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Time Complexity for Identifying ww
Problem:

Verify if a string of length nnn is of the form ww, where n=2mn = 2mn=2m (an even length), and both halves are identical.

Steps Involved:

1. Copy the First Half:

○ This step involves copying the first m=n2m = \frac{n}{2}m=2n​symbols from Tape 1 to Tape 2.
○ Time required: O(m)=O(n/2)=O(n)O(m) = O(n/2) = O(n)O(m)=O(n/2)=O(n).
2. Compare the Second Half:
○ Compare the second half of the input (from position m+1m+1m+1 to nnn) with the copied first half on Tape 2.
○ Time required: O(m)=O(n/2)=O(n)O(m) = O(n/2) = O(n)O(m)=O(n/2)=O(n).

Total Time Complexity:

● Copying + Comparing = O(n)+O(n)=O(n).

Thus, the time complexity for identifying ww using a multi-tape Turing machine is O(n).

2. Time Complexity for Identifying ww'

Problem:

Verify if a string of length nnn is of the form ww', where the second half is the reverse of the first half.

Steps Involved:

1. Copy the First Half:

○ Copy the first m=n2m = \frac{n}{2}m=2n​symbols from Tape 1 to Tape 2.
○ Time required: O(n)O(n)O(n).
2. Reverse the First Half:
○ Reverse the copied symbols on Tape 2 to prepare for comparison.
○ Reversing takes O(m)=O(n/2)=O(n)O(m) = O(n/2) = O(n)O(m)=O(n/2)=O(n).
3. Compare the Second Half:
○ Compare the second half of the string on Tape 1 with the reversed first half on Tape 2.
○ Time required: O(m)=O(n/2)=O(n)O(m) = O(n/2) = O(n)O(m)=O(n/2)=O(n).

Total Time Complexity:

● Copying + Reversing + Comparing = O(n)+O(n)+O(n)=O(n)O(n) + O(n) + O(n) = O(n)O(n)+O(n)+O(n)=O(n).

Thus, the time complexity for identifying ww' using a multi-tape Turing machine is O(n)O(n)O(n).

Comparison: Single-Tape vs. Multi-Tape Turing Machine

● In a single-tape Turing machine, the head must frequently move back and forth between the two halves of the string,
leading to a time complexity of O(n2)O(n^2)O(n2) for both ww and ww'.
● In a multi-tape Turing machine, since it can copy and compare in parallel using different tapes, the time complexity is
reduced to O(n)O(n)O(n).

Conclusion
Problem Single-Tape TM Multi-Tape TM

ww O(n2) O(n)

ww' O(n2) O(n)

Thus, a multi-tape Turing machine is significantly more efficient for identifying both ww and ww' compared to a single-tape
Turing machine.

The slide explains two key topics in computational theory:

1. Complexity of Turing Machines (TM):

● Deterministic Turing Machine (DTM):

○ Focuses on the "best setup" (single or multi-tape configuration).
 ○ Emphasizes the worst-case number of transitions, which is used to determine the complexity of a problem
being solved by the machine.
● Non-Deterministic Turing Machine (NTM):
○ Illustrated as a tree structure where each path represents a different sequence of transitions.
○ Complexity is analyzed by considering all possible computation paths. The branching causes exponential
growth in the number of paths, leading to:
■ Time complexity: O(2n)O(2^n)O(2n) in the worst case for all branches.
■ Higher computational cost compared to DTM.

2. Complexity Classes and Relation with Recursive and RE Languages:

● Shows a Venn diagram of complexity classes:

○ R (Recursive): Problems that can be solved and verified by a DTM.
○ RE (Recursively Enumerable): Problems where solutions can be verified by a DTM, but not necessarily
solved in all cases.
○ Indicates the relationships between these classes:
■ Recursive is a subset of Recursively Enumerable (RE).
■ Points to the inclusion of NP and possibly P within these sets, depending on definitions.

This slide seems to summarize the distinction between deterministic and non-deterministic computation, as well as situating
them within broader computational complexity classes.

The language L={aibjck∣i≠j or j≠k} is context free.

Select one:

True

False
The correct answer is 'True'.
The language L={w∈{a,b}∗∣the number of a is a multiple of the number of b} is context free.

Select one:

True

False
The correct answer is 'False'.
The language L={ambncp∣m,n,p≥0 and m=n or n=p} is context free.

Select one:

True

False
The correct answer is 'True'.
The language L={aibjck∣i,j,k≥0 and i=j+k} is context free.

Select one:
 True

False

The correct answer is 'True'.

The language L={w∈{a,b}∗∣w=wR}, where wR is the reverse of w, is:

a. Deterministic context-free

b. Regular

c. Non-deterministic context-free

d. Context-sensitive but not context-free

The correct answer is: Non-deterministic context-free

The language L={anbncndn∣n≥0} is context free.

Select one:

True

False
Feedback
The correct answer is 'False'.
Consider a language L={anb2n∣n≥0}. Which of the following statements is true?

Select one:

a. L is context-free but cannot be recognized by a deterministic PDA.

b. L is context-free and can be recognized by a deterministic PDA.

c. L is regular.

d. L is not context-free.
Feedback
Your answer is incorrect.

The correct answer is: L is context-free and can be recognized by a deterministic PDA.
Cook-Levin's Theorem and Its Details

Statement of Cook-Levin's Theorem:

The Cook-Levin theorem states that the Boolean Satisfiability Problem (SAT) is NP-complete. It was the first problem
proven to be NP-complete and serves as a foundation for NP-completeness proofs for other problems.

Key Concepts:

1. Boolean Satisfiability Problem (SAT):

○ Given a Boolean formula in Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF), determine whether there exists an assignment of
truth values to the variables that makes the entire formula true.
2. Decision Version:
○ This version asks: "Can we decide, in polynomial time, whether a given Boolean formula in CNF is satisfiable?"
3. NP and NP-Completeness:
○ NP: The class of decision problems for which a "yes" answer can be verified in polynomial time by a
non-deterministic Turing Machine.
○ NP-Complete: A problem is NP-complete if:
1. It belongs to NP.
2. Every other problem in NP can be reduced to it in polynomial time.

Proof Outline (Cook-Levin's Theorem):

The proof of Cook-Levin’s theorem establishes that SAT is NP-complete by the following steps:

Step 1: Show SAT is in NP:

● A solution to a SAT problem is an assignment of Boolean variables.

● To verify, substitute the values of the variables into the formula and check if it evaluates to true.
● This verification can be done in polynomial time, proving SAT∈NP\text{SAT} \in \text{NP}SAT∈NP.

Step 2: Polynomial Reduction:

● To show SAT is NP-complete, prove that any problem in NP can be transformed into an instance of SAT in
polynomial time.
● Consider any problem in NP solved by a non-deterministic Turing Machine (NTM).
Encoding the NTM into SAT:

1. Configurations:
○ A configuration of the NTM includes:
1. The state of the machine.
2. The position of the head.
3. The tape contents.
○ Represent these using Boolean variables.
2. Encoding Steps:
○ For each step of the NTM's computation:
1. Encode the machine's state using Boolean variables w1,w2,…,wkw_1, w_2, \ldots, w_kw1​,w2​,…,wk​.
2. Encode the tape contents and head position using additional Boolean variables.
3. Encode transitions between configurations using logical constraints.
3. Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF):
○ Transform the logical constraints into CNF formulas.
○ The resulting SAT formula represents the computation of the NTM.
4. Complexity:
○ The size of the SAT formula is polynomial in the size of the original NTM computation.

Reduction Steps in Detail:

● Any decision problem T∈NPT \in NPT∈NP can be reduced to SAT:

1. Reduction: For any input of TTT, construct a SAT formula that is satisfiable if and only if the answer to TTT is
"yes."
2. Verification: Verify the formula is satisfiable in polynomial time.

Conclusion:

● Since SAT is in NP and every problem in NP can be reduced to SAT in polynomial time: SAT∈NP-complete.

This theorem laid the foundation for computational complexity theory by identifying SAT as a universal problem for
NP-completeness proofs.