+ metal (II) ______ide
M3+ metal (III) ______ide
etc.

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Example: Name the following

compounds. (on board)
• CsF
• K 2O
• CuO
• BaS
• BeBr2

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Example: Give the formula of the

following compounds. (on board)
(a) Vanadium (III) chloride
(b) Copper (II) oxide
(c) Aluminum sulfide

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4.6b Naming Ionic Compounds (2)

• Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
1. Know names (Table 4.4: Next Slide)
2. Use with previous naming rules

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KNOW THESE!!!!
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Example: Name the following

compounds. (on board)
• Ca(ClO)2
• NaH2PO4
• Sn(NO3)2
• Pb(CH3CO2)4
• (NH4)2SO4

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Example: Give the formulas for the

following compounds. (on board)
• Lithium phosphate
• Magnesium hydrogensulfate
• Manganese (II) nitrate
• Chromium (III) sulfate

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4.6b Naming Ionic Compounds (2)

• Compounds with Hydrates Common hydrate
prefixes
(Ionic compounds containing
• hemi = ½
a specific number of water • mono = 1
molecules associated with • di = 2
each formula unit) • tri = 3
1. Use with previous naming • tetra = 4
rules but add the correct • penta = 5
prefix in front of the word • hexa = 6
• hepta = 7
hydrate.
• octa = 8

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Some common hydrated ionic

compounds and their names:

• CaSO4 • ½H2O calcium sulfate hemihydrate

• BaCl2 • 6H2O barium chloride hexahydrate

• CuSO4 • 5H2O copper (II) sulfate

pentahydrate

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4.7 Covalent Bonding and Simple Lewis

Structures
• The Lewis Model can also be used to predict
the structure of covalent compounds (two or
more nonmetals).
• Atoms in compounds must share electrons so
that they all have octets (duets).

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Example 1: Hydrogen

Remember the “duet rule”?

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Example 2: Helium

He:
Duet rule… Already “happy”!

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Example 3: Group 8A (Except He)

Octet rule… Already “happy”!

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Example 4: Group 7A

Duet

Octet
Happy!

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Example 5: Group 6A
Octet

Duets
Happy!

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Example 6: Group 5A
Octet
Duet

Duets
Happy!

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Example 7: Group 4A
Octet
Duets

Happy!
Duets

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Example 8: Group 3A
Non-Octet
Duet

Duets

Boron can be “happy” with 6 or 8 shared electrons

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More Examples: On Board

• Br2
• O2
• N2

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4.8 Molecular Compounds: Formulas

and Names
• Naming of Molecular Compounds:
1. Write the name of the element with the smallest group number first.
2. If the two elements lie in the same group, then write the element
with the greatest row number first.
3. The prefixes given to each element indicate the number of atoms
present (see figure below).
4. If there is only one atom of the first element in the formula, the
prefix mono- is normally omitted.

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Example: Name the following

molecules. (on board)
• HCl
• NO
• NO2
• N 2O
• N 2 O4
• P4O6
• S 2F 6
• FeCl3

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Example: Give the formula of the

following molecules. (on board)
• Disulfur dichloride
• Iodine monochloride
• Nitrogen triiodide

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