CHAPTER 9:

TRUE/FALSE - Write 'T' if the statement is true and 'F' if the statement is false.
1) "Attitude" refers to how hard an employee works for an organization.
⊚ true
⊚ false

2) Laura isn’t the best speaker, but she enjoys being part of a team and it feels great when she
overcomes her reticence to speak and makes a good point. Laura is extrinsically motivated.
⊚ true
⊚ false

3) After Victoria retired from her job, she continued to spend 20 hours per week volunteering
for a transitional housing program, for which she received no pay but gained a lot of
satisfaction helping others. Victoria is prosocially motivated.
⊚ true
⊚ false

4) Rashid works harder than any other workers in his store because he knows the job market is
tight and he doesn’t want to lose his job. The fear of losing the job is Rashid’s motivation.
⊚ true
⊚ false

5) An employee's perception about the extent to which their effort will result in a given level of
performance is called expectancy.
⊚ true
⊚ false

6) According to equity theory, when an employee perceives that their own outcome-input ratio
is greater than that of a referent, underpayment inequity has occurred.
⊚ true
⊚ false

7) In Herzberg's theory, needs that are related to the physical and psychological context in
which the work is performed are known as motivator needs.
⊚ true
⊚ false
8) Natalie is a new front-line manager at a restaurant. She focuses on influencing and
controlling her employees. Natalie demonstrates a need for achievement.
⊚ true
⊚ false

9) Learning theory focuses on the linkage between performance and outcomes in the motivation
equation.
⊚ true
⊚ false

10) According to operant conditioning theory, people learn to perform behaviors that lead to
desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired
consequences.
⊚ true
⊚ false

11) Punishment involves removing a negative consequence when dysfunctional behaviors occur.
⊚ true
⊚ false

12) Jane sells roof replacement for a local company. She does not earn a salary, but she gets 10%
of the total cost of each job she closes. This is a commission pay program.
⊚ true
⊚ false

MULTIPLE CHOICE - Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or
answers the question.
13) The term ________ refers to the psychological forces that determine the direction of a
person's behavior in an organization, a person's level of effort, and a person's level of
persistence.
A) resiliency
B) stimulus
C) motivation
D) adaptability

14) How hard an employee works on the job is referred to as

A) value.
B) effort.
C) affiliation.
D) valence.
15) Billy performs deliveries for UPS. It is physically demanding work and Billy is proud that he
not only keeps up, but he delivers more packages than anyone else in his branch. Billy’s
willingness to put forth the necessary work demonstrates his superior
A) output.
B) effort.
C) affiliation.
D) valence.

16) Devika struggled to keep up with her coworkers’ output on the assembly line, but she knew
she would eventually catch up if she didn’t give up. Devika demonstrates
A) assertiveness.
B) persistence.
C) extroversion.
D) efficiency.

17) The degree to which an employee keeps trying to accomplish a goal when faced with
obstacles is referred to as
A) assertiveness.
B) persistence.
C) conscientiousness.
D) effort.

18) Behavior that is performed by an employee "for its own sake" is referred to as
A) extrinsically motivated behavior.
B) an external locus of causality.
C) intrinsically motivated behavior.
D) equity behavior.

19) Sanja is exceptional in mathematics. She does not treat it as just a subject; rather, she loves
solving complicated problems related to mathematics. Sanja demonstrates
A) intrinsically motivated behavior.
B) an external locus of control.
C) efficiency.
D) effectiveness.
20) Javier knows that Padma is extrinsically motivated. To increase her motivation, Javier would
most likely
A) give Padma interesting work.
B) give Padma tasks that give her a feeling of accomplishment.
C) increase Padma’s salary.
D) give Padma more autonomy.

21) A computer programmer who does their job well because they enjoy solving complicated
computer problems is said to be
A) extrinsically motivated.
B) negatively reinforced.
C) experiencing extinction.
D) intrinsically motivated.

22) Behavior that is performed by an employee to acquire a material reward, to acquire a social
reward, or to avoid punishment is referred to as________ motivated behavior.
A) extrinsically
B) practically
C) vicariously
D) intrinsically

23) Draco is intrinsically motivated, so he is most likely motivated by

A) praise.
B) job security.
C) responsibility.
D) vacation time.

24) Lorenzo, a car salesperson, is extrinsically motivated. As a result, he most likely chose his
profession because of the
A) attractive sales commission he receives on each car sale.
B) pleasure of selling high-quality cars to customers.
C) fun of driving expensive cars he doesn’t own.
D) freedom of scheduling his own time to sell cars.

25) A worker in an automobile assembly line who chooses their work because of the job security
it entails is said to be
A) intrinsically motivated.
B) experiencing overpayment inequity.
C) experiencing underpayment inequity.
D) extrinsically motivated.
26) An example of an employee's input to an organization is
A) experience.
B) a feeling of accomplishment.
C) vacation time.
D) interesting work assignments.

27) Stefano is an accountant who has been in his position for a decade. One of his inputs is
A) good pay.
B) job security.
C) knowledge.
D) feelings of accomplishment.

28) Professor Murphy is the dean of the College of Business. She enjoys the pace of her work
and the feeling of accomplishment she gets when she is able to initiate a new program to help
students. Based on this information, you can determine that Professor Murphy is
A) prosocially motivated
B) extrinsically motivated.
C) intrinsically motivated.
D) persistent.

29) Livinia is highly intrinsically and prosocially motivated. As a result, she enjoys her work as a
fashion designer because she uses
A) her creativity to design clothes for needy families while receiving lower pay than
designers working for top fashion houses.
B) some satisfaction designing clothes for needy families, but likes that she receives as
much pay as designers working for top fashion houses.
C) her desire to design clothes for wealthy people while being paid a rate comparable to
the top clothing designers.
D) her desire to design basic clothes for wealthy people while receiving moderate pay for
the industry.

30) A nursing home has an opening for a nurse and wants to hire a person who is motivated by
something other than extrinsic or intrinsic forces. Considering this and what you know about
the nature of motivation, which statement by interviewees for the job would most likely
impress the interviewer in a positive way?
A) "I'd love working for an institution like this, which is rated so highly."
B) "What I like the most about being a nurse is helping others."
C) "With my experience, I do expect to receive a certain salary level."
D) "I find the field of medicine to be very interesting."
31) The idea that motivation is high when workers believe that high levels of effort lead to high
performance and high performance leads to the attainment of desired outcomes is explained
by the ________ theory.
A) expectancy
B) valence
C) hierarchy of needs
D) motivator-hygiene

32) An employee's perception of the extent to which his or her effort will result in a given level
of his or her performance is known as
A) valence.
B) expectancy.
C) instrumentality.
D) equity.

33) Professor Crombley offers his students $10 if they can run around the classroom building in
two minutes. Georgio, his student, believes that even if he does this, Professor Crombley
would not really give him the money. Georgio’s lack of motivation can be explained by
A) instrumentality.
B) underpayment inequity.
C) valence.
D) directive leadership.

34) An employee's perception of the extent to which performance at a given level will result in
outcomes the employee desires is known as
A) instrumentality.
B) inequity.
C) valence.
D) expectancy.

35) The desirability to an employee of each of the outcomes available from the employee's job or
organization is known as
A) instrumentality.
B) expectancy.
C) valence.
D) equity.
36) At Super Airlines, Katsumi is trying to determine what will motivate his employees to work
harder. He could work to increase valence by
A) making sure his employees value the opportunity to work with less supervision.
B) deciding that a five percent raise for all employees is fair.
C) informing his employees that they are expected to work overtime.
D) reducing the number of employees to increase the profit margin.

37) According to expectancy theory, when people perceive that high performance leads to the
receipt of certain outcomes, the concept of ________ is high.
A) valence
B) instrumentality
C) expectancy
D) self-actualization

38) After conducting a study of company, a business consultant realized this organization has
low levels of instrumentality for pay. As a result, the consultant would most likely
recommend that the company
A) set up more social events to promote esprit de corps.
B) give bonuses for people who work overtime.
C) provide support to enable employees to achieve high performance.
D) hire people who have a higher valence for job security than autonomy.

39) According to expectancy theory, high motivation will occur when

A) expectancy is low and valence is high.
B) instrumentality is low and expectancy is high.
C) expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are high.
D) both expectancy and valence are low.

40) The perception of workers of the fairness of their work outcomes relative to their work inputs
is the focus of ________ theory.
A) equity
B) valence
C) instrumentality
D) needs hierarchy
41) The justice, impartiality, and fairness to which all organizational members are entitled are
collectively referred to as
A) valence.
B) expectancy.
C) equity.
D) instrumentality.

42) Bikhram, an engineer, gets paid more than his colleague, Mali. Bikhram has more years on
the job than Mali and works more hours. Bikhram thinks he and Mali are paid fairly, but
Mali thinks that he should be paid the same as Bikhram because his degree is from a better
university and he is more creative. Bikhram is experiencing
A) overpayment inequity and Mali is experiencing underpayment inequity.
B) underpayment inequity and Mali is experiencing overpayment inequity.
C) equity and Mali is experiencing underpayment inequity.
D) equity and Mali is experiencing overpayment inequity.

43) Emiko believes she is dealing with underpayment inequity with a coworker named Sharon.
Emiko wants to correct this by adjusting their outcome-input ratios to achieve equity. To do
this, Emiko would most likely want to
A) get paid as much as her coworker Sharon but reduce Sharon‘s work hours.
B) get paid as much as her coworker Sharon for the same amount of work.
C) increase the pay for her coworker Sharon, who does as much work as Emiko.
D) increase the pay for herself and for Sharon by the same amount.

44) Jade perceives that though she works harder than her coworker Korrinne, she is paid the
same. This is an example of
A) the valence effect.
B) extinction.
C) negative reinforcement.
D) underpayment inequity.

45) People experiencing underpayment inequity are most likely to

A) raise their perceptions of their own inputs.
B) lower their perceptions of others' outcomes.
C) work harder.
D) take days off.
46) People experiencing overpayment inequity are most likely to
A) raise their perceptions of their own inputs.
B) ask for a raise in accordance with their experience.
C) work slower so they are paid more for less work.
D) be absent more to take advantage of vacation benefits.

47) In general, motivation of employees in an organization is high with

A) low interpersonal justice and high informational justice.
B) high interpersonal justice and high informational justice.
C) high interpersonal justice and low informational justice.
D) low interpersonal justice and low informational justice.

48) Mary, an employee at D.B. Smith, was promoted recently due to the huge success of two
projects she delivered that generated revenue and further projects for the technology division.
She is highly motivated by the promotion and perceives ________ justice of the firm to be
high.
A) individual
B) distributive
C) informational
D) interpersonal

49) Hank, an employee of Corneal Health, believes that his manager does not demonstrate
procedural justice. Considering this, Hank’s motivation would most likely increase if the
A) manager treated Hank with more respect.
B) manager renovated the office to improve working conditions.
C) method of performance appraisal used by his manager improved.
D) explanations by the manager about new policies improved.

50) When managers of an organization treat their subordinates with dignity and respect and are
polite and courteous, the interpersonal justice is
A) low and motivation is low.
B) low and motivation is high.
C) high and motivation is low.
D) high and motivation is high.

51) According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, what is the highest level of needs?
A) physiological
B) safety
C) self-actualization
D) esteem
52) Which motivator is the most basic need in Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
A) safety
B) belongingness
C) physiological
D) esteem

53) An employer can attempt to meet the employees' safety needs by providing
A) adequate pay.
B) company social events.
C) promotions.
D) health care benefits.

54) By granting promotions and recognizing accomplishments of an employee, a manager can

satisfy the________ needs of the employee.
A) self-actualization
B) belongingness
C) safety
D) esteem

55) According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a middle manager could help his employees
satisfy their self-actualization needs at work by
A) establishing a merit system that awards their accomplishments.
B) giving them tasks that fit their skill set.
C) organizing a company picnic.
D) replacing equipment that is old.

56) Sasha is a low-level employee who is friends with coworkers, does not worry about paying
the rent or buying food, and knows that her position in the company is necessary and that her
managers do not want her to leave. Considering this, which note would she most likely place
in her company's suggestion box to increase employees’ esteem needs?
A) Provide more autonomy for employees to use their skills in a creative way.
B) Crack the glass ceiling by promoting more women to upper management jobs.
C) Increase the pay for all employees by 10 percent.
D) Sponsor more social activities to improve teamwork.
57) What key conclusion can be drawn from Maslow’s theory with respect to the workplace?
A) The organization’s needs are more important than the individual’s needs.
B) Work is not the place for people to try to satisfy their needs.
C) People try to satisfy different needs at work.
D) Only one level of needs is motivational at a time.

58) In Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory, needs that are related to the nature of the work itself
and the degree of challenge contained in the work are known as ________ needs.
A) motivator
B) actualization
C) esteem
D) hygiene

59) Which outcome satisfies a hygiene need?

A) interesting work
B) responsibility
C) pay
D) sense of accomplishment

60) In Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory, needs that are related to the physical and
psychological context in which the work is performed are known as ________ needs.
A) motivator
B) hygiene
C) valence
D) expectancy

61) An outcome that satisfies motivator needs is

A) pay.
B) responsibility.
C) job security.
D) good relationships with coworkers.

62) The theory that distinguishes needs related to the work itself from those related to the context
of the work is ________ theory.
A) Maslow's hierarchy
B) F. Skinner's operant conditioning
C) Herzberg's motivator-hygiene
D) McClelland's needs
63) People with a high need for ________ often set clear goals for themselves and like to receive
performance feedback.
A) stability
B) power
C) affiliation
D) achievement

64) Steven requested feedback from Carl, his manager, on his performance. Carl was delighted
by Steven’s attitude. As a result, Carl most likely felt that Steven had a high need for
A) affiliation.
B) power.
C) recognition.
D) achievement.

65) Establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations and being liked are characteristics
of individuals who can be rated high on the need for
A) affiliation.
B) power.
C) consciousness.
D) achievement.

66) It is especially important that upper-level managers have a need for

A) affiliation.
B) power.
C) consciousness.
D) achievement.

67) Because he has a high need for power, Goeff would most likely decide to

A) spend long hours of overtime to create a great computer game.

B) take a coworker who is having a hard time at work out to dinner.
C) review an annual report several times to make sure it is accurate.
D) attempt to persuade the governor of a state to pass laws that benefit his company.

68) According to goal-setting theory, to stimulate high motivation and performance, goals must
be
A) specific and easy.
B) general and easy.
C) specific and difficult.
D) general and difficult.
69) Specific, difficult goals may be detrimental for
A) learning tasks involving minimal effort.
B) work that is very creative and uncertain.
C) performing routine tasks.
D) jobs requiring a significant amount of time.

70) A relatively permanent change in a person's knowledge or behavior that results from practice
or experience is known as
A) individuality.
B) adaptation.
C) self-efficacy.
D) learning.

71) How employees learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and avoid
behaviors that lead to undesired consequences is described in ________ theory.
A) needs hierarchy
B) ERG
C) equity
D) operant conditioning

72) Aaron was often late to work, despite his manager, Veronica, warning him against it several
times. As a last resort, Veronica reduced Aaron’s salary in proportion to the hours he missed
at work by being late until he got back on schedule. It turned out to be the right thing to do,
as Aaron was never late to work again and his salary cut was eliminated. This scenario is
explained by
A) instrumentality.
B) valence.
C) positive reinforcement.
D) negative reinforcement.

73) Dennis changed his behavior from a dysfunctional to a functional one, and his manager then
removed an undesired outcome. This is known as
A) positive reinforcement.
B) extinction.
C) negative reinforcement.
D) inequity.
74) Sanjay liked to joke with coworkers all day long, having fun, but interrupting their work and
causing productivity issues. Their manager told the employees that if they kept encouraging
Sanjay, they would all get a smaller bonus that quarter. The coworkers started ignoring
Sanjay and he stopped interrupting them. This is called
A) extinction.
B) positive reinforcement.
C) negative reinforcement.
D) instrumentality.

75) Martha, a middle manager, enjoys talking over work situations with David, her subordinate,
who is a first-line supervisor. However, she notices that David frequently brings problems to
her that he expects her to solve, rather than solving them himself. Since David has been a
supervisor for a significant length of time, he should be more independent in his actions.
Based on what you know about operant conditioning theory, what should Martha do?
A) solve the problems for David to give him an example on how to deal with these
situations
B) compliment David on his various managerial abilities to boost his confidence
C) allow David to take the afternoon off to think of a solution whenever one of these
problems occurs
D) stop acting interested in the problems David brings to her and make her responses
brief

76) An employee performs a dysfunctional behavior, and the manager administers an undesired
consequence. This is known as
A) extinction.
B) punishment.
C) counteractive control.
D) equity.

77) To administer the punishment of an employee effectively, Tamiko would most likely take
which action?
A) Inform Malik that his probation for violating company policy is not surprising
considering the type of person he is.
B) Tell Katie at a team meeting that she will be put on probation for violating company
policy.
C) Take Akito aside to a private area and emphasize that docking his pay is only because
he violated company policy.
D) Think about an incident for more than a month and then tell Dolly that her pay will be
docked because of her violation of company policy.
78) Lester strongly believes that rewarding an employee can motivate them. Also, he believes
that the employee's thoughts and beliefs about the work and the organization influence the
employee's learning and motivation. Which learning theory supports Lester’s understanding
of motivation?
A) cognitive
B) social
C) emotional
D) constructive

79) Eddie, a production manager at a growing company, has mastered the processes and
procedures of overall management of the ongoing production operations by walking around
and watching other managers as they work. This is an example of
A) negative reinforcement.
B) contingent learning.
C) equity learning.
D) vicarious learning.

80) Observational learning is also known as

A) self-efficacy.
B) operant learning.
C) vicarious learning.
D) equity learning.

81) An employee controls their own behavior without the need for outside control of that
behavior by a manager. This is an example of
A) vicarious learning.
B) self-efficacy.
C) self-reinforcement.
D) observational learning.
82) Pascal sets a goal of completing the design for a new display box for a major customer by the
end of the week. In general, he motivates himself to achieve goals by using self-
reinforcement. In this case, Pascal might practice self-reinforcement by
A) agreeing to take a training course suggested by his manager to improve his
confidence at work.
B) doing something he loves, like playing golf over the weekend, if he is able to
complete the project on time.
C) accepting the invitation of coworkers to observe their work, thereby enabling Pascal
to hone his skills.
D) promising his manager that he will double-check his work to make sure it has been
completed correctly.

83) Anything that an employee can give to himself or herself as a reward for "good" performance
on the job is known as a(n)
A) interpersonal stimulus.
B) equity reinforce.
C) self-reinforcer.
D) self-compliment.

84) The manager of a restaurant has just hired three servers. As part of their training program,
she wants them to first learn by watching another, current server doing his job. Based on
what you know about social learning theory, the manager should
A) have the three new servers crowd around the server acting as the model at the same
time.
B) make sure the server acting as a model emphasizes the large tips given for attentive
service.
C) skip quizzing the new servers to see what they learned from the server acting as the
model.
D) emphasize that the three servers should not ask questions of the server acting as the
model.

85) An individual's belief about their ability to perform a behavior successfully is called
A) internal stimulus.
B) self-appreciation.
C) self-efficacy.
D) locus of control.
86) Renee knew she could do the job if only the hiring manager would give her the chance.
Renee possessed
A) external locus of control.
B) self-stimulus.
C) self-efficacy.
D) self-reinforcement.

87) The theory that describes how outcomes such as pay should be distributed in proportion to
inputs is ________ theory.
A) expectancy
B) need
C) goal-setting
D) equity

88) A compensation plan that bases pay of an employee on his or her performance is called a(n)
________ plan.
A) customized pay
B) economic
C) distributive
D) merit pay

89) A manager told her employees that if they achieved their quotas, they would receive a bonus
based on their sales performance. This demonstrates
A) customized pay.
B) economic equity.
C) performative justice.
D) merit pay.

90) A worker who is paid on the basis of the number of computer components produced per day
is said to be paid on a(n) ________ basis.
A) underpayment inequity
B) overpayment inequity
C) piece-rate
D) equity
91) Neveen, a real-estate agent, is paid a percentage of the sale price of a house she sold. This is
an example of
A) piece-rate pay.
B) profit sharing.
C) commission pay.
D) the Scanlon plan.

92) A department store that pays its salespeople in the wedding gown department a percentage of
the dollar value of gowns sold is said to be using a(n) ________-based pay plan.
A) commission
B) equity
C) underpayment inequity
D) overpayment inequity

93) An organization focuses on cost-savings techniques and shares a percentage of the cost
savings resulting from these techniques with its employees. This is the idea behind the
________ plan.
A) Maslow
B) Scanlon
C) Skinner
D) McClelland

94) At Omicron Electronics, a manager decides to combine individual and organization merit
plans by giving bonuses
A) to each employee if they produce a certain number of circuits and a pay raise based
on reaching an overall sales goal.
B) to each employee if they produce a certain number of circuits and a percentage of
sales to the sales people.
C) if the annual production of circuits reaches 500,000 and a pay raise based on reaching
an overall sales goal.
D) if the annual production of circuits reaches 500,000 and a pay raise based on the
increase of the profit margin.
95) At Golf Union, the CEO, Robert, wants to increase the overall number of golf clubs produced
each year without increasing the size of the workforce. Producing a golf club requires many
steps in an assembly line process. Given this process, which pay system would Robert most
likely use?
A) one that pays individual assembly line employees a percentage based on golf club
sales
B) one that pays all of the employees on the assembly line a percentage of each golf club
sale
C) one that pays all of the employees on the assembly line for each golf club they
complete as a team
D) one that pays each individual employee based on their individual contribution to each
golf club made
ESSAY. Write your answer in the space provided or on a separate sheet of paper.

96) Explain how an employee can be intrinsically motivated, extrinsically motivated, or

both, depending on the factors in their job situation. Give one example of an employee
who exhibits each of these three possible work situations.

Student examples will vary.

An employee may be intrinsically motivated when he or she works hard and long at a job
because it is interesting or challenging. An elementary school teacher who really enjoys teaching
children is intrinsically motivated. An employee may be extrinsically motivated when he or she
works hard at a job because of some external reward, such as money or promotion. A car
salesperson who is motivated by receiving a commission on all cars sold is extrinsically
motivated. Many people work hard at their jobs both because they enjoy the work and because of
the external rewards. A top manager who derives a sense of accomplishment and achievement
from managing a large corporation and strives to reach year-end targets to obtain a hefty bonus is
both intrinsically and extrinsically motivated.

97) Define prosocially motivated behavior. Can behavior be prosocially motivated in

addition to being extrinsically or intrinsically motivated? Give an example to support
your answer.

Student examples will vary.

Prosocially motivated behavior is behavior that is performed to benefit or help others. Behavior
can be prosocially motivated in addition to being extrinsically and/or intrinsically motivated,
such an elementary school teacher who not only enjoys the process of teaching young children
(has high intrinsic motivation) but also has a strong desire to give children the best learning
experience possible (prosocially motivated behavior).

98) Discuss the three major factors in expectancy theory and give an example for each.
Explain the possible impact of these factors on the motivation of a worker.

Student examples will vary.

The three major factors of expectancy theory are expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.·
Expectancy is the extent to which a person feels that his or her effort will result in a certain
performance level. When a person expects to create a great computer game if he or she works
overtime, then this person's expectancy is high. When a person expects the quality of the
computer game to remain the same no matter how hard he or she works, then this person's
expectancy is low.
 Instrumentality is the extent to which a certain level of performance will result in the
attainment of certain outcomes. For example, a person who works hard as a real estate
agent because he or she expects to receive a bonus has high instrumentality. On the other
hand, a person who works hard at the same job, but does not receive any desired
outcomes, such as bonuses or a pay raise, has low instrumentality.
Valence is the desirability of each of the outcomes available from a job or an
organization to a person. For example, for a person who feels that working at a creative,
interesting job is important, getting promoted to a job that is less creative would have low
valence. However, for a person who wants a high salary, getting promoted to a job with a
higher salary, even if it is less creative, would have high valence.
According to expectancy theory, high motivation results from high levels of expectancy,
instrumentality, and valence. If any one of these factors is low, motivation is likely to be
low.

99) Explain equity theory. What does equity theory suggest people do when they feel they
are not being treated fairly? Give an example of a situation from your own experience
where a person felt they were being treated inequitably and explain it using equity
theory.

Student examples will vary.

Equity theory is a theory of motivation that concentrates on people's perceptions of the fairness
of their work outcomes relative to, or in proportion to, their work inputs. Underpayment inequity
exists when a person's own outcome-input ratio is perceived to be less than that of a referent. In
comparing yourself to a referent, you think that you are not receiving the outcomes you should
be, given your inputs. Equity theory suggests when people perceive underpayment inequity that
they may be motivated to lower their inputs by reducing their working hours, putting forth less
effort on the job, or being absent; or they may be motivated to increase their outcomes by asking
for a raise or a promotion.
For example, I had a friend who often worked overtime when asked for a bookstore. Another
worker often declined to work overtime. However, this person was promoted to manager of the
store instead of my friend. As a result, my friend never agreed to work overtime again and within
two months, quit her job for other employment.

100) Define distributive justice, procedural justice, interpersonal justice, and

informational justice. Describe the influence of these perceptions on the motivation of
employees in an organization.

Distributive justice refers to an employee's perception of the fairness of the distribution of

outcomes (such as promotions, pay, job assignments, and working conditions) in an
organization. Employees are more likely to be highly motivated when they perceive
distributive justice to be high rather than low.
 Procedural justice refers to an employee's perception of the fairness of the procedures
used to determine how to distribute outcomes in an organization. If important outcomes
are distributed based on performance appraisals and an employee perceives that the
procedure used is unfair, then procedural justice is low. Motivation is higher when
procedural justice is high rather than low.
Interpersonal justice refers to an employee's perception of the fairness of the interpersonal
treatment he or she receives from whoever distributes outcomes to him or her. This
justice is high when managers treat subordinates with dignity and respect and are polite
and courteous. Motivation is higher when interpersonal justice is high rather than low.
Informational justice refers to an employee's perception of the extent to which his or her
manager provides explanations for decisions and the procedures used to arrive at them. If
a manager explains how performance is appraised and how decisions about the
distribution of outcomes are made, informational justice and motivation are higher than if
the manager does not do this. All in all, it is most advantageous for distributive,
procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice all to be high.

101) Abraham Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs model of motivation. Discuss the
different kinds of needs in this model and give one specific example of each of these
types of needs in terms of a worker's behavior.

Student examples will vary.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs model includes physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness
needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs.
Physiological needs are basic needs for things such as food, water, and shelter that must
be met in order for a person to survive. For example, an office clerk for a business works
to get a salary to pay for groceries and rent for an apartment.
Safety needs are needs for security, stability, and a safe environment. For example, a
person employed by a steel company wears protective goggles and clothes when working
in the mill.
Belongingness needs are needs for social interaction, friendship, affection, and love. For
instance, workers for an insurance company look forward to the annual costume party
during the holiday season, where they can wear creative costumes and have fun with co-
workers.
Esteem needs are the needs to feel good about oneself and one's capabilities, to be
respected by others, and to receive recognition and appreciation. A graphic designer, for
example, satisfies esteem needs when given an award for his or her work.
Self-actualization needs are the needs to realize one's full potential as a human being. For
example, a person enjoys working as a head architect for a firm, which enables him or her
to use creativity by designing and overseeing the construction of a lakeside shopping area
in a city.
102) Discuss the concepts of Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory. How does it
differentiate between motivation needs and hygiene needs of workers?

According to Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory, people have two sets of needs or

requirements: motivator needs and hygiene needs.
Motivator needs are related to the nature of the work itself and how challenging it is.
Outcomes such as interesting work, autonomy, responsibility, being able to grow and
develop on the job, and a sense of accomplishment and achievement help to satisfy
motivator needs.
Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context in which the work is
performed. Hygiene needs are satisfied by outcomes such as pleasant and comfortable
working conditions, pay, job security, good relationships with coworkers, and effective
supervision. When hygiene needs are not met, workers are dissatisfied, and when hygiene
needs are met, workers are not dissatisfied.
Satisfying hygiene needs, however, does not result in high levels of motivation or even
high levels of job satisfaction. For motivation and job satisfaction to be high, motivator
needs must be met.

103) Psychologist David McClelland extensively researched the needs for achievement,
affiliation, and power. Describe these needs and give an example for each. Discuss the
influence of these needs in the workplace.

Student examples will vary.

The need for achievement is the extent to which an individual has a strong desire to
perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence. People
with a high need for achievement often set clear goals for themselves and like to receive
performance feedback. For example, a chemist for a drug company who wants to devise a
medicine that will cure cancer would probably have a nigh need for achievement.
The need for affiliation is the extent to which an individual is concerned about
establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations, being liked, and having the
people around him or her get along with each other. For example, a market researcher
who needs to work on a team where everyone gets along would probably have a high
need for affiliation.
The need for power is the extent to which an individual desires to control or influence
others. For example, a person who wants to become the CEO of an international fast food
chain because of the extensive influence he or she will have on people throughout the
world would probably have a high need for power.
 The importance of these needs in the workplace depends on the position one occupies.
Research suggests that high needs for achievement and for power are assets for first-line
and middle managers and that a high need for power is especially important for upper
managers. U.S. presidents with a relatively high need for power tended to be especially
effective during their terms of office. A high need for affiliation may not always be
desirable in managers and other leaders because it might lead them to try too hard to be
liked by others (including subordinates) rather than doing all they can to ensure that
performance is as high as it can and should be.

104) Specific, difficult goals have been found to increase both motivation and
performance in some types of work situations. However, they have also been found to
decrease both motivation and performance in some other types of work situations.
Discuss both of these possibilities and explain the factors that are likely to produce each
of these two results.

Regardless of whether specific, difficult goals are set by managers, workers, or teams of
managers and workers, they lead to high levels of motivation and performance. When managers
set goals for their subordinates, their subordinates must accept the goals or agree to work toward
them; also, they should be committed to them or really want to attain them. Having subordinates
participate in the actual setting of goals boosts their acceptance of and commitment to the goals.
In addition, organizational members need to receive feedback about how they are doing.
Specific, difficult goals (a) motivate people to contribute more inputs to their jobs and (b) affect
motivation by helping people focus their inputs in the right direction. The fact that the goals are
specific and difficult frequently causes people to develop action plans for reaching them.

Specific, difficult goals may detract from performance under certain conditions. When people are
performing complicated and challenging tasks that require them to focus on a considerable
amount of learning, specific, difficult goals may impair performance. Striving to reach such
goals may direct some of a person's attention away from learning about the task and toward
trying to figure out how to achieve the goal. Additionally, for work that is very creative and
uncertain, specific, difficult goals may be detrimental.

105) Operant conditioning theory presents four major techniques that managers can use
to influence the behavior of subordinates. Discuss each of these techniques and give a
specific example of how a manager could use each of these techniques in attempting to
change a subordinate's behavior.

Student examples will vary.

 Operant conditioning theory provides four tools that managers can use to motivate high
performance and prevent workers from engaging in absenteeism and other behaviors that
detract from organizational effectiveness. Managers can use positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction in an attempt to influence the
behavior of subordinates in the work setting.
Positive reinforcement gives people outcomes they desire when they perform
organizationally functional behaviors. These desired outcomes, called positive
reinforcers, include any outcomes that a person desires, such as pay, praise, or a
promotion. For example, a manager promoting an employee because he or she has done
excellent work will probably motivate this employee to continue doing excellent work.
Negative reinforcement can encourage members of an organization to perform desired or
organizationally functional behaviors. Managers using negative reinforcement actually
eliminate or remove undesired outcomes once the functional behavior is performed. For
example, a manager might threaten to put an employee on probation to stop him or her
from constantly coming to work late. If the employee begins to arrive on time on a
consistent basis, then the manager would stop making this threat.
According to operant conditioning theory, all behavior is controlled or determined by its
consequences; one way for managers to curtail the performance of dysfunctional
behaviors is to eliminate whatever is reinforcing the behaviors. This process is called
extinction. For example, say two friends who sit in adjacent cubicles spend a lot of time
chatting instead of focusing on their tasks. To stop this behavior, a manager could
rearrange the cubicles so that friends are situated at opposite ends of a floor.
Punishment is administering an undesired or negative consequence to subordinates when
they perform the dysfunctional behavior. For example, a manager could suspend an
employee for breaking organizational rules.

106) Discuss the pros and cons of using punishment. If managers use punishment, how
should they minimize the negative side effects?

Punishment is good at stopping an undesired behavior quickly. However, it may cause

resentment, loss of self-respect, and retaliation. To avoid negative side effects, managers should
do the following:
Downplay the emotional element by focusing on the person's performance, not the person
himself or herself
Try to punish as soon as possible, and let people know why they are being punished.
Try not to punish in front of others, but do let people know that offenders are punished.

107) Vicarious learning is one of the most important concepts in social learning theory.
Discuss the steps to be taken by managers to promote vicarious learning.
Vicarious learning (also called observational learning) occurs whenever a manager learns by
observing the behavior and its positive or negative consequences of another manager in the
organization. New managers learn management techniques, in part, by observing experienced
members of an organization performing the behavior and being positively reinforced for doing
them. In general, people are more likely to be motivated to imitate the behavior of models who
are highly competent, are experts in the behavior, have high status, receive attractive reinforcers,
and are friendly or approachable. To promote vicarious learning, managers should strive to have
the learner meet the following conditions:
The learner observes the model performing the behavior.
The learner accurately perceives the model's behavior.
The learner remembers the behavior.
The learner has the skills and abilities needed to perform the behavior.
The learner sees or knows that the model is positively reinforced for the behavior.

108) Explain what is meant by a "merit pay plan" and discuss the use of piece-rate pay,
commission pay, the Scanlon plan, and a profit sharing plan.

A merit pay plan is a compensation plan that is based on performance.

Using piece-rate pay, an individual-based merit plan, managers base employees' pay on
the number of units each employee produces, whether televisions, computer components,
or welded auto parts.
Using commission pay, another individual-based merit pay plan, managers base pay on a
percentage of sales.
Examples of organizational-based merit pay plans include the Scanlon plan and profit
sharing. The Scanlon plan focuses on reducing expenses or cutting costs; members of an
organization are motivated to propose and implement cost-cutting strategies because a
percentage of the cost savings achieved during a specified time is distributed to the
employees. Under profit sharing, employees receive a share of an organization's profits.
Regardless of the specific kind of plan that is used, managers should always strive to link
pay to the performance of behaviors that help an organization achieve its goals.

109) Discuss the differences in impact on motivation of a bonus versus a salary increase
of the same amount of money.

Bonuses tend to have more effect for three reasons:

Salary levels are typically based on performance levels, cost-of-living increases, and so
forth from the day people start working in an organization, which means the absolute
level of the salary is based largely on factors unrelated to current performance. The
amount as a percent of salary may seem relatively small.
Often, salary increases reflect nonperformance factors such as cost-of-living or marketing
adjustments.
Bonuses give managers more flexibility in distributing outcomes, because salaries rarely
go down, while bonuses are expected to vary from one period to another.