‭Geography‬

‭Lecture 05: Interior of the Earth‬

‭Reasons to study interior of Earth‬

‭●‬ ‭To‬‭study the genesis of natural disasters‬‭such as:‬‭earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides,‬
‭volcanoes, etc‬
‭●‬ ‭To‬‭explore resources‬‭like:‬
‭○‬ ‭Precious minerals‬‭(e.g., iron, gold, uranium)‬
‭○‬ ‭Fuel resources‬‭(e.g., coal, crude oil, petroleum)‬
‭●‬ ‭To‬‭understand geo-dynamo:‬‭To comprehend the‬‭origin‬‭of the Earth's magnetic field.‬
‭●‬ ‭To understand‬‭formation of Atmosphere.‬
‭●‬ ‭To‬‭understand the creation of physical landforms,‬‭including mountains, seas, valleys,‬
‭deserts‬

‭Sources to study interior of Earth‬

‭The study of the Earth's interior is based on direct and indirect sources:‬
‭Direct Sources:‬
‭●‬ ‭Volcanism:‬‭Provides material directly from the Earth's‬‭interior.‬

‭●‬ ‭Mining:‬‭Extracts materials from deeper layers of the‬‭Earth's crust.‬

‭○‬ ‭Example of deepest Mines:‬‭Mponeng,‬‭South Africa: 4‬‭km deep and‬‭Tautona,‬‭South‬
‭Africa: 3.9 km deep.‬
‭■‬ ‭Mining operations are typically limited to depths of a few kilometers due to‬
‭technological and safety constraints and increasing temperature with‬
‭increasing depth.‬
‭●‬ ‭Drilling:‬‭Studies deeper layers inaccessible through‬‭direct sources.‬
‭●‬ ‭Examples:‬
‭○‬ ‭Kola Superdeep Borehole Project:‬‭Located in Kola Peninsula,‬‭Russia. It is drilled to‬
‭a depth of 12 km.‬
‭○‬ ‭Integrated Ocean Drilling Project:‬‭Conducted in Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean.‬
‭Example site: Chikya, Japan,‬‭drilled to a depth of‬‭7 km.‬

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‭Indirect Sources:‬
‭Temperature and Pressure:‬
‭●‬ ‭The Earth's outermost layer cooled, forming a strong, solid lid. It‬‭created huge pressure‬
‭inside the earth.‬‭Due to this, we could not find any‬‭gaseous or liquid state inside the‬
‭earth.‬
‭●‬ ‭Note:‬‭Certainly, there are few exceptions.‬
‭●‬ ‭As we move deeper into earth temperature and pressure rises.‬
‭●‬ ‭Example:‬‭Inner core remains in a‬‭solid state‬‭despite‬‭extreme heat (~6000°C) due to high‬
‭pressure.‬
‭Gravity Anomaly:‬
‭●‬ ‭Gravity is directly dependent on the mass of an object.‬
‭●‬ ‭Different gravitational values‬‭(G1, G2, G3, G4, G5)‬‭indicate‬‭that the composition of‬
‭Earth's interior is not uniform.‬‭This results in gravity‬‭anomalies, as Earth's density and‬
‭material distribution vary across regions.‬
‭Meteorites:‬
‭●‬ ‭Meteorites are‬‭rocky objects from space that manage‬‭to reach Earth's surface‬‭without‬
‭completely burning up in the atmosphere.‬
‭●‬ ‭Since‬‭planets and meteorites originate from the same‬‭nebula‬‭during the formation of‬
‭the solar system, there is a high probability that their interiors share similar‬
‭characteristics.‬
‭Seismic waves:‬
‭Seismic waves are vibrations that travel through the Earth, primarily generated by earthquakes,‬
‭volcanic activity, or artificial explosions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Focus (Hypocenter):‬‭The point within‬
‭the Earth where the earthquake‬
‭originates. It is the initial point of energy‬
‭release.‬
‭●‬ ‭Epicenter‬‭: The point on the‬‭Earth's‬
‭surface directly above the focus.‬‭It is‬
‭the place on earth surface which‬‭receives‬
‭the earthquake waves for the very first‬

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 ‭time.‬‭It is typically the location where the earthquake's‬‭effects are most strongly felt.‬
‭●‬ ‭Types of Seismic waves:‬

‭○‬ ‭Body Waves:‬‭Travel through the Earth's interior and‬‭include:‬

‭■‬ ‭Primary‬ ‭Waves‬ ‭(P-Waves):‬
‭Compressional‬ ‭waves‬ ‭that‬ ‭move‬
‭particles‬‭in‬‭the‬‭same‬‭direction‬‭as‬‭the‬
‭wave‬ ‭travels;‬ ‭they‬ ‭are‬ ‭the‬ ‭fastest‬
‭seismic‬ ‭waves‬ ‭and‬ ‭can‬ ‭move‬ ‭through‬
‭solids, liquids, and gases.‬
‭■‬ ‭Secondary‬ ‭Waves‬ ‭(S-Waves):‬ ‭Shear‬
‭waves‬ ‭that‬ ‭move‬ ‭particles‬
‭perpendicular‬‭to‬‭the‬‭wave's‬‭direction;‬
‭they are slower than P-waves and can only travel through solids.‬
‭○‬ ‭Surface‬ ‭Waves:‬ ‭Travel‬ ‭along‬ ‭the‬ ‭Earth's‬
‭surface‬‭and‬‭typically‬‭cause‬‭the‬‭most‬‭damage‬
‭during an earthquake. They include:‬
‭■‬ ‭Love‬ ‭Waves:‬ ‭Cause‬ ‭horizontal‬
‭shearing of the ground.‬
‭■‬ ‭Rayleigh‬ ‭Waves:‬ ‭Produce‬ ‭a‬ ‭rolling‬
‭motion,‬ ‭causing‬ ‭both‬ ‭vertical‬ ‭and‬
‭horizontal ground displacement.‬
‭●‬ ‭Propagation‬‭of‬‭waves:‬‭A‬‭seismograph‬‭is‬‭a‬‭scientific‬‭instrument‬‭that‬‭records‬‭the‬‭vibrations‬
‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭ground‬ ‭during‬ ‭earthquakes‬ ‭and‬ ‭other‬ ‭seismic‬ ‭events.‬ ‭Seismic‬ ‭waves‬ ‭can‬ ‭reflect,‬
‭refract,‬ ‭and‬ ‭change‬ ‭direction‬ ‭and‬ ‭speed‬ ‭when‬ ‭passing‬ ‭through‬ ‭different‬ ‭layers‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬
‭Earth's interior.‬

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‭○‬ ‭P-waves:‬ ‭Compressional‬ ‭or‬
‭longitudinal‬ ‭waves‬
‭(particles‬ ‭move‬ ‭parallel‬ ‭to‬
‭the‬ ‭wave's‬ ‭direction).‬
‭Fastest‬ ‭seismic‬ ‭wave‬ ‭that‬
‭can‬ ‭travel‬ ‭through‬ ‭solids,‬
‭liquids,‬ ‭and‬ ‭gases.‬ ‭Changes‬
‭speed‬ ‭and‬ ‭direction‬ ‭(refraction)‬ ‭when‬ ‭transitioning‬ ‭between‬ ‭materials‬ ‭with‬
‭different‬‭densities.‬‭Speed‬‭is‬‭approximately‬‭6‬‭km/second.‬‭P-waves‬‭are‬‭the‬‭first‬‭to‬
‭reach the Earth's surface‬‭during an earthquake.‬
‭Speed in solid > Speed in liquid > Speed in gases‬
‭○‬ ‭S-waves:‬‭Shear‬‭or‬‭transverse‬‭waves‬
‭(particles‬ ‭move‬ ‭perpendicular‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬
‭wave's‬ ‭direction).‬ ‭It‬ ‭reaches‬ ‭Earth’s‬
‭surface‬ ‭after‬ ‭P-waves.‬ ‭Slower‬ ‭than‬
‭P-waves‬‭and‬‭can‬‭only‬‭travel‬‭through‬
‭solids‬‭and‬‭cannot‬‭pass‬‭through‬‭liquid‬
‭layers, like the Earth's outer core‬‭. Speed is approximately‬‭4 km/second.‬
‭○‬ ‭Love‬ ‭waves:‬ ‭Cause‬ ‭horizontal‬
‭shearing‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭ground,‬
‭perpendicular‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭wave's‬
‭direction.‬ ‭They‬ ‭have‬ ‭a‬ ‭snake-like‬
‭movement.‬ ‭The‬ ‭wave‬ ‭motion‬ ‭is‬
‭perpendicular‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭direction‬ ‭of‬

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 ‭wave‬ ‭propagation,‬ ‭resulting‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭side-to-side‬ ‭motion.‬ ‭Causes‬ ‭particular‬ ‭damage‬ ‭to‬
‭buildings and infrastructure.‬
‭○‬ ‭Rayleigh‬ ‭waves:‬ ‭Move‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬
‭circular‬ ‭motion‬ ‭(like‬ ‭sea‬
‭waves),‬ ‭combining‬ ‭both‬
‭vertical‬ ‭and‬ ‭horizontal‬
‭displacements.‬ ‭Particles‬ ‭move‬
‭in‬ ‭an‬ ‭elliptical‬ ‭motion,‬ ‭causing‬
‭both‬ ‭up-and-down‬ ‭and‬
‭side-to-side‬ ‭movements.‬ ‭These‬ ‭waves‬ ‭carry‬ ‭the‬ ‭most‬ ‭destruction‬ ‭due‬ ‭to‬ ‭their‬
‭combined‬‭vertical‬‭and‬‭horizontal‬‭motion,‬‭causing‬‭extensive‬‭damage‬‭to‬‭buildings‬‭and‬
‭infrastructure.‬

‭●‬ ‭In‬ ‭seismology,‬ ‭a‬ ‭shadow‬ ‭zone‬ ‭refers‬ ‭to‬ ‭regions‬ ‭on‬‭Earth's‬‭surface‬‭where‬‭specific‬‭seismic‬
‭waves‬ ‭from‬ ‭an‬ ‭earthquake‬ ‭are‬ ‭not‬ ‭detected‬‭by‬‭seismographs.‬‭These‬‭zones‬‭provide‬‭critical‬
‭insights into Earth's internal structure, particularly the nature of its core.‬
‭○‬ ‭P-waves‬ ‭(primary‬ ‭or‬ ‭compressional‬ ‭waves)‬ ‭can‬ ‭travel‬ ‭through‬ ‭both‬ ‭solids‬ ‭and‬
‭liquids.‬ ‭However,‬ ‭upon‬ ‭reaching‬ ‭the‬ ‭boundary‬ ‭between‬ ‭the‬ ‭solid‬ ‭mantle‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬
‭liquid‬ ‭outer‬ ‭core,‬ ‭they‬ ‭are‬ ‭refracted‬ ‭(bent)‬ ‭due‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭change‬ ‭in‬ ‭material‬
‭properties.‬ ‭This‬ ‭refraction‬ ‭results‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭zone‬ ‭between‬ ‭105°‬ ‭and‬ ‭143°‬ ‭where‬ ‭direct‬
‭P-waves are not detected.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭S-Wave‬‭Shadow‬‭Zone→‬‭S-waves‬‭(secondary‬‭or‬‭shear‬‭waves)‬‭cannot‬‭travel‬‭through‬
‭liquids.‬ ‭When‬ ‭they‬ ‭encounter‬ ‭Earth's‬ ‭liquid‬ ‭outer‬ ‭core,‬ ‭they‬‭are‬‭halted,‬‭creating‬‭a‬
‭shadow zone beyond 105°‬‭where no direct S-waves are‬‭observed.‬

‭Result of study interior of Earth‬

‭Old Study‬
‭●‬ ‭It is now discarded‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭Earth was believed to have three distinct layers:‬
‭○‬ ‭SIAL (Silicate + Aluminium):‬‭Considered the outermost‬‭layer. Composed mainly of‬
‭silicate and aluminium.‬
‭○‬ ‭SIMA (Silicate + Magnesium):‬‭Lies beneath SIAL. Denser‬‭than SIAL, as it‬
‭contains more magnesium.‬
‭○‬ ‭NIFE (Nickel + Iron):‬‭The innermost layer, composed‬‭of heavy metals like nickel‬
‭and iron.‬
‭○‬ ‭The density of SIMA > density of SIAL.‬
‭○‬ ‭SIAL was thought to "float" over SIMA‬‭, explaining‬‭why continents (SIAL-rich)‬
‭rest above oceanic plates (SIMA-rich).‬

‭New Study‬
‭Based on direct and indirect studies like seismic wave analysis.‬

‭Layers of the Earth‬

‭●‬ ‭Crust:‬
‭○‬ ‭Outermost layer, divided into:‬

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 ‭■‬ ‭Continental Crust‬‭: Thick and rich in granitic rocks (SIAL composition).‬
‭■‬ ‭Oceanic Crust:‬‭Thin and rich in basaltic rocks (SIMA‬‭composition).‬
‭○‬ ‭Relatively low density.‬
‭●‬ ‭Mantle:‬
‭○‬ ‭Lies beneath the crust and extends to a depth of around 2,900 km.‬
‭○‬ ‭Composed of upper mantle and lower mantle:‬
‭■‬ ‭Upper Mantle:‬‭Includes the asthenosphere, a semi-molten‬‭layer that allows‬
‭tectonic plates to move.‬
‭■‬ ‭Lower Mantle:‬‭Solid but capable of slow flow due to‬‭high pressure and‬
‭temperature.‬
‭○‬ ‭Mainly composed of silicate minerals rich in magnesium and iron.‬
‭●‬ ‭Core:‬
‭○‬ ‭Composed of:‬
‭■‬ ‭Outer Core‬‭: Liquid state, rich in iron and nickel.‬
‭■‬ ‭Inner Core‬‭: Solid state, composed of dense materials‬‭like iron and nickel.‬
‭○‬ ‭The core generates Earth's magnetic field due to the movement of liquid in the‬
‭outer core.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭asthenosphere in the upper mantle is crucial for tectonic activities.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭core is responsible for Earth's magnetism‬‭due to its metallic composition.‬

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