EXPERIMENT 1

Aim : To determine resistivity of given two/three wires by plotting a graph of potential difference
versus current.

Apparatus : A wire of uniform area of cross-section (unknown resistance, whose resistance per cm has
to be found), a battery of 2-3 cells, a voltmeter of range 0-3 V, an ammeter of range 0- 1.5 A, a rheostat,
a one- way key, connecting wires and a sand paper.

Theory :
Principle : It states that the physical conditions (temperature, mechanical
strain, etc) remaining unchanged, the current flowing through a conductor
is always directly proportional to the potential difference across its two
ends.

VαI

V=RI

where the constant of proportionality R is called the electrical resistance or simply resistance of the
conductor. Its value depends upon the nature of conductor, its dimensions and the physical conditions.
It is independent of the values of V and I.

The ratio of the potential difference (V) across the resistance coil and the corresponding current (I)
flowing through it are measured for each observation. It will be found that

= constant

It, then, shows that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
drop across it, i.e. it verifies Ohm’s law.

Formula Used

1. The resistance of the wire, R = , where V is potential difference across the wire and I, the
current flowing through it.
2. The resistivity of the wire,  = , where l is length the wire and A is its area of cross-section.

Observations and Calculations: Least count of the ammeter = 0.05 A

Least count of the voltmeter = 0.05 V

S.No. V (volt) I R=
(ampere)
(ohm)
1

5
Mean resistance R = ………Ω

Length of the wire between the binding terminals of the ammeter and the one-way key, l = …….cm

Diameter of the wire measured using screw gauge is, D = ……..cm => A = πD2/4 = ………..cm2

Hence, the resistivity of the wire,  = = ……….Ω.cm

Result

(i) The resistance of given wire from observations = ……..Ω

(ii) The resistance of given wire from graph = …………Ω

(iii) The resistivity of the wire,  = = ………Ω cm

Precautions:

1. The ends of connecting wires should be cleaned before making connections.

2. The connections should be neat and tight.

3. The voltmeter and ammeter used should be of proper ranges.

4. The positive terminals of the voltmeter and ammeter should be connected to the positive
terminal of the battery.

5. The plug in the one-way key should be inserted only while taking the observation.

Sources of Error:

1. The connections may not be tight.

2. The resistance of the connecting wires may not be negligible. To avoid error in this account,
thick connecting wires should be used.

3. Due to heating effect of the current, the resistance of the coil may change due to rise in its
temperature.

Experiment 2
Aim: To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a convex lens and hence find its focal
length by plotting graphs between u and v

Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights, given convex lens with holder, two optical needles, a
knitting needle and a half metre scale.

Theory: To find the focal length of a convex lens by parallax

method, the object needle (O) is placed between F and 2F of
the convex lens. The image of the object needle is formed
beyond 2F as shown in the figure. The position of the image of the object needle is located by removing
the parallax between the image of the object needle and the image needle (I). The value of the object
distance (u) and the corresponding image distance (v) are noted. Then, the focal length of the convex
lens is found by plotting the graph between u and v.

Formula Used:

1. The focal length of a convex lens is related to the object distance (u) and image distance (v) as:
- =
2. According to new Cartesian sign conventions, u is negative(being measured against the
direction of the incident ray) and v is positive (being measured in the direction of the incident
ray). From the lens formula, it follows that the focal length of the convex lens is positive.

Observations: (on blank side)

Position Position Position Object Image f=

S.No. of Lens, of of Distance, Distance,
L (cm) Object, Image, I u = -| | v= | |
O (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

Calculations:

(i) Average of f = cm
(ii) From uv graph, OA=OB = ……….cm => f = ……..cm

Result:

(i) The average value of f from observations = -………..cm

(ii) The focal length from uv graph

Precautions;

1. The uprights should be vertical.

2. The plane of the concave mirror should be vertical and perpendicular to the length of the optical
bench.
3. The parallax between the image needle and the image of the object needle should be removed
tip to tip.
4. While removing the parallax, the eye should be positioned at a distance of at least 30 cm from the
image needle.

Sources of error

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. The parallax may not have been removed completely.
3. The positions of the uprights may not have been noted correctly.
 Experiment 3
Aim: To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting a graph between
the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.

Apparatus: A glass prism, drawing board, a sheet of paper, drawing pins (or gum), paper pins, a
protractor and a half metre scale.

Theory: From the figure, PQN = i (angle of incidence),

SRN’ = e (angle of emergence), RQO = r1 (angle of
refraction at face AB) and QRO = r2 (angle of
refraction at face AC). Produce the ray SR backwards, so
as to meet the ray PQ in point T, when produced
forward. Then, KTS =  is called the angle of deviation.

Since TQO = i and RQO = r1, we have

TQR = i - r1

Also TRO = e and QRO = r2

Therefore, TRQ = e - r2

Now, in ∆TQR, the side QT has been produced outwards. Therefore, the exterior angle  is equal to the
sum of the interior opposite angles i.e.

 = TQR + TRQ = (i – r1) + (e – r2)

Or  = (i +e) - (r1+ r2)

In ∆QRO, the sum of the angles is 180o. Therefore, r1+ r2 + QOR = 180o

In quadrilateral AQOR, each of the AQO and ARO is 90o. Since

the sum of the four angles of a quadrilateral is four right angles,
that means

A + QOR = 180o

 r1+ r2 = A
  = (i +e) – A
 A+=i+e
Thus, when a ray passes through a prism, the sum of the angle of prism and the angle of
deviation is equal to the sum of the angle of incidence and the angle of emergence.

Formula Used:

(i) A+=i+e

Observations: (on blank side)

To measure angle of deviation:
S.No Angle of Prism, Angle of Incidence, Angle of deviation, Angle of Verification,
. A i  emergence, e A+=i+e

1 i1 = 30o
2 i2 = 35o
 3 i3 = 40o
4 i4 = 45o
5 i5 = 50o
6 i6 = 60o

Result:

(i) The graph between i and  shows that as the angle of incidence increases, the angle of
deviation first decreases, attains a minimum value m and then on increasing the angle of
incidence further, the angle of deviation increases.
(ii) The angle of minimum deviation, m = ……………..

Precautions;

1. The boundary of the prism, incident ray and emergent ray should be drawn with a sharp pencil.
2. The angle of incidence during various observations should lie between 30o and 60o.
3. The pins should be vertical.
4. While fixing the pins, their feet should be brought in one line.
5. During fixing the pins, if the prism gets disturbed by chance, it should be brought back to its
marked boundary.
6. The arrowheads should be drawn so as to indicate the directions of the incident, refracted and
emergent rays.
7. The i -  graph should be obtained by joining the various points on the graph with a smooth free
hand curve.

Sources of error

1. The distance between the pins may be small.

2. The pins may not have been fixed vertically.
3. The feet of the pins may not be in one line.
4. The angle of deviation may not have been measured correctly.
5. The curve joining the various points of the graph may not be a smooth free hand curve.

Experiment 4
Aim : To find resistance of a given wire/ standard resistor using metre bridge.

Apparatus :A metre bridge, a battery eliminator, a resistance box, a galvanometer, a jockey, one-way key, the
resistance wire, a metre scale, connecting wires and sand paper.

Theory :
Principle : Metre Bridge is constructed on the principle of Wheatstone bridge. It is also known as slide wire bridge.

The four resistance P,Q,R and X are connected to form a quadrilateral. A galvanometer and a tapping key K1 are
connected between the points B and D, while a battery and a one-way key K2 are connected between the A and C.
Usually, P and Q, called ratio arms, are known resistances; R is an adjustable resistance and X is the unknown
resistance. The value of the resistance R is so adjusted that the galvanometer does not give deflection on pressing the
key K1. It happens so, when the points B and D are at the same potential. In such a case, the bridge is said to be
balanced. For a balanced bridge, it can be proved that
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑋
To find the unknown resistance X of the given wire, it is connected in the right
gap of the metre bridge. A known resistance is introduced in the left gap with
the help of resistance box R. By moving the jockey over the wire, the bridge is
balanced. Let B be the balance point of the bridge. When the jockey is at the
point B on the wire, galvanometer will not show any deflection. The value of R
is adjusted so that the balance point lies between 25 cm and 75 cm marks.
If the length of the portion of wire AB = l, then length of the portion BC = 100
– l.
The resistance of wire between the points A and B is
taken as P and that of the portion between the points
B and C is taken as Q. If the wire is of uniform area
of cross-section, then
Pl and
Q  100 – l

𝑃 𝑙
 =
𝑄 00 𝑙

𝑃
From the principle of Wheatstone Bridge,
𝑄
𝑅
=
𝑋
𝑅 𝑙
 =
𝑋 00 𝑙

00 𝑙
 X=R
𝑙
Since the values of R and l are known, the value of the unknown resistance of X can be found.

Formula used :

The resistance of the given wire,

X = R (100- l)/l
Where R is a known resistance and l, the length of the metre bridge wire between zero mark and the balance
point.

Observations :

S.No. Resistance Length of Length of

00 𝑙
from the the bridge the bridge X=R
𝑙
resistance wire in wire in arm
box, R arm P, Q, 100 - l (Ω)
(Ω) l (cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5

Calculation:
Mean value of the resistance of wire, X = ………..Ω

Result :
The resistance of the given wire is, X =.....ohm
Precautions :
1. The connections should be neat and tight.
2. The ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned before making connections.
3. The plug in the one-way key should be inserted only while taking the observation.
4. All the plugs in the resistance box should be kept tight.
5. The balance should be obtained between 25 cm and 75 cm marks.
6. The jockey should be moved gently over the bridge wire. It should not be rubbed against the wire.
7. While measuring the resistance of the wire, the wire should not coil on itself. In case it does so, a part of the
wire may get short circuited.

Sources of error:

1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section i.e., the resistance per unit length of the wire
may not have a constant value over the entire length of the bridge wire.
2. The plugs in the resistance box may not be tight.
3. The radius of the wire may not have been determined correctly.
4. The length of the wire may not have been measured correctly.