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Anatomy Physiology with Integrated Study Guide Fourth
Edition Stanley E. Gunstream Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Stanley E. Gunstream
ISBN(s): 9780077281533, 0077281535
Edition: 4th Edition
File Details: PDF, 56.40 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
gun25650_INS_FR.qxd 09/10/2008 13:09 Page InsFii

Common Medical Abbreviations

ABG arterial blood gas HR heart rate
ACh acetylcholine HSV herpes simplex virus
ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone ICF intracellular fluid
ADH antidiuretic hormone ICP intracranial pressure
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ID intradermal
ALS amyotrophic lateral sclerosis IDDM insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
ANS autonomic nervous system IM intramuscular
ARF acute renal failure IV intravenous
A-V atrioventricular LDL low-density lipoprotein
BMR basal metabolic rate LH luteinizing hormone
BP blood pressure LLQ left lower quadrant
BUN blood urea nitrogen LUQ left upper quadrant
CAD coronary artery disease LV left ventricle
CBC complete blood count MI myocardial infarction
CHD coronary heart disease MRI magnetic resonance imaging
CHF congestive heart failure MS multiple sclerosis
CNS central nervous system MVP mitral valve prolapse
CO cardiac output NGU nongonococcal urethritis
COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease NIDDM noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation NPN nonprotein nitrogen
CRF chronic renal failure OC oral contraceptive
C-section cesarean section PE pulmonary embolism
CT (CAT) computed (axial) tomography PID pelvic inflammatory disease
CVA cerebrovascular accident PKU phenylketonuria
CVS chorionic villi sampling PMN polymorphonuclear leukocyte
D&C dilation and curettage PMS premenstrual syndrome
DMD Duchenne muscular dystrophy PTH parathyroid hormone
DNR do not resuscitate RBC red blood cell
Dx diagnosis RDS respiratory distress syndrome
EBV Epstein-Barr virus REM rapid eye movement
ECF extracellular fluid RES reticuloendothelial system
ECG (EKG) electrocardiogram RLQ right lower quadrant
EEG electroencephalogram RUQ right upper quadrant
EP ectopic pregnancy Rx prescription
ESR erythrocyte sedimentation rate SA sinoatrial
ESRD end stage renal disease SIDS sudden infant death syndrome
FAS fetal alcohol syndrome SLE systemic lupus erythrematosis
FSH follicle-stimulating hormone STD sexually transmitted disease
FUO fever of unknown origin T3 triiodothyronine
GFR glomerular filtration rate T4 thyroxine
GH growth hormone TIA transient ischemic attack
GI gastrointestinal TMJ temporomandibular joint
HAV hepatitis A virus t-PA tissue plasminogen activator
Hb hemoglobin TSS toxic shock syndrome
HBV hepatitis B virus Tx treatment
HCG human chorionic gonadotropin URI upper respiratory infection
HCV hepatitis C virus UTI urinary tract infection
HDL high-density lipoprotein VD venereal disease
HLA human leukocyte antigen WBC white blood cell
gun25650_fm.qxd 04/12/2008 11:11 Page i

S TA N L E Y E . G U N S T R E A M
Pa sa de n a Ci ty Co l l e g e

ANATOMY

PHYSIOLOGY
&
with Integrated Study Guide
fourth edition
gun25650_fm.qxd 12/2/08 6:10 PM Page ii

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY WITH INTEGRATED STUDY GUIDE, FOURTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue
of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2010 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 2006, 2000, and 1996. No part of this publication
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or
retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission,
or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to
customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 QPD/QPD 0 9

ISBN 978–0–07–352565–5
MHID 0–07–352565–0

Publisher: Michelle Watnick

Senior Sponsoring Editor: James F. Connely
Director of Development: Kristine Tibbetts
Senior Developmental Editor: Lynne M. Meyers
Marketing Manager: Lynn M. Breithaupt
Project Manager: Joyce Watters
Senior Production Supervisor: Laura Fuller
Senior Media Project Manager: Tammy Juran
Associate Design Coordinator: Brenda A. Rolwes
Cover Designer: Studio Montage, St. Louis, Missouri
(USE) Cover Image: © Getty Images
Senior Photo Research Coordinator: John C. Leland
Photo Research: LouAnn K. Wilson
Compositor: S4Carlisle Publishing Services
Typeface: 10/12 Melior
Printer: Quebecor World Dubuque, IA

The credits section for this book begins on page 539 and is considered an extension of the
copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gunstream, Stanley E.
Anatomy & physiology : with integrated study guide/Stanley E. Gunstream. — 4th ed.
p. cm.
Cover title: Anatomy and physiology
Includes index.
ISBN 978–0–07–352565–5 — ISBN 0–07–352565–0 (hard copy : alk. paper)
1. Human physiology. 2. Human anatomy. I. Title. II. Title: Anatomy and physiology.

QP34.5.G85 2010
612—dc22

2008040454

www.mhhe.com
gun25650_fm.qxd 12/2/08 6:10 PM Page iii

CONTENTS

Preface vii ■ CHAPTER THREE

Note to Students x Cell 40
Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 40
Selected Key Terms 41
Cell Structure 41
PART ONE Transport Through Plasma Membranes 46
Organization of the Body 1 Cellular Respiration 51
Protein Synthesis 52
■ CHAPTER ONE Cell Division 54
Introduction to the Human Body 1 Chapter Summary 58
Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 1 Building Your Vocabulary 59
Selected Key Terms 2 Check Your Understanding 60
Anatomy and Physiology 2 Critical Thinking 60
Levels of Organization 2
Directional Terms 4 ■ CHAPTER FOUR
Body Regions 6
Tissues and Membranes 61
Body Planes and Sections 6
Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 61
Body Cavities 8
Selected Key Terms 62
Abdominopelvic Subdivisions 11
Epithelial Tissues 62
Maintenance of Life 13
Connective Tissues 66
Chapter Summary 14
Muscle Tissues 72
Building Your Vocabulary 16
Nerve Tissue 73
Check Your Understanding 16
Body Membranes 73
Critical Thinking 16
Chapter Summary 75
Colorplates of the Human Body 17
Building Your Vocabulary 76
Check Your Understanding 77
■ CHAPTER TWO Critical Thinking 77
Chemical Aspects of Life 24
Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 24
Selected Key Terms 25 PART TWO
Atoms and Elements 25
Molecules and Compounds 27 Covering, Support, and
Compounds Composing the Movement of the Body 78
Human Body 30
Chapter Summary 38 ■ CHAPTER FIVE
Building Your Vocabulary 39 Integumentary System 78
Check Your Understanding 39 Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 78
Critical Thinking 39 Selected Key Terms 79
iii
gun25650_fm.qxd 12/2/08 6:10 PM Page iv

iv Contents

Functions of the Skin 79 PART THREE

Structure of the Skin and Hypodermis 79
Skin Color 82 Integration and Control 149
Accessory Structures 83
Temperature Regulation 85
■ CHAPTER EIGHT
Aging of the Skin 86 Nervous System 149
Disorders of the Skin 87 Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 149
Chapter Summary 88 Selected Key Terms 150
Building Your Vocabulary 89 Divisions of the Nervous System 150
Check Your Understanding 89 Nerve Tissue 150
Critical Thinking 89 Neuron Physiology 153
Protection for the Central Nervous System 157
■ CHAPTER SIX Brain 158
Skeletal System 90 Spinal Cord 163
Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 90 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 165
Selected Key Terms 91 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 170
Functions of the Skeletal System 91 Disorders of the Nervous System 174
Bone Structure 91 Chapter Summary 175
Bone Formation 92 Building Your Vocabulary 176
Divisions of the Skeleton 95 Check Your Understanding 177
Axial Skeleton 95 Critical Thinking 177
Appendicular Skeleton 106
Articulations 115 ■ CHAPTER NINE
Disorders of the Skeletal System 116 Senses 178
Chapter Summary 120 Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 178
Building Your Vocabulary 121 Selected Key Terms 179
Check Your Understanding 122 Sensations 179
Critical Thinking 122 General Senses 180
Special Senses 182
■ CHAPTER SEVEN Disorders of Hearing and Vision 197
Muscular System 123 Chapter Summary 199
Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 123 Building Your Vocabulary 200
Selected Key Terms 124 Check Your Understanding 201
Structure of Skeletal Muscle 124 Critical Thinking 201
Physiology of Muscle Contraction 128
Actions of Skeletal Muscles 132 ■ CHAPTER TEN
Naming of Muscles 133 Endocrine System 202
Major Skeletal Muscles 133 Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 202
Disorders of the Muscular System 143 Selected Key Terms 203
Chapter Summary 146 The Nature of Hormones 203
Building Your Vocabulary 147 Pituitary Gland 206
Check Your Understanding 148 Thyroid Gland 209
Critical Thinking 148 Parathyroid Glands 210
gun25650_fm.qxd 12/2/08 6:10 PM Page v

Contents v

Adrenal Glands 212 Building Your Vocabulary 265

Pancreas 213 Check Your Understanding 266
Gonads 215 Critical Thinking 266
Other Endocrine Glands and Tissues 216
Chapter Summary 217 ■ CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Building Your Vocabulary 218 Lymphatic System and
Check Your Understanding 219 Defenses Against Disease 267
Critical Thinking 219 Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 267
Selected Key Terms 268
Lymph 269
PART FOUR Lymphatic Capillaries and Vessels 269
Transport of Lymph 269
Maintenance of the Body 220
Lymphatic Organs 271
■ CHAPTER ELEVEN Nonspecific Resistance Against Disease 273
Immunity 274
Blood 220
Immune Responses 279
Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 220
Rejection of Organ Transplants 280
Selected Key Terms 221
Disorders of the Lymphatic and
General Characteristics of Blood 221
Immune Systems 280
Red Blood Cells 221
Chapter Summary 282
White Blood Cells 223
Building Your Vocabulary 283
Platelets 227
Check Your Understanding 284
Plasma 227
Critical Thinking 284
Hemostasis 228
Human Blood Types 230 ■ CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Disorders of the Blood 233 Respiratory System 285
Chapter Summary 234 Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 285
Building Your Vocabulary 236 Selected Key Terms 286
Check Your Understanding 236 Organs of the Respiratory System 286
Critical Thinking 236 Breathing 291
Respiratory Volumes 293
■ CHAPTER TWELVE Control of Breathing 295
Heart and Blood Vessels 237 Factors Influencing Breathing 296
Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 237 Gas Exchange 296
Selected Key Terms 238 Transport of Respiratory Gases 297
Structure of the Heart 238 Disorders of the Respiratory System 299
Cardiac Cycle 243 Chapter Summary 300
Heart Conduction System 244 Building Your Vocabulary 302
Regulation of Heart Function 246 Check Your Understanding 302
Types of Blood Vessels 248 Critical Thinking 302
Blood Flow 250
Blood Pressure 251 ■ CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Circulation Pathways 252 Digestive System 303
Systemic Arteries 253 Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 303
Systemic Veins 258 Selected Key Terms 304
Disorders of the Heart and Blood Vessels 262 Digestion: An Overview 304
Chapter Summary 263 Alimentary Canal: General Characteristics 305
gun25650_fm.qxd 12/2/08 6:10 PM Page vi

vi Contents

Mouth 306 Birth Control 370

Pharynx and Esophagus 310 Disorders of the Reproductive Systems 373
Stomach 311 Chapter Summary 375
Pancreas 313 Building Your Vocabulary 376
Liver 315 Check Your Understanding 377
Small Intestine 317 Critical Thinking 377
Large Intestine 319
Nutrients: Sources and Uses 322 ■ CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
Disorders of the Digestive System 327 Pregnancy, Prenatal Development,
Chapter Summary 329 and Genetics 378
Building Your Vocabulary 331 Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 378
Check Your Understanding 331 Selected Key Terms 379
Critical Thinking 331 Fertilization and Early Development 379
Hormonal Control of Pregnancy 380
■ CHAPTER SIXTEEN Embryonic Development 382
Urinary System 332 Fetal Development 385
Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 332 Birth 386
Selected Key Terms 333 Circulatory Adaptations 389
Kidneys 334 Lactation 391
Urine Formation 337 Disorders of Pregnancy and Prenatal
Maintenance of Blood Plasma Development 392
Composition 344 Genetics 392
Excretion of Urine 349 Inherited Diseases 396
Characteristics of Urine 350 Chapter Summary 398
Disorders of the Urinary System 350 Building Your Vocabulary 400
Chapter Summary 351 Check Your Understanding 400
Building Your Vocabulary 353 Critical Thinking 400
Check Your Understanding 353
Critical Thinking 353
PART SIX
PART FIVE Study Guides 401
Reproduction 354 Appendix
■ CHAPTER SEVENTEEN A Keys to Medical Terminology 517
Reproductive Systems 354 B Answers to Check Your
Chapter Preview and Learning Objectives 354 Understanding Questions 521
Selected Key Terms 355
Male Reproductive System 355
Male Sexual Response 361 Glossary 523
Hormonal Control of Reproduction in Males 361 Credits 539
Female Reproductive System 363 Index 540
Female Sexual Response 366
Hormonal Control of Reproduction in
Females 367
Mammary Glands 370
gun25650_fm.qxd 12/2/08 6:10 PM Page vii

PREFACE

natomy and Physiology with Integrated completion, matching, and true/false questions. The

A Study Guide, fourth edition, is designed for

students who are enrolled in a one-semester
course in human anatomy and physiology.
The scope, organization, writing style, depth of presen-
completion questions “force” students to write and
spell correctly the technical terms that they must
know. Each chapter study guide concludes with a few
critical-thinking, short-answer essay questions where
tation, and pedagogical aspects of the text have been tai- students apply their knowledge to clinical situations.
lored to meet the needs of students preparing for a career Answers to the Study Guide are included in the
in one of the allied health professions. Instructor’s Manual to allow the instructor flexibility:
These students usually have diverse backgrounds, (1) answers may be posted so students can check their
including limited exposure to biology and chemistry, own responses, or (2) they may be graded to assess stu-
and this presents a formidable challenge to the instruc- dent progress. Either way, prompt feedback to stu-
tor. To help meet this challenge, this text is written in dents is most effective in maximizing learning.
clear, concise English and simplifies the complexities of
anatomy and physiology in ways that enhance under-
standing without diluting the essential subject matter.
Other Learning Aids
A variety of additional learning aids are incorporated
Themes to facilitate the learning process and to stimulate in-
terest in the subject.
There are two unifying themes in this presentation of
normal human anatomy and physiology: (1) the rela- Chapter Preview and Learning
tionships between structure and function of body
parts and (2) the mechanisms of homeostasis. In addi- Objectives
tion, interrelationships of the organ systems are noted Each chapter begins with a list of major topics dis-
where appropriate and useful. cussed in the chapter, and under each topic the learn-
ing objectives are noted. This informs students of the
Organization major topics to be covered and their minimal learning
responsibilities.
The sequence of chapters progresses from simple to
complex. The simple-to-complex progression also is Key Terms
used within each chapter. Chapters covering an organ
system begin with anatomy to ensure that students are Several features have been incorporated to assist stu-
well prepared to understand the physiology that fol- dents in learning the necessary technical terms that
lows. Each chapter concludes with a brief considera- often are troublesome for beginning students.
tion of common disorders that the student may 1. A list of Selected Key Terms with definitions,
encounter in the clinical setting. An integrated study and including derivations where helpful, is pro-
guide, unique among anatomy and physiology texts, is vided at the beginning of the chapter to inform
located between the text proper and the appendices. students of some of the key terms to watch for
in the chapter.
Study Guide 2. Throughout the text, key terms are in bold or
italic type for easy recognition, and they are de-
The Study Guide is a proven mechanism for enhancing fined at the time of first usage. A phonetic pro-
learning by students and features full-color line art. nunciation follows where students need help in
There is a study guide of four to eight pages for each pronouncing the term. Experience has shown
chapter. Students demonstrate their understanding that students learn only terms that they can
of the chapter by labeling diagrams and answering pronounce.
vii
gun25650_fm.qxd 12/2/08 6:10 PM Page viii

viii Preface

3. Keys to Medical Terminology in appendix A ex-

plains how technical terms are structured and
Changes in the
provides a list of prefixes, suffixes, and root Fourth Edition
words to further aid an understanding of med-
ical terminology. The fourth edition has been substantially improved to
4. At the end of each chapter, a section titled help beginning students understand the basics of
Building Your Vocabulary provides a list of human anatomy and physiology.
Selected New Terms that allows students to re- 1. Portions of most chapters have been rewritten
view their understanding of the new terms. to update the subject matter and to clarify the
Also, a few Related Clinical Terms are defined narrative.
with phonetic pronunciations to help students 2. Many new and improved figures augment the
to start building a clinical vocabulary. text to enhance student learning.
3. Portions of the Study Guide have been modified
Figures and Tables to correspond to the updated subject matter.
Over 350 high quality, full-color illustrations are coor-
dinated with the text to help students visualize
anatomical features and physiological concepts. Ancillaries
Tables are used throughout to summarize information Online Learning Center (OLC)
in a way that is more easily learned by students.
Online learning center at www.mhhe.com/gunstream4
Clinical Boxes For the student—this comprehensive site give you the
Numerous boxes containing related clinical informa- opportunity to further explore topics presented in the
tion are strategically placed throughout the text. They book using the Internet. The site contains multiple
serve to provide interesting and useful information re- choice quizzes, labeling exercises, crossword puzzles,
lated to the topic at hand. The clinical boxes are iden- case studies, a Spanish anatomy and physiology glos-
tified by a stethoscope icon for easy recognition. sary, a cross-sectional mini atlas, histology informa-
tion, and more.
In-Text Review Questions For the instructor—the OLC offers an extensive array
of learning and teaching tools. Instructor resources in-
Review questions at the end of major sections chal- clude PowerPoint lecture outlines and answers to the
lenge students to assess their understanding before critical-thinking questions in addition to the student
proceeding. assets listed above.

Chapter Summary
Each chapter summary consists of a numerical listing Course Delivery Systems
of key concepts for each major heading of the chapter. With help from our partners, WebCT, Blackboard, and
The summary provides a quick review of each chapter other course management systems, you can take com-
for the student. plete control over your course content. These course
cartridges also provide online testing and powerful
Check Your Understanding student tracking features.

A brief quiz, composed of completion questions, al-

lows students to evaluate their understanding of Instructor’s Testing and Resource
chapter topics. Answers are provided in appendix B
for immediate feedback. CD-ROM
The Instructor’s Testing and Resource CD-ROM pro-
Critical Thinking vides the following:
Each chapter concludes with several critical thinking 1. The instructor’s manual content which
questions, which further challenge students to apply includes lecture outlines and instructional
their understanding of key chapter topics. suggestions for each chapter.
gun25650_fm.qxd 12/2/08 6:10 PM Page ix

Preface ix

2. Answers to the study guide. pleasure to work with these gifted professionals at
3. A test bank of 40 to 50 multiple-choice each step in the process. I am especially appreciative
questions with answers for each chapter. of the support of James Connely, Sponsoring Editor;
4. A computerized test bank utilizing Debra Henricks, MHHE Developmental Editor, who
McGraw-Hill’s EZ Test software. This user- guided the revision process; and Ted Knight,
friendly program allows instructors to quickly Developmental Editor at Hahn Consulting, who
create customized exams. Instructors can sort played a key role in polishing the manuscript. All of
questions by format, edit existing questions or these professionals have made significant contribu-
add new ones, and scramble questions for tions to this fourth edition.
multiple versions of the same test. The following instructors have served as criti-
5. The image bank website contains line art cal reviewers:
images and numerous photos that are posted as
Katherine M. Van de Wal, Community College of
PPT slides. Instructors can simply cut and paste
Baltimore County—Essex Campus
the artwork into customized classroom presen-
Janice Pressley, Westwood College
tations for their instructional needs. The url for
Elizabeth Martin, College of Lake County
the image bank website is
Melissa Reed, Pitt Community College
http://www.mhhe.com/gunstream4
Gail McGuire, Cap Cod Community College
Jim Robinson, Central Georgia Tech
Laboratory Manual Diane Alagna, Branford Hall Career Institute
Jennifer Swann, Lehigh University
Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Textbook, Maryanne Atkinson, Northshore Community College
Essentials Version by Stanley E. Gunstream, Harold J. Murray Jensen, Univ. of Minnesota-Minneapolis
Benson, Arthur Talaro, and Kathleen P. Talaro, all of Beth Kersten, Manatee Community College
Pasadena City College. This excellent lab text pre- Russell Blalock, Central Georgia Technical College
sents the fundamentals of human anatomy and phys- Camelia Lamey, Minnesota State Community and
iology in an easy-to-read manner that is appropriate Technical College-Moorehead
for students in allied health programs. It is designed Andrea Dodge, North Shore Community College
especially for the one-semester course; it features a Melissa Curfman-Falvey, Jefferson College
simple, concise writing style, 38 self-directing exer- Tracy Fischer, Capri College
cises, full-color photomicrographs in the Histology Sandra Walsh, ECPI College of Technology
Atlas, and numerous illustrations in each exercise. Jack R. Brook, Mt. Hood Community college
Contact your McGraw-Hill sales representative for ac- Shawn Bjerke, Minnesota State Community and
cess to the online instructor’s manual. Technical College
Their suggestions have been very helpful, and I am
Acknowledgments grateful for their input.
I especially thank Margie for her patience and
The development and production of this fourth edi- support.
tion has been the result of a team effort. My dedicated
S.E.G.
and creative teammates at McGraw-Hill have con-
tributed greatly to the finished product. I gratefully
acknowledge and applaud their efforts. It has been a
gun25650_fm.qxd 12/2/08 6:11 PM Page x

NOTE TO STUDENTS
ou are starting a fascinating and challeng- The accent mark indicates the major accent

Y ing study of human anatomy and physiol-

ogy. The course will be rigorous, but you
can improve your chances of success by
in the term, such as in terminology (ter-min-ol′-ō-
jē) and anatomy (a-nat′-ō-mē).
You can best learn new terms and their
taking advantage of the learning aids found in this text. meanings by preparing flash cards from 3 ⫻ 5
The suggestions noted below have been helpful to index cards. Place the term on one side and the
many students. Consider incorporating them into your definition on the other. Place only one term on
study habits. each card.
1. You can best profit from your instructor’s lecture 4. Use a highlighter pen liberally to mark the key
if you have prepared for it by studying the reading statements in each paragraph as you read. This
assignment before you attend the lecture. If you will help you identify the key points to study
do this, you will know the new terms that will be later on. You may want to make flash cards to
encountered and at least the general aspects of the help you learn these key points.
subject matter. This will enable you to better un- 5. Review questions are strategically located in
derstand the lecture and take better lecture notes. the text to allow you to check your understand-
It will save you study time later on. ing of each major section. It is important to be
2. Before you read a chapter, you need to do two able to answer these questions correctly before
things. First, examine the Chapter Preview and proceeding.
Learning Objectives. This will inform you of the 6. After reading the chapter, review the Chapter
sequence of major topics to be covered and your Summary to be sure that you understood the
minimal learning responsibilities. Second, study key points of the chapter. This section will
the list of Selected Key Terms to learn their give you a quick review of the chapter later on
meanings. After you have done these two things, as well.
you will be prepared to learn effectively as you 7. Learning new terms is one of the more difficult
read the chapter. aspects of a course in anatomy and physiology.
3. As you read a chapter, watch for new terms and After reading a chapter, use Building Your
be sure to learn their pronunciation and meaning Vocabulary to help you master the terminology.
before going on. Use the Glossary and Keys to Review the list of Selected New Terms to be sure
Medical Terminology as necessary to assist you. that you know their meanings. If not, look them
Key terms are in bold or italic print so that you up in the chapter or in the glossary. Then learn
can easily recognize them. Where pronunciation the Related Clinical Terms to start building your
help is needed, a phonentic pronunciation im- clinical vocabulary.
mediately follows in parentheses to help you 8. After you think that you understand the topics
pronounce the term correctly. Say the term out pretty well, complete the Study Guide for the
loud a few times to be sure that you know the chapter you are studying. It covers the major
correct pronunciation. This will help you re- points of the chapter, and it includes a few crit-
member the term. ical thinking questions that apply your knowl-
edge to clinical situations. You may find it
The phonetic pronunciation breaks terms
easier to remove the chapter study guide from
into syllables and includes marks denoting long
the text before completing it. You can keep the
vowel sounds and major accents. Vowels marked
study guides in a loose-leaf notebook. Your in-
with a line above the letter are pronounced with a
structor has the answer key so you can check
long sound—the same sound as when saying the
your responses.
letter. Some examples follow:
9. Complete the Check Your Understanding self-test.
• ā as in take • ī¯ as in time The answers to the questions are located in ap-
• ē as in be • ō as in hole pendix B for immediate feedback.
10. Finally, complete the Critical Thinking section,
Vowels without these marks are pronounced which will help you integrate and apply your un-
with short sounds as in the following examples: derstanding of the chapter topics.
• a as in above • o as in pot If you have completed all of the above learning aids and
• e as in pet • u as in mud have completely answered the questions correctly, you
• i as in hip may be confident of your understanding.
x
gun25650_ch01.qxd 10/23/08 5:38 PM Page 1

ONE
C H A P T E R
Introduction to the
Human Body
Chapter Preview & Learning Objectives

Anatomy and Physiology

• Define anatomy and physiology.
Levels of Organization
• List and describe the levels of organization in the human body.
• List the major organs and functions for each organ system.
Directional Terms
• Use directional terms to describe the location of body parts.
Body Regions
• Locate the major body regions on a chart or manikin.
Body Planes and Sections
• Name and describe the four planes used in making sections of the body or body
parts.
Body Cavities
• Name the two major body cavities, their subdivisions and membranes, and locate
them on a chart or manikin.
• Name the organs located in each body cavity.
Abdominopelvic Subdivisions
• Name the abdominopelvic quadrants and nine regions, locate them on a chart or
manikin, and list the major internal organs found in each.
Maintenance of Life
• Describe the general nature of metabolism.
• List the five basic needs essential for human life.
• Define homeostasis and explain its relationship to both normal body functions and
disorders.
• Describe the general mechanisms of negative feedback and positive feedback.

Chapter Summary
Building Your Vocabulary
Check Your Understanding
Critical Thinking

1
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2 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body

SELECTED KEY TERMS

Anatomy (ana  apart; tom  to Homeostasis (homeo  same; Peritoneum (peri  around; ton 
cut) The study of the structure of sta  make stand or stop) to stretch) The membrane lining
living organisms. Maintenance of a relatively stable the abdominal cavity and covering
Anterior (ante  before, in front internal environment. the abdominal organs.
of) The abdominal or ventral side Meninges (mening  membrane) Physiology (physio  nature;
of the body. Membranes covering the brain and logy  study of) The study of the
Appendicular (append  to hang) spinal cord. functioning of living organisms.
Pertaining to the extremities (arms Metabolism (metabole  change) Pleura (pleura  rib) The mem-
and legs). The sum of the chemical reactions brane lining the thoracic cavity
Axial (ax  axis) Pertaining to in the body. and covering the lungs.
the longitudinal axis of the body. Parietal (paries  wall) Pertaining Posterior (post  after, behind)
Cephalic (cephal  head) to the wall of a body cavity. The dorsal or backside of the body.
Pertaining to the head. Pericardium (peri  around; Visceral (viscus  internal organ)
Cervical (cervic  neck) cardi  heart) The membrane Pertaining to organs in a body
Pertaining to the neck. surrounding the heart. cavity.

ou are beginning a fascinating and chal- Just as the structure of a knife is well suited for cutting,

Y lenging study—the study of the human

body. As you progress through this text,
you will begin to understand the complex-
the structure (anatomy) of a body part enables it to per-
form specific functions (physiology). Correlating the re-
lationship between structure and function will make
ity of organization and function found in the human your study of the human body much easier.
organism. Keep in mind that the goals of your study
are to learn (1) how the body is structured and organ-
ized and (2) how the body functions. Levels of Organization
This first chapter provides an overview of the
The human body is complex, so it is not surprising
human body to build a foundation of knowledge that
that there are several levels of structural organization,
is necessary for your continued study. Like the chap-
as shown in figure 1.1.
ters that follow, this chapter introduces a number of
new terms that must be learned. It is important that
you start to build a vocabulary of technical terms and Chemical Level
continue to develop it throughout your study. The chemical level consists of the atom, molecule,
macromolecule, and organelle subdivisions as shown
Anatomy and Physiology in figure 1.1. At the simplest level, the body is com-
posed of chemical substances that are formed of atoms
Knowledge of the human organism is obtained prima- and molecules. Atoms are the fundamental building
rily from two scientific disciplines—anatomy and blocks of chemicals, and atoms combine in specific
physiology—and each consists of a number of ways to form molecules. Some molecules are very
subdisciplines. small, such as water molecules, but others may be very
Human anatomy (ah-nat′-ō-mē) is the study of the large, such as the macromolecules of proteins. Various
structure and organization of the body and the study of small and large molecules are grouped together to
the relationships of body parts to one another. There are form organelles. An organelle (or -ga-nel′) is a micro-
two subdivisions of anatomy. Gross anatomy involves scopic subunit of a cell, somewhat like a tiny organ,
the dissection and examination of various parts of the that carries out specific functions within a cell.
body without magnifying lenses. Microanatomy con-
sists of the microscopic examination of tissues and cells.
Human physiology (fiz-ē-ol′-ō-jē) is the study of
Cellular Level
the function of the body and its parts. Physiology in- Cells are the basic structural and functional units of
volves observation and experimentation, and it usually the body because all of the processes of life occur
requires the use of specialized equipment and materials. within cells. The body is composed of many different
In your study of the human body, you will see types of cells. Muscle cells, blood cells, and nerve
that there is always a definite relationship between the cells are examples. The body is composed of trillions
anatomy and physiology of the body and body parts. of cells.
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Part 1 Organization of the Body 3

Chemical

Figure 1.1 Six levels of organization in the human body range from chemical (simplest) to organismic (most
complex).

Tissue Level system, but a few organs are assigned to more than one
organ system. For example, the ovaries and testes be-
Similar types of cells are usually grouped together in long to both the reproductive and endocrine systems.
the body to form a tissue. Each body tissue consists of Figure 1.2 illustrates the organ systems of the
an aggregation of similar cells that perform similar body and lists the major components and functions for
functions. There are several different types of tissues each system. Although each organ system has its own
in the body. Muscle and nerve tissues are examples. unique functions, all organ systems are interdependent
on one another. For example, cells of all organ systems
Organ Level rely on the cardiovascular system to supply nutrients.

Each organ of the body is composed of two or more tis-

sues that work together, enabling the organ to perform
its specific functions. The body contains numerous or-
gans, and each has a definite form and function. The Effective communication among health-care
stomach, heart, and brain are examples of organs. personnel depends upon the use of anatomical
and physiological terms to provide precise mean-
ing. These technical terms usually have Latin roots
Organ System Level and endings. To change such terms from singular to
The organs of the body are arranged in functional plural requires a change in the ending, but not the
groups so that their independent functions are coordi- addition of an s. Instead, terms ending in us are
nated to perform specific system functions. These co- changed to i, those ending in a are changed to ae,
ordinated, functional groups are called organ systems. and those ending in um are converted to a.
The digestive and nervous systems are examples of
organ systems. Most organs belong to a single organ
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4 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body

Integumentary system Skeletal system Muscular system

Components: skin, hair, nails, and Components: bones, ligaments, Components: skeletal muscles,
associated glands and associated cartilages cardiac muscle of the heart, and smooth
Functions: protects underlying tissues Functions: supports the body, muscle in walls of internal organs
and helps regulate body temperature protects vital organs, stores min- Functions: moves the body and
erals, and forms blood cells body parts and produces heat

Figure 1.2 The organ systems of the body.

Organismic Level
The highest organizational level is the organismic
level, the human organism as a whole. All of the orga-
nizational levels from chemicals to organ systems con-
tribute to the functioning of the entire body.

What are the organizational levels of the

human body?
What are the major organs and general func-
tions of each organ system?

Directional Terms
Directional terms are used to describe the relative posi- Respiratory system Cardiovascular system
tion of a body part. The use of these terms conveys a pre- Components: nasal cavity, Components: blood, heart, ar-
cise meaning enabling the listener or reader to locate the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, teries, veins, and capillaries
and lungs Functions: transports materials
body part of interest. It is always assumed that the body Functions: exchanges O2 and CO2 to and from the body cells
is in a standard position, the anatomical position, in between air and blood in the lungs
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Lymphatic system Urinary system Endocrine system

Components: lymph, lymphatic Components: kidneys, ureters, Components: hormone-
vessels, and lymphatic tissue urinary bladder, and urethra producing glands
Functions: collects, cleanses, and Functions: regulates volume and Functions: secretes hormones
returns interstitial fluid to the blood; composition of blood by forming that regulate body functions
provides immunity and excreting urine

Nervous system Digestive system Male reproductive system Female reproductive system
Components: brain, spinal cord, Components: mouth, pharynx, Components: testes, vasa deferentia, Components: ovaries, uterine
nerves, and sensory receptors esophagus, stomach, intestines, prostate gland, bulbourethral gland, tubes, uterus, vagina, and vulva
Functions: rapidly coordinates anus, liver, pancreas, and associated and penis Functions: produces ova, receives
body functions and enables learning structures Functions: produces sperm and sperm, provides intrauterine de-
and memory Functions: digests food and absorbs transmits them into the female velopment of offspring, and enables
nutrients vagina during sexual intercourse birth of baby

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6 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body

Body Regions
Right Left The human body consists of an axial (ak′-s ē-al) por-
tion, the head, neck and trunk, and an appendicular
Superior (ap-pen-dik′-ū-lar) portion, the upper and lower ex-
Midline
tremities (arms and legs). Each of these major portions
Proximal of the body is divided into regions with special latin-
ized names to facilitate communication and to aid in
Distal Medial the location of body components.
The major body regions are listed in tables 1.2
Lateral and 1.3 to allow easy correlation with figure 1.4,
Inferior
which shows the locations of the major regions of the
body. Take time to study the names, pronunciations,
and locations of the body regions.

Body Planes and Sections

In studying the body or organs, you often will be
Distal observing the flat surface of a section that has been
produced by a cut through the body or a body part.
Proximal Such sections are made along specific planes. These
well-defined planes—transverse, sagittal, and coronal
planes—lie at right angles to each other as shown in
figure 1.5. It is important to understand the nature of
the plane along which a section was made in order to
understand the three-dimensional structure of an ob-
Figure 1.3 Anatomical position and directional terms. ject being observed.
Transverse, or horizontal, planes divide the
which the body is standing upright with arms at the sides body into superior and inferior portions, and they are
and palms of the hands facing forward, as in figure 1.3. perpendicular to sagittal planes and the longitudinal
Directional terms occur in pairs, and the members of axis of the body. Sections made along transverse
each pair have opposite meanings, as noted in table 1.1. planes are often called cross sections.

Table 1.1 Directional Terms

Term Meaning
Anterior (ventral) Toward the front or abdominal surface of the body
Posterior (dorsal) Toward the back of the body
Superior (cephalad) Toward the head
Inferior (caudad) Away from the head
Medial Toward the midline of the body
Lateral Away from the midline of the body
Parietal Pertaining to the outer boundary of body cavities
Visceral Pertaining to the internal organs
External (superficial) Toward or on the body surface
Internal (deep) Away from the body surface
Proximal Part of an extremity that is nearer the point of attachment of the extremity to the trunk
Distal Part of an extremity that is farther from the point of attachment of the extremity to the trunk
Central At or near the center of the body or organ
Peripheral External to or away from the center of the body or organ
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Table 1.2 Major Regions of the Head, Neck, and Trunk

Region Location
Head and Neck
Cephalic (se-fal′-ik) The head; composed of cranial and facial regions
Cervical (ser′-vi-kal) The neck
Cranial (krā′-nē-al) The part of the head containing the brain
Facial (fā′-shal) The face
Anterior Trunk
Abdominal (ab-dom′-i-nal) The region between the lowest ribs and the pelvis (hip bones)
Abdominopelvic (ab-dom-i-nō -pel′-vik) Composed of abdominal and pelvic regions
Inguinal (ing′-gwi-nal) The groin; depressed regions at the junction of the thighs to the anterior trunk
Pectoral (pek′-tōr-al) The chest
Pelvic (pel′-vik) The region enclosed by the pelvic bones
Sternal (ster′-nal) The region over the breastbone and between the two pectoral regions
Posterior Trunk
Dorsum (dor′-sum) The posterior surface of the thorax
Gluteal (glu′-tē-al) The buttocks
Lumbar (lum′-bar) The lower back region between the lowest ribs and the pelvis
Sacral (sāk′-ral) The region over the sacrum and between the buttocks
Vertebral (ver-tē′-bral) The region over the vertebral column or backbone
Lateral Trunk
Axillary (ak′-sil-lary) The armpits
Coxal (kok′-sal) The hips
Inferior Trunk
Genital (jen′-i-tal) The external reproductive organs
Perineal (per-i-nē′-al) The small region between the anus and external reproductive organs

Table 1.3 Major Regions of the Extremities

Region Location
Upper Extremity
Antebrachial (an-tē-brā′-kē-al) The forearm
Antecubital (an-tē-kū′-bi-tal) The anterior portion of the elbow joint
Brachial (brā′-kē-al) The upper arm
Carpal (kar′-pal) The wrist
Cubital (kū′-bi-tal) The posterior portion of the elbow joint
Digital (di′-ji-tal) The fingers
Olecranal (ō-lēk′-ran-al) Posterior surface of the elbow joint
Palmar (pal′-mar) The palm of the hand
Lower Extremity
Crural (krū′-ral) Anterior surface of the leg
Digital (di′-ji-tal) The toes
Femoral (fem′-ōr-al) The thigh
Patellar (pa-tel′-lar) The anterior portion of the knee joint
Pedal (pe′-dal) The foot
Plantar (plan′-tar) The sole of the foot
Popliteal (pop-li-tē′-al) The posterior portion of the knee joint
Sural (sū′-ral) Calf of the leg

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8 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body

(a) Cranial (b)

Facial

Cervical (neck)

Sternal
Pectoral
Axillary (armpit) (chest) Vertebral
(spinal column)

Brachial Brachial (upper arm)

(upper arm)
Dorsal (back)
Antecubital
(anterior of elbow) Inguinal Olecranal (posterior of elbow)
Abdominal (groin) Lumbar
(abdomen) (lower back)
Antebrachial Coxal
(hip) Sacral (between hips)
(forearm)
Gluteal (buttocks)
Carpal (wrist)
Perineal
Palmar (palm)

Digital (finger)

Pelvic Femoral (thigh)

Genital
(reproductive organs) Patellar (knee) Popliteal (back of knee)

Crural (leg)
Sural (calf of leg)

Tarsal (ankle)
Pedal (foot)
Plantar (sole)

Figure 1.4 Major regions of the body.

Sagittal planes divide the body into right and

left portions and are parallel to the longitudinal axis How do sagittal, transverse, and coronal planes
of the body. Sections made along sagittal planes are differ from one another?
often called longitudinal sections. A midsagittal, or
medial, plane passes through the midline of the
body and divides the body into equal left and right
halves.
Body Cavities
Coronal, or frontal, planes divide the body into There are two major cavities of the body that contain in-
anterior and posterior portions. These planes are per- ternal organs: the dorsal (posterior) and ventral (ante-
pendicular to sagittal planes and parallel to the longi- rior) cavities. The body cavities protect and cushion the
tudinal axis of the body. contained organs and permit changes in their size and
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Part 1 Organization of the Body 9

shape without impacting surrounding tissues. Note the

locations and subdivisions of these cavities in figure 1.6.
The dorsal cavity is subdivided into the cranial
cavity, which houses the brain, and the vertebral canal,
Frontal which contains the spinal cord. Note in figure 1.6 how
plane the cranial bones and the vertebral column form the
walls of the dorsal cavity and provide protection for
these delicate organs.
Transverse The ventral cavity is divided by the di-
plane aphragm, a thin dome-shaped sheet of muscle, into
a superior thoracic cavity and an inferior ab-
dominopelvic cavity. The thoracic cavity is pro-
tected by the rib cage and contains the heart and
lungs. The abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided
into a superior abdominal cavity and an inferior
pelvic cavity, but there is no structural separation
between them. The abdominal cavity contains the
Midsagittal stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas,
plane spleen, and kidneys. The pelvic cavity contains the
urinary bladder, sigmoid colon, rectum, and inter-
nal reproductive organs.

What organs are located in each subdivision of

the dorsal cavity?
What organs are located in each subdivision of
the ventral cavity?

Figure 1.5 Anatomical planes of reference.

Membranes of Body Cavities
The membranes lining body cavities support and pro-
tect the internal organs in the cavities.

Cranial cavity
Dorsal body
cavity
Mediastinum
Vertebral canal Thoracic
Spinal cord Pleural cavity
cavity
Pericardial
Thoracic cavity cavity
Diaphragm
Diaphragm
Abdominal
cavity
Ventral body Abdominal cavity Abdominopelvic
cavity cavity
Abdominopelvic
cavity Pelvic cavity

Pelvic cavity

(a) (b)

Figure 1.6 Body cavities and their subdivisions. (a) A midsagittal section. (b) A frontal section.
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10 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body

Physicians use certain types of diagnostic im-

aging systems, for example computerized to-
mography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), to produce images of sections of the body to
help them diagnose disorders. In computerized to-
mography, an X-ray emitter and an X-ray detector
rotate around the patient so that the X-ray beam
passes through the body from hundreds of different
angles. X-rays collected by the detector are then
processed by a computer to produce sectional im-
ages on a screen for viewing by a radiologist. A
good understanding of sectional anatomy is re-
quired to interpret CT scans.

Dorsal Cavity Membranes the mediastinum include the heart, thymus gland,
esophagus, and trachea.
The dorsal cavity is lined by three layers of protective
The heart is enveloped by the pericardium (per-
membranes that are collectively called the meninges
i-kar′-d ē-um), which is formed of membranes of the
(me-nin′-j ēz). The outermost membrane is attached to
mediastinum. The thin visceral pericardium is
the wall of the dorsal cavity while the innermost mem-
tightly adhered to the surface of the heart, but the
brane tightly envelops the brain and spinal cord. The
thicker parietal pericardium, a double membrane,
meninges will be covered in chapter 8.
forms a loosely fitting sac around the heart. The po-
tential space between the visceral and parietal peri-
Ventral Cavity Membranes cardia is the pericardial cavity, and it contains
Serous membranes line the ventral cavity and the serous fluid to reduce friction as the heart contracts
surfaces of the contained internal organs, and they se- and relaxes.
crete a watery lubricating fluid. As organs rub against The walls of the abdominal cavity and the sur-
one another or the ventral cavity wall, the fluid and faces of abdominal organs are lined with the peri-
serous membranes provide a smooth, friction-reducing toneum (per-i-t ō-n ē′-um). The parietal peritoneum
surface. lines the walls of the abdominal cavity but not the
The serous membranes lining the thoracic cav- pelvic cavity. It descends only to cover the upper por-
ity are called pleurae and pleural membranes. The tion of the urinary bladder. Since the kidneys are lo-
walls of the left and right portions of the thoracic cated posterior to the parietal peritoneum, only a
cavity are lined by the parietal (pah-r ī′-e-tal) pleu- portion of their surfaces are covered by it. The vis-
rae. The outer surfaces of the lungs are covered by ceral peritoneum, an extension of the parietal peri-
the visceral (vis′-er-al) pleurae. The parietal and vis- toneum, covers the surface of the abdominal organs.
ceral pleurae are separated by a thin film of serous Double-layered folds of the visceral peritoneum, the
fluid, a watery fluid secreted by the pleurae. Serous mesenteries (mes′-en-ter″- ēs), extend between the ab-
fluid reduces friction as the pleurae rub against each dominal organs and provide support for them. The
other as the lungs expand and contract during potential space between the parietal and visceral peri-
breathing. The potential space (not an actual space) toneal membranes is called the peritoneal cavity.
between the parietal and visceral pleurae is known
as the pleural cavity.
The left and right portions of the thoracic cavity What membranes line the dorsal and ventral
are divided by a membranous partition, the medi- cavities?
astinum (m ē-d ē-a-st ī′-num). Organs located within
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Part 1 Organization of the Body 11

Abdominopelvic Subdivisions figure 1.8. The sagittal planes extend downward

from the midpoints of the collarbones. The superior
The abdominopelvic surface is subdivided into ei- transverse plane lies just inferior to the lowest ribs,
ther four quadrants or nine regions to aid physicians and the inferior transverse plane lies just below the
and nurses in locating underlying organs in the ab- hip bones.
dominopelvic cavity. By knowing the internal organs Identify the organs located within each quad-
that are located within each quadrant or region, or- rant and region by comparing figure 1.7 to table 1.4,
gans that may be responsible for a patient’s complaint and figure 1.8 to table 1.5.
of abdominopelvic pain may be identified. Study figures 1.9 and 1.10 to increase your un-
The four quadrants are formed by two planes that derstanding of the locations of the internal organs and
intersect at the umbilicus (navel), as shown in figure 1.7. associated membranes.
Note the organs within each quadrant. Now examine the colorplates that follow this
The nine regions are formed by the intersection chapter. They show an anterior view of the body in
of two sagittal and two transverse planes as shown in progressive stages of dissection that reveals major

Right Left
Epigastric
hypochondriac hypochondriac
Right upper Left upper region
region region
quadrant (RUQ) quadrant (LUQ)

Right Left
lumbar Umbilical
lumbar
region region
region
Right lower Left lower
quadrant (RLQ) quadrant (LLQ)
Right Hypogastric Left
iliac region iliac
region region

Figure 1.7 The four quadrants of the Figure 1.8 The abdominopelvic area is subdivided
abdominopelvic area. into nine regions.

Table 1.4 Organs in Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Quadrant Organs
Right upper Gallbladder; most of liver and duodenum; right kidney; parts of right ureter; parts of pancreas, small
intestine, ascending and transverse colon
Right lower Appendix; cecum; parts of ascending colon, small intestine, right ureter, urinary bladder, rectum
Left upper Stomach; spleen; parts of duodenum and pancreas; left kidney; parts of left ureter, small intestine, transverse
and descending colon
Left lower Parts of small intestine, descending and sigmoid colon, rectum, left ureter, urinary bladder
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12 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body

Table 1.5 Organs in Abdominopelvic Regions

Region Organs
Right hypochondriac Gallbladder; parts of liver, transverse colon, and right kidney
Right lumbar Ascending colon; parts of small intestine and right kidney
Right iliac Appendix; cecum; parts of small intestine
Epigastric Parts of liver, stomach, pancreas, duodenum, transverse colon
Umbilical Parts of duodenum, small intestine, kidneys, ureters
Hypogastric Urinary bladder; rectum; parts of ureters, small intestine, and sigmoid colon
Left hypochondriac Spleen; parts of stomach, transverse colon, left kidney
Left lumbar Descending colon; parts of left kidney and small intestine
Left iliac Parts of small intestine, descending and sigmoid colon

muscles, blood vessels, and internal organs. Study

these plates to learn the normal locations of the or- What are the four quadrants and nine regions
gans of the ventral cavity. Also, check your under- of the abdominopelvic region?
standing of the organs within each abdominal
quadrant and region.

Plane of
section
Vertebra Spinal cord

Mediastinum

Aorta Left lung

Esophagus

Right lung Rib

Heart

Visceral pleura
Visceral pericardium
Pleural cavity
Pericardial cavity
Parietal pleura
Parietal pericardium
Sternum Anterior

Figure 1.9 A transverse section through the thorax reveals the serous membranes associated with the
heart and lungs (superior view).
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Part 1 Organization of the Body 13

Spinal cord
Vertebra
Plane of
section
Right kidney

Left
kidney

Spleen
Pancreas
Small intestine
Large
intestine Large intestine

Liver Rib

Gallbladder

Small intestine

Visceral peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity Stomach

Parietal peritoneum Anterior

Figure 1.10 Transverse section through the abdomen (superior view).

Life is fragile. It depends upon the normal func-

tioning of trillions of body cells, which, in turn, depends
When a patient complains about abdomino- upon factors needed for survival and the ability of the
pelvic pain, a physician is able to identify or- body to maintain relatively stable internal conditions.
gans that are possibly involved by knowing the
organs located in each abdominopelvic quadrant Survival Needs
or region.
There are five basic needs that are essential to
human life:
1. Food provides chemicals that serve as a source
of energy and raw materials to maintain cells of
the body.
Maintenance of Life 2. Water provides the environment in which the
chemical reactions of life occur.
Humans, like all living organisms, exhibit the funda- 3. Oxygen is required to convert organic nutrients
mental processes of life. Metabolism (me-tab′ō-lizm) is into energy, which powers life processes.
the term that collectively refers to the sum of the life 4. Body temperature must be maintained close to
processes—that is, all of the chemical reactions that 37°C (98.6°F) to allow the chemical reactions of
collectively are known as life. human metabolism to occur.
There are two phases of metabolism: an- 5. Atmospheric pressure is required for breathing
abolism and catabolism. Anabolism (ah-nab′-ō- to occur.
lizm) refers to processes that use energy and
nutrients to build the complex organic molecules
that compose the body. Catabolism (kah-tab′- ō-
Homeostasis
lizm) refers to processes that break down complex Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively stable in-
molecules into simpler molecules. ternal environment by self-regulating physiological
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14 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body

processes. Homeostasis keeps body temperature and the Normal Condition

composition of blood and intercellular fluids within
rather narrow limits. Note that the internal environment
is kept in a dynamic, rather than static, balance. This rel-
atively stable internal environment is maintained in Change from Norm
spite of the fact that internal and external factors tend to
1. Change is detected
alter body temperature and materials are continuously by sensors
entering and exiting the blood and intercellular fluid. 4. Effectors reverse
All of the organ systems are involved in home- Sensors change returning
ostasis. A breakdown in homeostatic mechanisms 2. Sensors signal condition to normal
leads to disorder and disease. control center
Homeostasis is maintained and most physiolog-
ical processes are regulated by negative-feedback Control Center
mechanisms, which minimize deviation from the
3. Control center
norm. Negative-feedback mechanisms consist of three activates effectors
components: sensor, control center, and effector. A
sensor detects deviation from the norm and “informs” Effectors
the control center of the deviation. The control center
activates an effector, whose action returns the internal
environment to the norm (figure 1.11).
Figure 1.11 A negative-feedback mechanism con-
For example, body temperature is normally 98.6°F.
trolling homeostasis.
When body temperature falls below the norm, sensors
inform the temperature control center in the brain that childbirth are examples of positive-feedback mecha-
body temperature has decreased. The temperature nisms. In childbirth, pressure of the baby’s head on the
control center constricts blood vesels in the skin to re- cervix is detected by sensory receptors, which inform
duce heat loss and, in extreme cases, stimulates invol- the brain of the event. The brain stimulates the release
untary muscle contractions (shivering) to generate of a hormone, which promotes ever stronger uterine
heat to return body temperature to normal. If body contractions until the baby is born.
temperature rises above the norm, sensors inform the A positive-feedback mechanism can be harmful
temperature control center. The temperature control if it is not controlled. For example, an infection may
center dilates blood vessels in the skin, which in- cause metabolic changes that produce a fever. In ex-
creases heat loss and causes sweating to cool the body treme cases, the metabolic changes can raise body
and return body temperature to normal. temperature so high that death may result.
Positive-feedback mechanisms exist but they are
rare. They stimulate and promote, rather than curtail,
the change that is occurring. They continue to act until What is homeostasis? How is homeostasis
stopped by an event outside of the feedback mechanism. regulated?
The formation of blood clots and uterine contractions in

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Anatomy and Physiology 2. From simple to complex, the organizational levels are
chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and
1. Human anatomy is the study of body structure and organismic.
organization. 3. The organs of the body are arranged in coordinated
2. Human physiology is the study of body functions. groups called organ systems.
4. The organ systems of the body are:
integumentary cardiovascular
Levels of Organization skeletal lymphatic
1. The body consists of several levels of organization of muscular respiratory
increasing complexity. nervous urinary
endocrine reproductive
digestive
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Part 1 Organization of the Body 15

Directional Terms 4. The thoracic cavity lies superior to the diaphragm.

It consists of two lateral pleural cavities and the
1. Directional terms are used to describe the relative mediastinum, which contains the pericardial
positions of body parts. cavity.
2. Directional terms occur in pairs, with the members of 5. The abdominopelvic cavity lies inferior to the
a pair having opposite meanings. diaphragm. It consists of a superior abdominal cavity
anterior—posterior proximal—distal and an inferior pelvic cavity.
superior—inferior external—internal 6. The body cavities are lined with protective and
medial—lateral parietal—visceral supportive membranes.
central—peripheral 7. The meninges consist of three membranes that line
the dorsal cavity and enclose the brain and spinal
cord.
Body Regions 8. The parietal pleurae line the inner walls of the
1. The body is divided into two major portions: the pleural cavities, and the visceral pleurae cover the
axial portion and the appendicular portion. external surfaces of the lungs.
2. The axial portion is subdivided into the head, neck, 9. The parietal pericardium is a saclike membrane in
and trunk. the mediastinum that surrounds the heart. The
3. The head and neck contain cervical, cranial, and visceral pericardium is attached to the surface of
facial regions. The cranial and facial regions combine the heart.
to form the cephalic region. 10. The parietal peritoneum lines the walls of the
4. The trunk consists of anterior, posterior, lateral, and abdominal cavity but does not extend into the pelvic
inferior areas. cavity. The visceral peritoneum covers the surface of
5. Anterior trunk regions include the abdominal, internal abdominal organs.
inguinal, pectoral, pelvic, and sternal regions. The 11. The mesenteries are double-layered folds of the
abdominal and pelvic regions combine to form the visceral peritoneum that support internal organs.
abdominopelvic region.
6. Posterior trunk regions include the dorsal, gluteal,
lumbar, sacral, and vertebral regions. Abdominopelvic Subdivisions
7. Lateral trunk regions are the axillary and coxal 1. The abdominopelvic region is subdivided into either
regions. four quadrants or nine regions as an aid in locating
8. Inferior trunk regions are the genital and perineal underlying organs.
regions. 2. The four quadrants are:
9. The appendicular portion of the body consists of the right upper left upper
upper and lower extremities. right lower left lower
10. The upper extremity is attached to the trunk at the 3. The nine regions are:
shoulder. Regions of the upper extremity are the epigastric right lumbar
antebrachial, antecubital, brachial, carpus, digital, left hypochondriac hypogastric (pubic)
olecranal, and palmar regions. right hypochondriac left iliac (inguinal)
11. The lower extremity is attached to the trunk at the umbilical right iliac
hip. Regions of the lower extremity are the crural, left lumbar
femoral, patellar, pedal, plantar, popliteal, sural, and
tarsal regions.
Maintenance of Life
Body Planes and Sections 1. Metabolism is the sum of all life processes, and it
consists of anabolism, the synthesis of body
1. Well-defined planes are used to guide sectioning of chemicals, and catabolism, the breakdown of body
the body or organs. chemicals.
2. The common planes are transverse, sagittal, and 2. The basic needs of the body are food, water, oxygen,
coronal. body temperature, and atmospheric pressure.
3. Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively stable
internal environment.
Body Cavities 4. Homeostasis is regulated by negative-feedback
1. There are two major body cavities: dorsal and control mechanisms.
ventral. 5. Negative-feedback mechanisms consist of three
2. The dorsal cavity consists of the cranial cavity and components: sensors, control center, and
vertebral canal. effectors.
3. The ventral cavity consists of the thoracic and 6. Positive-feedback promotes an ever-increasing
abdominopelvic cavities. change from the norm.
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16 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body

BUILDING YOUR VOCABULARY

1. Selected New Terms proximal, p. 6

abdominal cavity, p. 9 sagittal plane, p. 8
cranial cavity, p. 9 superior, p. 6
distal, p. 6 thoracic cavity, p. 9
dorsal cavity, p. 9 transverse plane, p. 6
frontal plane, p. 8 ventral cavity, p. 9
inferior, p. 6 vertebral canal, p. 9
lateral, p. 6
2. Related Clinical Terms
medial, p. 8
meningitis (men-in-jī′-tis) Inflammation of the
midsagittal plane, p. 8
meninges.
negative-feedback mechanism, p. 14
pathology (path-ol′-ō-jē) Medical specialty studying
organ, p. 3
anatomical and physiological changes caused by
organ system, p. 3
disease.
pelvic cavity, p. 9
peritonitis (per-i-tō-nī′-tis) Inflammation of the
pericardial cavity, p. 10
peritoneum.
pleural cavity, p. 10
podiatry (pō-dī′-ah-tre) Medical specialty treating
positive-feedback mechanism, p. 14
foot disorders.

C H E C K Y O U R U N D E R S TA N D I N G

(Answers are located in appendix B.) 7. The thigh is known as the _____ region.
1. A study of body functions is called _____. 8. The _____ body cavity is divided into the cranial
2. Blood, the heart, and blood vessels compose the cavity and _____ canal.
_____ system. 9. The gallbladder is located in the _____ quadrant and
3. Rapid coordination of body functions is the function the _____ abdominopelvic region.
of the _____ system. 10. The _____ separates the left and right portions of the
4. The fingers are located _____ to the wrist. thoracic cavity.
5. The upper and lower extremities compose the _____ 11. The abdominal cavity is lined by the _____.
portion of the body. 12. The maintenance of a relatively stable internal
6. The posterior surface of the knee is known as the environment is called _____.
_____ region.

CRITICAL THINKING

1. Complete the learning objectives on the first page of this chapter.

2. A hypoglycemic (low blood sugar) patient is given orange juice to drink. Explain how this raises blood sugar and the
organ systems involved.
3. Describe the location of the kneecap in as many ways as you can using directional terms.
4. Describe where serous membranes are located in the body and explain the function of serous fluid.
5. Explain how negative-feedback control mechanisms regulate homeostasis.
gun25650_ch01.qxd 10/23/08 5:38 PM Page 17

Part 1 Organization of the Body 17

COLOR PLATES OF THE HUMAN BODY

The seven colorplates that follow show the basic struc- Refer to these plates often as you study this text
ture of the human body. The first plate shows the ante- in order to become familiar with the relative locations
rior body surface and the superficial anterior muscles of the body organs.
of a female. Succeeding plates show the internal struc-
ture as revealed by progressively deeper dissections.

Plate 1 Female torso with skin removed to expose superficial muscles. (m.  muscle, v.  vein)
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18 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body

Plate 2 Male torso with deeper muscles exposed. (m.  muscle, v.  vein, n.  nerve, a.  artery)
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Part 1 Organization of the Body 19

Plate 3 Male torso with some internal organs exposed. (m.  muscle, v.  vein, a.  artery)
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20 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body

Plate 4 Male torso with thoracic and abdominopelvic organs exposed. (m.  muscle, v.  vein, a.  artery)
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Part 1 Organization of the Body 21

Plate 5 Female torso with lungs and heart in coronal section and small intestine removed. (v.  vein, a.  artery)
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22 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body

Celiac a.

Plate 6 Female torso with some organs removed to expose esophagus, deep vessels, kidneys, and ureters.
(v.  vein, a.  artery)
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Part 1 Organization of the Body 23

Plate 7 Female torso with viscera removed to expose posterior walls of thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
(m.  muscle, v.  vein)
gun25650_ch02.qxd 10/23/08 5:49 PM Page 24

TWO C H A P T E R
Chemical Aspects
of Life
Chapter Preview & Learning Objectives

Atoms and Elements

• Describe the basic structure of an atom.
• Distinguish between atoms, isotopes, and radioisotopes.
Molecules and Compounds
• Explain the meaning of a chemical formula.
• Compare ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.
• Compare synthesis and decomposition reactions.
Compounds Composing the Human Body
• Distinguish between inorganic and organic compounds.
• Explain the importance of water and its locations in the body.
• Compare acids and bases.
• Explain the use of the pH scale.
• Explain the importance of mineral salts.
• Distinguish between carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids and their
roles in the body.
• Explain the role of enzymes.
• Describe the composition and role of ATP.

Chapter Summary
Building Your Vocabulary
Check Your Understanding
Critical Thinking

2
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Part 1 Organization of the Body 25

SELECTED KEY TERMS

Atom (atomos  indivisible) The Decomposition (de  down composed of two or more atoms
smallest unit of an element. from) The breakdown of complex chemically combined.
Carbohydrate (carbo  carbon; molecules into simpler molecules. Monosaccharide (mono  one;
hydr  water) A group of Enzyme (en  in; zym  sacchar  sugar) A simple sugar; a
organic compounds composed of ferment) A protein that catalyzes carbohydrate molecule composed
C, H, and O usually in a 1:2:1 chemical reactions. of a single saccharide unit.
ratio; mono-, di-, and Isotope (iso  equal) An atom of Nucleic acid (nucle  kernel)
polysaccharides. an element having the same A complex organic molecule
Chemical compound number of protons and electrons composed of nucleotides.
(componere  to place together) but a different number of neutrons Protein A group of nitrogen-
A substance formed of two or than most atoms of the element. containing organic compounds
more elements combined in a Lipid (lip  fat) A group of formed of amino acids.
fixed ratio. organic compounds containing Synthesis (syn  together;
Chemical element A substance that fats. thesis  to put) Formation of a
cannot be broken down into simpler Molecule (molecula  little mass) molecule by combining atoms or
substances by chemical means. The smallest unit of a compound; simpler molecules.

hemistry is the scientific study of sub- of chemical elements, substances that cannot be bro-

C stances, especially the interaction of sub-

stances. A basic knowledge of chemistry is
necessary for health-care professionals be-
cause the human body is composed of chemicals, and
ken down by chemical means into simpler substances.
Carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen are examples of chem-
ical elements.
There are 92 naturally occurring chemical ele-
the processes of life are chemical interactions. ments, and 26 elements are found in the human body.
About 96% of the body weight consists of only four
Atoms and Elements elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen.
Many of the elements in the body are called trace
Anything that has weight and occupies space is mat- elements because they occur in exceedingly small
ter. The entire physical universe, both living and non- amounts. Table 2.1 lists the elements composing
living, is composed of matter. All matter is composed 99.9% of the human body.

Table 2.1 The Most Abundant Elements Composing the Human Body
Name Symbol % by Weight Importance
Oxygen O 65 Component of most organic molecules and water
Carbon C 18.5 Forms “backbone” of all organic molecules
Hydrogen H 9.5 Component of organic molecules, including all foods; part of water molecule
Nitrogen N 3.2 Component of proteins and nucleic acids
Calcium Ca 1.5 Component of teeth and bones; essential for blood clotting, muscle contrac-
tion, and nerve function
Phosphorus P 1.0 Component of teeth, bones, nucleic acids, ATP, and many proteins
Potassium K 0.4 Essential for nerve function and muscle contraction
Sulfur S 0.3 Component of many proteins
Sodium Na 0.2 Essential for nerve function; helps maintain water balance in body fluids
Chlorine Cl 0.2 Helps maintain water balance in body fluids
Magnesium Mg 0.1 Component of many proteins
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26 Chapter 2 Chemical Aspects of Life

Atomic Structure The atoms of each element are characterized by a

specific atomic number, symbol, and atomic weight.
An atom (a′-tom) is the smallest unit of an element that These characteristics are used to identify the element.
participates in chemical reactions. Atoms of a given The atomic number indicates the number of protons
element are similar to each other, and they are differ- and also the number of electrons in each atom. The
ent from atoms of all other elements. Atoms of differ- symbol is a shorthand way of referring to an element
ent elements differ in size, weight, and how they or to an atom of the element. The atomic weight is the
interact with other atoms. sum of the number of protons and neutrons in each
Atoms are composed of three types of subatomic atom. For example, the element carbon has an atomic
particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each pro- number of 6, a symbol of C, and an atomic weight of
ton has a positive electrical charge. Each electron has 12. From this information, you know that an atom of
a negative electrical charge. Each neutron has no elec- carbon has six protons, six electrons, and six neutrons.
trical charge. Protons and neutrons are located in the Examine table 2.3, which lists the atomic characteris-
centrally located nucleus of an atom. Electrons rotate, tics for some common elements in the human body.
or orbit, at high speed around the nucleus. See the di-
agram of atomic structure in figure 2.1.
An atom is electrically neutral because it has the Isotopes
same number of protons as electrons, although the All atoms of an element have the same number of
number of neutrons may vary. Table 2.2 summarizes protons and electrons, but some atoms may have a
the characteristics of subatomic particles. different number of neutrons. An atom of an element
with a different number of neutrons is called an iso-
tope (ī′-so-tōp). For example, carbon has three iso-
topes: 12C, 13C, 14C. All isotopes of an element have the

Table 2.2 Characteristics of

Subatomic Particles
Particle Electrical Charge Location
Proton Positive () Nucleus
Figure 2.1 Diagram of a carbon atom. The num- Neutron 0 Nucleus
ber of protons and electrons are equal, which makes Electron Negative () Electron shells
the atom electrically neutral.

Table 2.3 Atomic Characteristics of the Common Elements in the Body

Element Symbol Protons* Neutrons Atomic Weight** Electrons in Valence Shell
Hydrogen H 1 0 1 1
Carbon C 6 6 12 4
Nitrogen N 7 7 14 5
Oxygen O 8 8 16 6
Sodium Na 11 12 23 1
Magnesium Mg 12 12 24 2
Phosphorus P 15 16 31 5
Sulfur S 16 16 32 6
Chlorine Cl 17 18 35 7
Potassium K 19 20 39 1
Calcium Ca 20 20 40 2

*Number of protons  number of electrons  atomic number

**Isotopes not included.
gun25650_ch02.qxd 10/23/08 5:49 PM Page 27

Part 1 Organization of the Body 27

same chemical properties because they have the same which indicates that two atoms of hydrogen combine
number of protons and electrons. with one atom of oxygen to form a water molecule.
Certain isotopes of some elements have an un-
stable nucleus that emits high-energy radiation as it Chemical Bonds
breaks down to form a more stable nucleus. Such iso-
topes are called radioisotopes. Certain radioisotopes It is electrons that are involved in the formation of
are used in the diagnosis of disorders and in the treat- chemical bonds, which join atoms together to form a
ment of cancer. See the clinical box on page 28. molecule. A chemical bond is a force of attraction be-
tween two atoms. It is not a structure. An atom com-
bines with another atom in order to fill its valence shell,
What is the relationship among matter, its outermost shell of electrons. A full valence shell
elements, and atoms? makes an atom more stable. To do this, atoms either
What is the basic structure of an atom? (1) donate or receive electrons or (2) share electrons.
The first shell of electrons, the shell closest to the
nucleus, can hold a maximum of two electrons even if it
is the only electron shell. An atom with two or more
Molecules and Compounds electron shells reacts with other atoms to fill its valence
Atoms combine chemically in specific ways to form shell with eight electrons. Note the number of electrons
molecules (mol′-e-kūlz). For example, two atoms of in the valence shell of atoms of the elements in table 2.3.
oxygen may combine to form a molecule of gaseous
oxygen (O2), and an atom of sodium may combine with Ionic Bonds
an atom of chlorine to form a molecule of sodium chlo- Atoms that form ionic bonds do so by donating or re-
ride (NaCl). Sodium chloride is a chemical compound ceiving electrons. Atoms with more than one electron
because it is composed of two elements chemically shell and with one, two, or three electrons in the va-
combined in a fixed ratio. A molecule is the smallest lence shell tend to donate electrons. Atoms with five,
unit of a compound that exhibits the properties of the six, or seven electrons in the valence shell tend to re-
compound. A compound can be broken down into its ceive electrons.
component elements by chemical means. Consider the interaction of sodium and chlorine
in the formation of sodium chloride (table salt), as
shown in figure 2.2. Sodium has a single electron in its
Chemical Formulas valence shell while chlorine has seven electrons in its
A chemical formula expresses the chemical composi- valence shell. The transfer of an electron from sodium
tion of a molecule. Chemical symbols indicate the ele- to chlorine causes the sodium atom to have a net elec-
ments of the atoms involved, and subscripts identify trical charge of 1 and the chlorine atom to have a net
the number of atoms of each element in the molecule. electrical charge of 1.
A chemical formula expresses both the composition of Atoms with a net electrical charge, either positive
a single molecule and the composition of a compound. or negative, are called ions. Thus the transfer of an
For example, the chemical formula for water is H2O, electron from sodium to chlorine has (1) resulted in the

Figure 2.2 The synthesis of a molecule of sodium chloride by the formation of an ionic bond. The transfer of
an electron from sodium to chlorine converts sodium to a positive ion and chlorine to a negative ion. The attrac-
tion between these oppositely charged ions is an ionic bond.
gun25650_ch02.qxd 10/23/08 5:49 PM Page 28

28 Chapter 2 Chemical Aspects of Life

Nuclear medicine is the medical specialty that uses radioisotopes in the diagnosis and treatment of disease.
Very small amounts of weak radioisotopes may be used to tag biological molecules in order to trace the move-
ment or metabolism of these molecules in the body. Special instruments can detect the radiation emitted by the
radioisotopes and identify the location of the tagged molecules.
In nuclear imaging, the emitted radiation creates an image on
a special photographic plate or computer screen. In this way, it is
possible to obtain an image of various organs or parts of organs
where the radioisotopes accumulate. A new computerized imaging
technique called positron emission tomography (PET) uses certain
radioisotopes that emit positrons (positively charged electrons),
and it enables precise imaging similar to computerized tomography
(CT) scans. PET can be used to measure processes, such as blood
flow, rate of metabolism of selected substances, and effects of drugs
on body functions. It is a promising new technique for both the di-
agnosis of disease and the study of normal physiological processes.
Another form of nuclear medicine involves the use of ra-
dioisotopes to kill tumor cells. Certain radioisotopes may be at-
tached to specific biological molecules and injected into the
blood. When these molecules accumulate in cancerous tissue, the
emitted radiation kills the cancerous cells. A similar effect is ob-
tained by implanting pellets of radioactive isotopes directly in
cancerous tissue.
A PET Scan of the Brain.

valence shell of each atom being filled with electrons atom has a single electron. A covalent bond is formed
and (2) produced a sodium ion (Na) and a chloride when a hydrogen atom shares its electron with an oxy-
ion (Cl). The force of attraction that holds these ions gen atom and the oxygen atom shares one of its elec-
together is an ionic bond. Ionic bonds always are trons with the hydrogen atom. It takes two shared
formed between ions of opposite electrical charges. electrons, one from each atom being bonded, to form a
Positively charged ions, such as Na, are called cations. covalent bond. In this way, the two hydrogen atoms
Negatively charged ions, such as Cl, are called anions. are bonded covalently to a single oxygen atom to form
When ionic compounds are dissolved in water, a water molecule (H2O). The shared electrons com-
their molecules tend to dissociate (ionize) releasing plete the outer shell of each atom.
ions. Such compounds are called electrolytes (ē-lek′-
tr ō-lītz) because when dissolved they can conduct an Hydrogen Bonds
electrical current. The composition and concentra-
When a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to an oxy-
tion of electrolytes in the body must be kept within
gen or nitrogen atom, the shared electrons spend less
narrow limits to maintain normal body functions.
time in the hydrogen atom and more time in the oxygen
or nitrogen atom. Therefore, the hydrogen atom is
Covalent Bonds slightly positively charged, and the oxygen or nitrogen
Atoms that form molecules by sharing electrons are atom is slightly negatively charged. This sets the stage
joined by covalent bonds. The shared electrons orbit for the formation of a hydrogen bond—a weak attractive
around each atom for part of the time so that they may force between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a
be counted in the outer shell of each atom. Thus, the slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom at a different
valence shell of each atom is filled. The structural site within the same molecule or in a different molecule.
components of living cells consist of molecules For example, hydrogen bonds between water
formed by covalent bonds. molecules cause water molecules to cling together in
A water molecule is a simple example of cova- the liquid state (figure 2.4). Boiling water breaks the
lent bonding (figure 2.3). The oxygen atom has only hydrogen bonds, and individual water molecules are
six electrons in its outer shell, and each hydrogen released as steam.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Frontage Eastward, 122
Frontage Southward, 154
Frontage Westward, 141
Front and Vestibule Doors, 222
Front Hall Dispensed with, 129
Furnace, 221
Furring-off Walls for Plastering, 114

G.
Gas in Isolated Dwellings, 225
Gas-pipes, 202
Good Taste in Building, 135
Grading, 132
Graining, 226
Grates and Registers, 216
Ground-plans Affecting Outside Dress, 225
Gutters, Old and New Methods, 31

H.
Half Stone Walls, 147
Hall, Contents not Exposed to St., 84
Halls, Windy and Cheerless, 192
Hard-wood Oiled, 219
Head-room Over Stairs Utilized, 66
Heater, Portable, 185
Heaters, Fireplace, How to Set, 194
High Foundations, 99
Hooded Compared with Mansard Style, 50
Houses Cheap as Lumber and Nails Can Make Them, 12
House for Dwelling, with Office, 134
Houses Set too Low, No Cure, 142
House-work Without Intrusion, 223

I.
Imitations, Objections to, 74
Importance of Good Roof, 13
Imposing Outlines, 233
Indestructible Covering, 175

J.
Jarring Prevented, 42
Job, Who Gets, 104
Joined, Separate Chimneys Over Arch, 157
Justice, in Painting, Last Opportunity, 74

K.
Keys to Circular Heads, 192
Kitchen, Isolated, 130
Kitchen, Pleasant, 94
Knot, Shellacked, 67

L.
Lamp-shelf, and Location of, 125
Lighting Lobby, 230
Lining-off Exterior Plastering, 25
Little Required to Build, 26
Location, Questions Involved, 141
Locker or Private Cellar, 160
Looking Like a Farm-house, 159
Low-down Grates, 165
Low-priced Plans, 22

M.
Mansard Roof, Significance, 206
Marble Mantels, 180
Marble Shelves, 194
Modern Buildings on Old Foundations, 205
Mortar for Plastering, 145
Mortar for Stone-work, 114

N.
New Modification of Mansard Roof, 128
Nine Doors in Small Hall, 172
Novelty Siding, 30

O.
Observatory, 233
Omissions, Reducing Cost, 170
One’s Dwelling an Indication of His Character, 10
Outside Plastering, 42
Overloaded Cornices, 77

P.
Painting; Object, When and How, 74
Parquet-flooring, 218
Parsonage, 180
Partitions in Cellar, 218
Paving Shed-floors, 126
Piazza, Change to Conservatory, 126
Piece-lumber Used Without Waste, 59
Plan Resembling a Double House, 101
Plant-windows, 112
Plastering, a Non-conductor of Sound, 16
Plastering Cellar Ceilings, 189
Plastering, Different Modes, 53
Plastering, Estimate in Detail, 139
Plumbing, Economical, 177
Plumbing, Estimate in Detail, 195
Plumbing, Specifications for, 237
Pointed Style for Rural Surroundings, 92
Porch Instead of Lobby, 18
Preface, 3
Providing Against Changing Vicissitudes, 10
Providing for Future Enlargements, 34
 Q.
Qualified to Estimate, Who Should Be, 104
Quarried Stone, Used as Found, 149
Quarter-circle Stairs, 48
Quiet Corner, 160

R.
Radiator Utilizing Heat from Kitchen Fire, 19
Rafters Extending Downward, 133
Rake of Roof, 60
Rats and Mice Shut Out, 190
Reversing Plans, 23
Ribbed Glass, 213
Rolled Sheathing, 237
Roofing Materials foreign from Each Other, 207
Roof Ventilation, 85
Room for an Invalid Mother, 143
Rough Boards for Siding, 20
Rule for Projections, 139

S.
Satisfaction of Hanging Sash, and Cost, 28
Saving in Foundation, New Method, 35
Saving Time and Trouble, 27
School and Play-room, 224
Seeming Growth of the Earth, 143
Semi-dressed Stone, 78
Setting a Girder, 41
Shaky and Doubtful Foundations, 37
Sheathing and Felting, 192
Shingling, How Done, 30
Side Alley-way, 54
Side Openings in Chimney-tops, Solid Caps, 53
Siding on Sheathing-Boards, 218
Siding Upright with Battens, 96
Siding with Bevelled Clap-boards, 85
Sills Bedded in Mortar, 190
Simplicity of Cottage Life, 23
Size and Shape of Houses, 120
Sky-light, Scuttle, and Ventilator, combined, 60
Slate, best material for Roofing, 138
Slate, clipping corners of, 114
Sliding Doors, 198
Small Beginnings, 10
Southern House Requirements, 88
Space for Furniture and Wall Ornaments, 51
Space for Piano, 230
Speaking-tubes Saving Steps, 68
Spreading, in place of Stilted, Houses, 152
Squeaky Stairs, Effect, 103
Stairs Continuous to Attic, 224
Stair-Landing, near Center of House, 183
Stairs, Platform, 165
Stairs, Quarter Circle at Top, 48
Stairs, Quarter Circle, Midway their Hight, 182
Stairs to Tower, 224
Stearate of Lime, 25
Stone, Convenient Hight to Build, 150
Stone for Building, Random Dressed, 149
Stone Walls with Brick Angles, 162
Storm Doors, 41
Stucco Cornices and Centers, 219
Style determined by Roof, 49
Suggestions as to Balloon Framing, 73
Superintend’g Construction, Points, 145
Sweetening Cellars, 190

T.
Tanks secured from Frost, 95
Taste in Painting, 81
Temporary Cellar, 11
Tendency to Self-Destruction in Buildings, 191
Time allowed for Building, 217
Tinning, Raised Groove and Lock-Joint, 201
Tin, Single and Double Cross, 218
Tower and Attic, 108
Tower, Five Stories High, 221
Truss Heads for Cornices, 221
 U.
Underpinning, 108
Unity in Design, 128
Unobstructed Hall, Stair Space, 210
Unsightly Out-buildings Obviated, 233
Unwholesome Vapors, 122

V.
Valleys and Gutters, 169
Ventilating Cellars, 125
Ventilation, 109
Ventilation Sewage, 151
Vertical Side Walls in Mansard Roof, 200
Vestibules, 198
Views and Principal Rooms—Rear, 171
Vines and Creepers for Decoration, 159

W.
Walks in Conservatories, 208
Walls and Chimneys interlaced, 139
Weight of Slate and Tin, 83
Well, How Constructed, 173
What Color to Paint, 75
Why Contractors Differ in Estimating, 104

Y.
 Yards, Front and Rear, Fenced, 232
Yards of Carpet, 207
Year, Plumbing Warranted for a, 239

Z.
Zinc Ridge Plates, and Flashings, 138

Commended by the Greatest Educators of Germany, England

and the United States. Endorsed by Officials, and adopted in
many Schools

New Methods in Education

Art, Real Manual Training, Nature Study. Explaining: Processes
whereby Hand, Eye and Mind are Educated by Means that
Conserve Vitality and Develop a Union of Thought and Action
By J. Liberty Tadd
Director of the Public School of Industrial Art, of Manual Training and Art in the R.
C. High School, and in several Night Schools, Member of the Art Club, Sketch
Club, and Educational Club, and of the Academy of Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia
Based on twenty-two years’ experience with thousands of children
and hundreds of teachers. “A method reasonable, feasible and
without great cost, adapted to all grades, from child to adult; a plan
that can be applied without friction to every kind of educational
institution or to the family, and limited only by the capacity of the
individual; a method covered by natural law, working with the
absolute precision of nature itself; a process that unfolds the
capacities of children as unfold the leaves and flowers; a system that
teaches the pupils that they are in the plan and part of life, and
enables them to work out their own salvation on the true lines of
design and work as illustrated in every natural thing.”
A Wealth of Illustration—478 Pictures and 44 Full-Page Plates
showing children and teachers practicing these new methods or their
work. A revelation to all interested in developing the wonderful
capabilities of young or old. The pictures instantly fascinate every
child, imbuing it with a desire to do likewise. Teachers and parents at
once become enthusiastic and delighted over the Tadd methods
which this book enables them to put into practice. Not a hackneyed
thought nor a stale picture. Fresh, new, practical, scientific, inspiring
AMONG THOSE WHO ENDORSE THE WORK ARE
HERBERT SPENCER, DR. W. W. KEENE, PRESIDENT HUEY—Of the
Philadelphia board of education.
SECRETARY GOTZE—Of the leading pedagogical society of Germany (by which
the book is being translated into German for publication at Berlin).
CHARLES H. THURBER—Professor of Pedagogy, University of Chicago.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS—Editor Philadelphia Press, Book News, etc.
R. H. WEBSTER—Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco.
DR. A. E. WINSHIP—Editor Journal of Education.
W. F. SLOCUM—President Colorado College.
FREDERICK WINSOR—Head master The Country School for Boys of Baltimore
City, under the auspices of Johns Hopkins University.
G. B. MORRISON—Principal Manual Training High School, Kansas City.
DR. EDWARD KIRK—Dean University of Penn.
G. E. DAWSON—(Clark University), Professor of Psychology, Bible Normal
College.
ROMAN STEINER—Baltimore.
SPECIFICATIONS: Size, 7½ × 10½ inches, almost a quarto; 456 pages, fine plate
paper, beautifully bound in cloth and boards, cover illuminated in gold; weight,
4½ lbs. Boxed, price $3.00 net, postpaid to any part of the world.
Orange Judd Company
New York, N. Y., 52-54 Lafayette Place. Springfield, Mass., Homestead Bdg.
Chicago, Ill., Marquette Building.
SENT FREE ON APPLICATION

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Catalog of—
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Containing 100 8vo. pages, profusely illustrated, and giving full
descriptions of the best works on the following subjects:

Farm and Garden

Fruits, Flowers, Etc.
Cattle, Sheep and Swine
Dogs, Horses, Riding, Etc.
Poultry, Pigeons and Bees
Angling and Fishing
Boating, Canoeing and Sailing
Field Sports and Natural History
Hunting, Shooting, Etc.
Architecture and Building
Landscape Gardening
Household and Miscellaneous

Publishers and Importers

Orange Judd Company

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BOOKS WILL BE FORWARDED, POSTPAID, ON
RECEIPT OF PRICE

Greenhouse Construction.
 By Prof. L. R. Taft. A complete treatise on greenhouse structures
and arrangements of the various forms and styles of plant houses for
professional florists as well as amateurs. All the best and most
approved structures are so fully and clearly described that anyone
who desires to build a greenhouse will have no difficulty in
determining the kind best suited to his purpose. The modern and
most successful methods of heating and ventilating are fully treated
upon. Special chapters are devoted to houses used for the growing
of one kind of plants exclusively. The construction of hotbeds and
frames receives appropriate attention. Over one hundred excellent
illustrations, specially engraved for this work, make every point clear
to the reader and add considerably to the artistic appearance of the
book. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.50

Greenhouse Management.
By L. R. Taft. This book forms an almost indispensable companion
volume to Greenhouse Construction. In it the author gives the results
of his many years’ experience, together with that of the most
successful florists and gardeners, in the management of growing
plants under glass. So minute and practical are the various systems
and methods of growing and forcing roses, violets, carnations, and
all the most important florists’ plants, as well as fruits and vegetables
described, that by a careful study of this work and the following of its
teachings, failure is almost impossible. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.50

Bulbs and Tuberous-Rooted Plants.

By C. L. Allen. A complete treatise on the history, description,
methods of propagation and full directions for the successful culture
of bulbs in the garden, dwelling and greenhouse. As generally
treated, bulbs are an expensive luxury, while when properly
managed, they afford the greatest amount of pleasure at the least
cost. The author of this book has for many years made bulb growing
a specialty, and is a recognized authority on their cultivation and
management. The illustrations which embellish this work have been
drawn from nature, and have been engraved especially for this book.
The cultural directions are plainly stated, practical and to the point.
Cloth, 12mo.
$1.50

Irrigation Farming.
By Lute Wilcox. A handbook for the practical application of water
in the production of crops. A complete treatise on water supply, canal
construction, reservoirs and ponds, pipes for irrigation purposes,
flumes and their structure, methods of applying water, irrigation of
field crops, the garden, the orchard and vineyard; windmills and
pumps, appliances and contrivances. Profusely, handsomely
illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.50

Landscape Gardening.
By F. A. Waugh, professor of horticulture, University of Vermont. A
treatise on the general principles governing outdoor art; with sundry
suggestions for their application in the commoner problems of
gardening. Every paragraph is short, terse and to the point, giving
perfect clearness to the discussions at all points. In spite of the
natural difficulty of presenting abstract principles the whole matter is
made entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader. Illustrated,
12mo. Cloth.
$ .50

Fungi and Fungicides.

 By Prof. Clarence M. Weed. A practical manual concerning the
fungous diseases of cultivated plants and the means of preventing
their ravages. The author has endeavored to give such a concise
account of the most important facts relating to these as will enable
the cultivator to combat them intelligently. 222 pp., 90 ill., 12mo.
Paper, 50 cents; cloth.
$1.00

Talks on Manure.
By Joseph Harris, M. S. A series of familiar and practical talks
between the author and the deacon, the doctor, and other neighbors,
on the whole subject of manures and fertilizers; including a chapter
especially written for it by Sir John Bennet Lawes of Rothamsted,
England. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.50

Insects and Insecticides.

By Clarence M. Weed, D. Sc., Prof. of entomology and zoology,
New Hampshire college of agriculture. A practical manual
concerning noxious insects, and methods of preventing their injuries.
334 pages, with many illustrations. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.50

Mushrooms. How to Grow Them.

By Wm. Falconer. This is the most practical work on the subject
ever written, and the only book on growing mushrooms published in
America. The author describes how he grows mushrooms, and how
they are grown for profit by the leading market gardeners, and for
home use by the most successful private growers. Engravings drawn
from nature expressly for this work. Cloth.
$1.00
Handbook of Plants and General Horticulture.
By Peter Henderson. This new edition comprises about 50 per
cent. more genera than the former one, and embraces the botanical
name, derivation, natural order, etc., together with a short history of
the different genera, concise instructions for their propagation and
culture, and all the leading local or common English names, together
with a comprehensive glossary of botanical and technical terms.
Plain instructions are also given for the cultivation of the principal
vegetables, fruits and flowers. Cloth, large 8vo.
$3.00

Ginseng, Its Cultivation, Harvesting, Marketing and

Market Value.
By Maurice G. Kains, with a short account of its history and
botany. It discusses in a practical way how to begin with either seed
or roots, soil, climate and location, preparation, planting and
maintenance of the beds, artificial propagation, manures, enemies,
selection for market and for improvement, preparation for sale, and
the profits that may be expected. This booklet is concisely written,
well and profusely illustrated, and should be in the hands of all who
expect to grow this drug to supply the export trade, and to add a new
and profitable industry to their farms and gardens, without interfering
with the regular work. 12mo.
$ .35

Land Draining.
A handbook for farmers on the principles and practice of draining,
by Manly Miles, giving the results of his extended experience in
laying tile drains. The directions for the laying out and the
construction of tile drains will enable the farmer to avoid the errors of
imperfect construction, and the disappointment that must necessarily
follow. This manual for practical farmers will also be found
convenient for references in regard to many questions that may arise
in crop growing, aside from the special subjects of drainage of which
it treats. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.00

Henderson’s Practical Floriculture.

By Peter Henderson. A guide to the successful propagation and
cultivation of florists’ plants. The work is not one for florists and
gardeners only, but the amateur’s wants are constantly kept in mind,
and we have a very complete treatise on the cultivation of flowers
under glass, or in the open air, suited to those who grow flowers for
pleasure as well as those who make them a matter of trade.
Beautifully illustrated. New and enlarged edition. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.50

Tobacco Leaf.
By J. B. Killebrew and Herbert Myrick. Its Culture and Cure,
Marketing and Manufacture. A practical handbook on the most
approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing, packing, and
selling tobacco, with an account of the operations in every
department of tobacco manufacture. The contents of this book are
based on actual experiments in field, curing barn, packing house,
factory and laboratory. It is the only work of the kind in existence,
and is destined to be the standard practical and scientific authority
on the whole subject of tobacco for many years. Upwards of 500
pages and 150 original engravings.
$2.00

Play and Profit in My Garden.

By E. P. Roe. The author takes us to his garden on the rocky
hillsides in the vicinity of West Point, and shows us how out of it,
after four years’ experience, he evoked a profit of $1,000, and this
while carrying on pastoral and literary labor. It is very rarely that so
much literary taste and skill are mated to so much agricultural
experience and good sense. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.00

Forest Planting.
By H. Nicholas Jarchow, LL. D. A treatise on the care of
woodlands and the restoration of the denuded timber-lands on plains
and mountains. The author has fully described those European
methods which have proved to be most useful in maintaining the
superb forests of the old world. This experience has been adapted to
the different climates and trees of America, full instructions being
given for forest planting of our various kinds of soil and subsoil,
whether on mountain or valley. Illustrated, 12mo.
$1.50

Soils and Crops of the Farm.

By George E. Morrow, M. A., and Thomas F. Hunt. The methods of
making available the plant food in the soil are described in popular
language. A short history of each of the farm crops is accompanied
by a discussion of its culture. The useful discoveries of science are
explained as applied in the most approved methods of culture.
Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.00

American Fruit Culturist.

By John J. Thomas. Containing practical directions for the
propagation and culture of all the fruits adapted to the United States.
Twentieth thoroughly revised and greatly enlarged edition by Wm. H.
S. Wood. This new edition makes the work practically almost a new
book, containing everything pertaining to large and small fruits as
well as sub-tropical and tropical fruits. Richly Illustrated by nearly
800 engravings. 758 pp., 12mo.
$2.50

Fertilizers.
By Edward B. Voorhees, director of the New Jersey Agricultural
Experiment Station. It has been the aim of the author to point out the
underlying principles and to discuss the important subjects
connected with the use of fertilizer materials. The natural fertility of
the soil, the functions of manures and fertilizers, and the need of
artificial fertilizers are exhaustively discussed. Separate chapters are
devoted to the various fertilizing elements, to the purchase, chemical
analyses, methods of using fertilizers, and the best fertilizers for
each of the most important field, garden and orchard crops. 335 pp.
$1.00

Gardening for Profit.

By Peter Henderson. The standard work on market and family
gardening. The successful experience of the author for more than
thirty years, and his willingness to tell, as he does in this work, the
secret of his success for the benefit of others, enables him to give
most valuable information. The book is profusely illustrated. Cloth,
12mo.
$1.50

Herbert’s Hints to Horse Keepers.

By the late Henry William Herbert (Frank Forester). This is one of
the best and most popular works on the horse prepared in this
country. A complete manual for horsemen, embracing: How to breed
a horse; how to buy a horse; how to break a horse; how to use a
horse; how to feed a horse; how to physic a horse (allopathy or
homoeopathy); how to groom a horse; how to drive a horse; how to
ride a horse, etc. Beautifully illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.50

Barn Plans and Outbuildings.

Two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. A most valuable work,
full of ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc., for the construction of
barns and outbuildings, by practical writers. Chapters are devoted to
the economic erection and use of barns, grain barns, house barns,
cattle barns, sheep barns, corn houses, smoke houses, ice houses,
pig pens, granaries, etc. There are likewise chapters on bird houses,
dog houses, tool sheds, ventilators, roofs and roofing, doors and
fastenings, workshops, poultry houses, manure sheds, barnyards,
root pits, etc. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.00

Cranberry Culture.
By Joseph J. White. Contents: Natural history, history of
cultivation, choice of location, preparing the ground, planting the
vines, management of meadows, flooding, enemies and difficulties
overcome, picking, keeping, profit and loss. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.00

Ornamental Gardening for Americans.

By Elias A. Long, landscape architect. A treatise on beautifying
homes, rural districts and cemeteries. A plain and practical work with
numerous illustrations and instructions so plain that they may be
readily followed. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
$1.50
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