CH – 1 MEASUREMENTS

Length and time

● A ruler (rule) is used to measure the length of an object between 1mm and 1m.
● The volume of an object of irregular shape can be measured by placing it into a
measuring cylinder full of water. This causes the water level to rise, and this rise is
equal to the volume of the object.
● A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small distances that
a rule cannot measure.
● Analogue and digital clocks and devices are used to measure time intervals.
● An average value for a small distance and for a short time interval can be
found by measuring multiples (including the period of a pendulum).
Density: The density is defined as the mass per unit volume: 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠/𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝜌 = 𝑚/𝑉
The density ρ is in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m3, the mass m is in
kilograms, kg, and the volume V is in metres cubed, m3.

To find the density of a liquid:

●Find the mass of the measuring cylinder by placing it on a balance, then fill it
with the liquid and measure the new mass. The difference in masses is the
mass of the liquid.
●The volume can be read from the cylinder and the density calculated using
the equation.

To find the density of solid:

●Measure the mass of the solid by placing it on a balance.
●If the solid is regularly shaped, measure its dimensions using a ruler or other
measuring tool and then use a mathematical formula to find the volume.
●If the solid is irregularly shaped, immerse it in water and measure the volume
of the water displaced. This is the volume of the solid.
●Find the density using the equation.

The density of water is 1g/cm3; if the density of an object is greater than this
it will sink in water - if less, it will float.
Scalars and vectors
●A vector has a magnitude and a direction.
●A scalar has just a magnitude.

Examples:

Scalars Vectors
Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
Time Acceleration

●Vectors can be represented by arrows. To determine the resultant of two

vectors graphically, they must be placed head to tail; the line between the start
and finish is the resultant.
CH-2 MOTION
Motion
❑ Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time. If the speed of something is
changing, it is accelerating. The acceleration of free fall near to the Earth is constant.
❑ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒/𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
❑ Distance is measured in mm, cm, m or km and time measured in s, minutes or hours.
Remember to convert units to make sure everything is equivalent! For example if
distance is in 𝑘𝑚 and time is in ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠, then calculate 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 and 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × (60 × 60)to
get everything
❑ 1000 in metres and seconds.
❑ Velocity is the speed in a given direction.
❑ Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚/𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
In a distance-time graph:

●The gradient is velocity

○Negative gradient is returning
back to the starting point
●A horizontal line means it is
stationary
●If the distance is zero, it is back at
the starting point
●A curved line means that the
velocity is changing and it is
accelerating.
In a speed-time graph:

●The gradient is acceleration

○Negative gradient (i.e. negative
acceleration) is deceleration
●If the speed is zero, it is at rest
●A horizontal line means constant
speed
●The area under the line is the
distance travelled
●A curved line means that the
acceleration is changing.
CH 3 – FORCES AND MOTION
Mass and weight
Mass:
●Mass is a measure of how much matter is in an object.
●It is a property that resists change in motion.

Weight:
●Weight is a gravitational force (the effect of a gravitational
field on a mass) measured in Newtons: 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ×
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑚𝑔
●The gravitational field strength on Earth is 10N/kg
●Weights (and hence masses) can be compared using a
balance.

Same object on two different planets:

●The mass is the same
●The gravitational field strength g on the two planets will be
different (i.e. not 10 for both) so the weight is different.

Acceleration in free fall is due to gravity, and is the same as g,

i.e. 10𝑚𝑠−2
Forces
●Newton’s first law states that an object will not change its state of rest or of uniform motion, unless
acted on by a external unbalanced force.
●Newton’s second law states that 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
●Newton’s third law states that every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force.
For example, the force of the Earth’s gravity on an object is equal and opposite to the force of the
object’s gravity on the Earth.
• Friction is a force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating. Air resistance
is a form of friction.

• To find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line, they should be added together
if in the same direction and subtracted if in the opposite direction.

• For an object moving in a circle, with constant speed: - UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
●The speed is constant, but the direction is always changing
●This means the velocity is always changing
●Therefore it is accelerating and there must be a force perpendicular to its velocity towards the
centre of the circle.
A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body. This is called deformation:

●Elastic deformation: The object returns to its original shape when the load has been removed, an
example being a spring being stretched under normal usage.
●Plastic deformation: The object does not return to its original shape when the load has been
removed, an example being a spring that has been stretched too far.
For example, motion of a body falling in a uniform gravitational field:
●Initially, there is no air resistance and the only force acting on it is weight
●As it falls, it accelerates which increases its speed and hence air resistance
●This causes the resultant force downwards to decrease
●Therefore the acceleration decreases, so it is not speeding up as quickly
●Eventually they are equal and opposite and balance so there is no resultant force
●So there is no acceleration and the terminal velocity is reached
 Momentum
● Momentum is the product of mass and velocity: 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
● 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
● Impulse is the product of force and time, equal to the change in momentum:
𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = 𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖
In a collision, the total momentum before is equal to the total momentum afterwards, known as the principle of the
conservation of momentum.

In elastic collisions, the total kinetic energy before is equal to the total kinetic energy after.

Example:
● A 10kg stationary gun is loaded with a 10g bullet. It is fired, with the bullet travelling at 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏. What is the recoil
speed of the gun?

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟎

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔
𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝒗

𝒗 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟏
So the recoil speed is 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟏 (-0.1ms-1 is the velocity which is a vector, so we take the magnitude of it as we are finding
the speed).
CH 4 – TURNING EFFECTS
Hooke’s law states that for a spring,
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
where F is the force applied to the
spring in 𝑁, k is the spring constant in
𝑁𝑚−1, and x is the extension in 𝑚.

Linear (straight line) force-extension

graph:
●Elastic deformation following Hooke’s
law
○The point it stops being linear is called
the limit of proportionality. From then
on, it does not obey Hooke’s law.
●Gradient is the spring constant, k

Non-linear (curved line) force-extension

graph:
●Plastic deformation not following
Hooke’s law
●After the plastic region, it will fracture
Turning effect
The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect: 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓
𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑑

For example, when riding a bike, pressing your foot down on the
pedal causes a moment about the pivot, turning the pedal arms.

● The pivot point is the point about which the object can rotate.

● If a force is applied in the same line as the pivot (see first example
in diagram) the object will not rotate, and will remain stationary.

● If the force applied is in a different line to the pivot, it will rotate in

the direction of the force.

○ If it is perpendicular to the object, then the perpendicular distance

is the length of the object (see second example in diagram).

○ If it is not perpendicular to the object, then the perpendicular

distance to the pivot must be found (see third example in diagram).
An object is in equilibrium when the sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of anticlockwise moments (the
principle of moments) and there is no resultant force.
The principle of moments can be applied to check whether something balances. An experiment can be performed to
show that there is no net moment on a body in equilibrium by pivoting a uniform ruler at its centre and placing
different masses at different distances from the centre on either side until it balances, and showing that the clockwise
and anticlockwise moments are equal.

Centre of Mass
The centre of mass of a body is the point at which all of its mass can be
considered to act.
To calculate the centre of mass of a card:
1.Hang up the card and suspend a plumb line from the same place.
2.Mark the position of the thread.
3.Repeat the above steps with the card suspended from different places.
4.Where these lines intersect is the centre of mass.
If the centre of mass is below the point of suspension of an
object, it will be in stable equilibrium (e.g. a hanging plant
pot). If the centre of mass is above the point of suspension of
an object, it will be in unstable equilibrium (e.g. a pencil placed
on its sharp end). If the line of action of the object’s weight
moves outside the base, there will be a resultant moment and
it will topple.
CH- 5 – Forces and Matter
Pressure
Pressure in fluids causes a net force at right angles to any surface and is measured in
Pascals.
P = F/A

For example, lying down on a bed of nails compared to a single nail:

●The force applied is the weight of your body
●The total area is either a single pin point or many points spread out over a larger area
○So on a bed of nails, the pressure is lower as the area is greater.

Measuring pressure:
●A barometer consists of a tube filled with mercury with a vacuum at the top.
Atmospheric pressure pushes down at the sides causing the mercury to rise. The height of
the mercury is measured to find atmospheric pressure, where 760 mm or 29.92 in of
mercury corresponds to 1 atm.
●A manometer consists of a U-tube filled with mercury and with a gas at either end. The
difference in the height of the mercury on either side can be measured to find the
pressure difference between the two ends of the tube.

Pressure in liquids:
The pressure beneath a liquid surface increases with depth and density.
●It is given by 𝒑 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉
CH- 6 & 7 – Seminar
Energy sources
It is important to note that apart from geothermal, nuclear and tidal, the sun is the original source of all energy on
earth, released by nuclear fusion.
● Renewable energy is energy which can be replenished as quickly as it is used. Examples include:
○ Biofuel
○ Wind
○ Hydro-electricity
○ Geothermal
○ Tidal
○ Solar
○ Water waves
It is often more costly and less reliable than non-renewable energy (e.g. the wind is intermittent and solar energy
relies on good weather).

● Non-renewable energy is used more for large-scale energy supplies due to the large energy output per kilogram
of fuel. Examples include:
○ Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
○ Nuclear fuel
It is usually cheaper than renewable energy but is becoming less popular because one day it will run out and it is
harmful for the environment (e.g. burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases which cause global warming).
CH- 8 – Work and Power
Energy transfers
Energy can be transferred between different forms including kinetic, gravitational
potential, chemical, elastic potential, nuclear and internal energy as a result of an event or
process.

● Kinetic energy:
● Gravitational potential energy:

Energy can be transferred in various ways including:

● Forces e.g. when gravity accelerates an object downwards and gives it kinetic
energy.
● Electrical currents e.g. when a current passes through a lamp and it emits light
and heat.
● Heating e.g. when a fire is used to heat up an object.
● Waves e.g. vibrations cause waves to travel through the air as sound.

Work is done when a force moves something through a distance.

The work done is equal to the energy transferred.

● Work done: 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝑾 = 𝑭𝒅
Forces doing no work
Power is the rate at which energy is
transferred or the rate at which work is done.
For example, a lamp with a greater power will be brighter because it transfers more
energy from electrical energy to light and heat energy in a given time.

● Power: 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑/𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑃 = 𝐸/𝑡

Law of Conservation of Energy:

Energy is always conserved in an isolated system. The total energy before is equal
to the total energy after.

For example, when a ball is dropped, gravitational potential energy becomes kinetic
energy as it accelerates downwards. Upon impact with the floor, this kinetic energy
will become thermal energy and sound energy.

In any event or process energy tends to become more spread out among the
objects and surroundings (dissipated).
● The efficiency is the ratio of the useful work done to the total energy supplied, often expressed as a percentage.

● The efficiency of a system can be increased by:

○
Reducing waste output (lubrication, thermal insulation, etc.)
○ Recycling waste output (e.g. absorbing thermal waste and recycling it as input energy)
CH- 9 The Kinetic Particle Model of
Matter
• Matter is made up of tiny particles (atoms, molecules, ions and electrons) which are too small for us to see directly. But
they can be ‘seen’ by scientific ‘eyes’.
• Molecules consist of even smaller particles called atoms and these are in continuous motion.
Changes of state:
9.2 The Kinetic Particle Model of Matter
• The word ‘kinetic’ means related to movement. All matter is made up of tiny particles-atoms,molecules or ions.
• When a substance is heated, its particles gain energy and move faster. The higher the temperature, the faster the
particles move.
• We draw all the atoms and molecules as spheres and refer them all as particles.

When the temperature is

reduced, the average kinetic
energy of the particles
reduces, and eventually a
temperature is reached
where particle motion ceases and
the kinetic energy
of the particles is zero. We call
this temperature
absolute zero and it occurs at
−273°C.
Change of state
Evidence for the kinetic model
• In 1827, a scientist called Robert Brown was using a microscope to study pollen grains when he noticed tiny particles
jiggling about. At first he thought that they might be alive, but when he repeated his experiment with tiny grains of dust
suspended in water, he saw that the dust also moved around.
• This motion is now known as Brownian motion, and it happens because the moving particles are constantly knocked
about by the fast¬ moving particles of the air.

• Explanation of Brownian motion

• The random motion of the microscopic smoke particles is due to random molecular collisions of fast-moving air
molecules in the cell.
• A smoke particle is massive compared with an air molecule, but if there are more high-speed molecules striking one side
of it than the other at a given instant, the particle will move in the direction in which there is a net force.
• The imbalance, and hence the direction of the net force, changes rapidly in a random manner.

Why do the particles that make up a solid or a liquid stick

together? There must be attractive forces (forces pulling
them together) between them.
Kelvin temperature scale
 BOYLE’S LAW
relationship between pressure and
volume for gas at a constant
temperature:

pV =constant

This means that pressure is inversely

proportional to volume.

Thestandard unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa).

1Pa = 1N/m2. Pressure can also be measured in kPa,
N/cm2 or atmospheres. One atmosphereis approximately
100kPa.
Volume is usually measured in m3, dm3, cm3or litres.
CH- 10 Thermal Properties of matter
Thermal properties and temperature
Thermal expansion

When something is heated, it expands because the molecules take up more

space:
●When a solid is heated, the molecules vibrate more but stay in place, so
the relative order of magnitude of the expansion is small.
●When a liquid is heated, it expands for the same reason as a solid, but the
intermolecular forces are less so it expands more.
●When a gas is heated, the molecules move faster and further apart, so the
relative order of magnitude of the expansion is the greatest.

Some applications and consequences of thermal expansion include:

●Railway tracks having small gaps so that they don’t buckle when they
expand
●The liquid in a thermometer expands with temperature and rises up the
glass
●Bimetallic strips are used in fire alarms and thermostats. The metal that
expands the most is on outside of the curve.
HW
a What is meant by the anomalous expansion of water?
b Name two consequences of the unusual expansion of water.
Thermal capacity
When the temperature of a body rises, its internal energy increases and its molecules vibrate more.
●The specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by
1℃.

Cℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
where ΔE is the change in thermal energy in J,
c is the specific heat capacity in Jkg-1℃-1,
m is the mass in kg and
ΔT is the change in temperature in ℃.

●The thermal capacity of a body is how much energy needs to be put in to raise its temperature by a given
amount.
○The thermal capacity of a system is given by: 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝒎𝒄
Melting and boiling
Melting and boiling occur when energy is put in to a body without a change in temperature.
●The melting point is the temperature at which a given solid will melt when heated.
●The boiling point is the temperature at which a given liquid will turn into a gas when heated.
●Condensation is when some molecules in a gas do not have enough energy to remain as separate molecules,
so they come close together and form bonds, becoming liquid.
●Freezing is when the molecules in a liquid slow down enough that their attractions cause them to arrange
themselves into fixed positions, becoming solid.

Evaporation is different to boiling because it can happen at any temperature and

only occurs at the surface of the liquid.
●The specific latent heat is the amount of energy needed to change the state of 1kg of a substance.
○Specific latent heat of fusion is the energy to melt/freeze
○Specific latent heat of vaporization is energy to boil/condense
●𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑙
where E is the energy needed in J, m is the mass in kg, and l is the specific latent heat in Jkg-1.
Change of state
Thermocouple:
● Contains two different metals which meet
● The temperature difference between them causes a tiny voltage which makes a current flow; the greater
the temperature difference the greater the current.
● Used for high temperatures which vary rapidly

Liquid-in-glass thermometer:
● As temperature rises or falls, the liquid expands or contracts.
● Amount of expansion can be matched to temperature on a scale.

Sensitivity, range and linearity:

● Sensitivity is the change in length per change in temperature.
○ To increase the sensitivity of a thermometer, use a bigger bulb or a narrower bore.
● Range is the difference between maximum and minimum temperatures.
○ To increase the range of a thermometer, use a wider bore or a longer stem.
● Linearity is when a given change in temperature causes the same change in length.

Fixed points are used to calibrate thermometers. For example, the fixed points of the celsius scale are the melting
point and the boiling point of water.
CH- 11 Thermal Processes
Pg 206-207-Textbook