Combined

Atomic Science

Structure
Name ______________________________
Class ______________________________
Teacher ______________________________
Atomic structure facts Fold page here

1) What is the radius of an atom? 1) 1 × 10-10 m 1 Angstrom

2) What are the three subatomic particles? 2) Protons and neutrons (inside the nucleus) and
electrons orbiting around the nucleus.
3) What does the mass number give? 3) The number of protons and neutrons.

4) What does the atomic number give? 4) The number of protons

5) What is an isotope? 5) -
Isotopes have the same number of protons but
-
different numbers of neutrons.
6) What is the plum pudding model? 6) An early model of the atom where the atom is a ball
of positive charge with negative electrons embedded
in it.
7) What was the experiment that disproved 7) The gold foil experiment; alpha particles were fired at
the plum pudding model? gold foil. Plum pudding model predicted all would
travel straight through; but some were deflected and
reflected straight back.
8) Who discovered the neutron? 8) James Chadwick.
9) What is the activity of a radioactive isotope 9) Becquerel (Bq).
measured in?
10) What is alpha, beta and gamma radiation 10) Alpha – Helium nucleus (2 protons, 2 neutrons), Beta
made of? – fast moving electron, Gamma – EM wave
11) What type of radiation is the most 11) Gamma radiation.
penetrating?
12) What type of radiation is the most ionising? 12) Alpha radiation.
13) What do we use to measure count rate? 13) Geiger-muller tube.
14) What happens to the mass number/atomic 14) Mass number goes down by 4, atomic number goes
number during alpha decay? down by 2.
15) What happens to the mass number/atomic 15) Mass number – no change. Atomic number goes up
number during beta decay? by 1.
16) What happens to the mass number/atomic 16) No change.
number during gamma decay?
17) What is the definition of half life? 17) The time taken for the count rate to halve/number of
radioactive nuclei to halve.
18) What is contamination? 18) When radioactive isotopes end up on other
materials.
19) What is irradiation? 19) Irradiation is exposing an object to nuclear radiation.
The irradiated object does not become radioactive.
20) What is irradiation used for? 20) Sterilising food/medical equipment.
21) What type of radiation is used for 21) Gamma radiation. It can penetrate through
irradiation? packaging.
22) What does ionising mean? 22) Removal of an electron from an atom.
23) Why is radiation dangerous? 23) Can mutate cells, lead to cancer/radiation sickness
and even death.
24) What can we do to keep safe around 24) Keep as far away as possible, spend as little time as
radiation? possible near radioactive source, shield yourself with
thick lead/concrete
 xmasber
(p + n) A

# P Z
X
↑
Atomic
number
" 6
# p =

n = 6

e = 6

Gold foil experiment : Gold Vacuum

ray
① a particles were released
to collide with the
gold foil , placed inside detector
an evacuated tube , to
the air particles ,
so they will
not interact with the <-particles .

② There weres paths for the -particles :

(i) The
majority
of
X- particles
pass through the gold foil
without bending
.

The
gold atoms are
mostly empty space .

(ii) Some of the -particles deflected .

The nuclei have positive charges

(iii) Few of the -particles were reflected back as if

they collided with

heavy and massive objects.

The nuclei of the gold have massive particles, which are neutrons and

protons .
dioactive
radiation :

Radioactivity is measured in "By".

There are three types of radiation :

=
Nature U
-

neualie

i medium

ionizing
-

Electromagnetic Low
N
radiation of lead
sheet .
ionizing
-

X-decay i

+ Su
105- 4

52le >
-
24

Sn + 1 + X

B-decay
%3Er
167

67
Ho >
-

>X
168

at m -
 Structure of an atom.
1 Everything, including us, is made of atoms. Atoms
2 are tiny and have a radius of only 1 × 10-10 metres.

3 Most of the atom is made of empty space.

4 The centre of an atom is called the nucleus and this

5 nucleus one ten thousandth (1/10,000) of the
6 radius of the atom. The nucleus is made of two sub-
7 atomic particles:

8 • The neutron which has no charge (is neutral).

9 • The proton which has a positive charge.

10 Atoms also consist of a third sub-atomic particle which orbit around the nucleus.
11 This particle is called the electron. The electron is negatively charged.

12 Usually atoms are neutral (no overall charge) Their number of protons is equal to
13 the number of electrons.

14 If an atom loses or gains an electron the charges are no longer balanced and the
15 charged atom is called an ion. This process is called ionisation.

16 When an atom absorbs electro-magnetic

17 radiation and electron can move further
18 from the nucleus. This process is called
19 excitation.

20 If an electron moves closer to the nucleus

21 then electro-magnetic radiation is
22 emitted. This process is called de-
23 excitation.
Task: Complete in your exercise book.
Basic
1 Complete the following sentences using words from the list below.
equal negative opposite positive zero
a) A proton has …………….. charge.
b) A neutron has …………….. charge.
c) An electron has …………….. charge.
d) A proton and an electron have …………….. and …………….. charge.
2 What is the size of the radius of an atom?
3 What is most of the atom made up of?
4 What is the name of an atom that has lost an electron?
Medium
5 Complete the following sentences using words from the list below.
electron(s) ion(s) neutron(s) nucleus (nuclei) proton(s)
a) Every atom contains a …………….. which is positively charged.
b) The nucleus of an atom is composed of …………….. and ……………...
c) The …………….. in an atom move about in the space surrounding the nucleus.
d) An uncharged atom has equal numbers of …………….. and ……………...
e) A charged atom is called an ……………...
f) An uncharged atom becomes charged as a result of transferring …………….. to or from it.
6 An Oxygen atom contains 8 protons. How many electrons does it contain?
7 A Nitrogen atom contains 7 protons. How many electrons does it contain?
Hard
8 Explain why atoms are usually neutral.
9 The diagram represents an atom of beryllium.
a) The particle with a positive charge is ……...
b) The particle with the smallest mas is ……...
c) The particle with no charge is ……...
10 Some electromagnetic radiation (e.g. light) is being shone on
some rubidium atoms. What happens to the electrons of the
rubidium atoms?
11 The electromagnetic radiation now stops being shone on the
rubidium atoms. What happens now?
Atoms contain three types of particle.

(a) Draw a ring around the correct answer to complete the sentence.

electrons and neutrons.

The particles in the nucleus of the atom are electrons and protons.
neutrons and protons.
(1)

(b) Complete the table to show the relative charges of the atomic particles.

Particle Relative charge

Electron –1

Neutron

Proton
(2)

(c) Complete the table to show the relative masses of the atomic particles.

Particle Relative mass

Electron

Neutron

Proton 1
(2)

(d) (i) A neutral atom has no overall charge.

Explain this in terms of its particles.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(ii) Complete the sentence.

An atom that loses an electron is called an _____________________

and has an overall _________________________ charge.

(2)
 Atoms and isotopes
1 The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number.
2 The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
3 The neutron number can therefore be calculated by subtracting the atomic
4 number from the mass number (mass number – atomic number).
5

6 Task: Fill in the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in each of the
7 following. Element Protons Electrons Neutrons
Neon ( 20
10𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 )

Beryllium ( 49𝐵𝐵𝑁𝑁 )
Nitrogen ( 147𝑁𝑁)
Sodium ( 23
11𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 )

Aluminium ( 27
13𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 )

8 Isotopes have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers. In other
9 words, they have the same number of protons but different numbers of
10 neutrons.
11 Stretch: How many electrons,
12 neutrons and protons do the three
13 isotopes of carbon have?
14

15

16
Task: Complete in your exercise book.
Basic
1 What is the atomic number?
2 What is the mass number?
3 How can you calculate the neutron number from atomic and mass numbers?
4 What is an isotope?
Medium
5. Calculate the number
of protons, neutrons and
electrons in each of the
following:

6. a) Describe whether or not the following atoms

are isotopes:

b) Draw diagrams to show the structure of these atoms.

Hard

7. Complete the
table. You can
use the periodic
table in your
planners for the
element names.

8. Americium-241 (241
95𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) is an isotope of americium. Which of the

isotopes given in the table is not an isotope of americium? Give a

reason for your answer.
Q1. The diagram represents an atom of beryllium.
(a) Complete the following statements by writing one of the
letters, J, K or L, in each box.

Each letter should be used only once. (2)

The particle with a positive charge is

The particle with the smallest mass is

The particle with no charge is

(b) Give the reason why all atoms have a total charge of zero. (1)

___________________________________________________________________

(c) Complete the following sentence. (1)

There are several isotopes of beryllium. Atoms of different beryllium

isotopes will have different numbers of ___________________________________

(d) What happens to the structure of an atom to change it into an ion? (1)

___________________________________________________________________
Q2. Atoms are different sizes.

One of the heaviest naturally occurring stable elements is lead.

Two of its isotopes are lead-206 ( ) and lead-208 ( ).

(a) (i) What is meant by ‘isotopes’? (2)

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(ii) How many protons are in the nucleus of a atom? (1)

__________________

(iii) How many neutrons are in the nucleus of a atom? (1)

__________________
 History of the atomic model
Watch the following video:
youtube.com/watch?v=xazQRcSCRaY
1 Using information from the video you have just watched,
2 answer the following questions below with words from the
3 box below.
4 1. Who was the first person to come up with the idea of the atom?
5 ____________________
6
7 2. What does the word “atom” mean? ____________________
8
9 3. Who disagreed with the idea of the atom, proposing instead that matter
10 was made of 4 elements (i.e. Earth, Wind, Water and Fire)?
11 ____________________
12

13 4. Who first gained scientific evidence to support the idea that matter was
14 indeed made of atoms? ____________________
15

16 5. Who discovered the electron? ____________________

17

18 6. Who is known as the “father of the nuclear age”? ____________________

19

20 7. Who proposed the “planetary model“ for the atom (i.e. electrons orbiting
21 around the nucleus at fixed distances)? ____________________
22

Thomson Democritus Dalton Aristotle

indivisible Bohr Rutherford
 1 Task: Read the below text and match the scientist to their contribution

2 The plum pudding model was proposed by JJ Thomson. In this model the atom
3 was suggested to be a ball of positive charge with negative particles distributed
4 randomly within the ball of positive charge. Rutherford disproved this model with
5 the gold foil experiment, in which he suggested that the positive charge of the
6 atom was concentrated in the nucleus. Bohr later discovered that electrons
7 within an atom were located within discrete energy levels known as shells.
8 Following this, James Chadwick discovered the existence of neutrons which were
9 also located within the nucleus.

10
JJ Thomson Discovery of nucleus

Rutherford Discovery of neutrons

Bohr Plum pudding model

Chadwick Discovery of electron shells

11 An early model of the atom was called the plum pudding

12 model. In this model the atom was assumed to be a sphere
13 of positive charge, with negative charges spread through it.

14 However, new evidence from Rutherford’s gold foil

15 experiment disproved this model. In this experiment, alpha
16 particles (a Helium nucleus) were fired at a gold foil and a detector was used to
17 find out what happen to the particles at different angles.
 1 Three results were noted from this experiment:

2 1. Most alpha particles went straight through the

3 gold foil.
4 2. Some alpha particles were deflected through
5 small angles.
6 3. Very few (about 1 in 2000) alpha particles were
7 reflected backwards.

9 The reason that most of the alpha particles went straight through is
10 because most of the atom is made of empty space. The particles
11 therefore passed through the spaces between the gold nuclei.

12

13 Some alpha particles were deflected through small angles.

14 This is because both the alpha particle and the gold nucleus
15 have a positive charge. Therefore when an alpha particle
16 came near the positive nucleus of a gold atom, it was
17 repelled.

18 When a positively charged alpha particle headed directly

19 towards a positive gold nucleus, it was also repelled. In this
20 case, the alpha particle was reflected backwards from the
21 foil and travelled back towards the source.

22

23 This experiment disproved the plum pudding model. This model suggested that
24 all the alpha radiation would pass through the gold foil. Rutherford therefore
25 proposed his nuclear model of the atom. Three conclusions were made:

26 1. Most of the atom is empty space.

27 2. Most of the mass of the atom is in a tiny central nucleus, which is positively
28 charged.
29 3. Electrons orbited this nucleus at a distance, like planets around the Sun.

30
Task: Complete in your exercise book

Plum pudding model:

1. Draw a diagram of the plum pudding model.

2. Who proposed the plum pudding model?
3. Where is the positive charge in the plum pudding model?
4. Where are the electrons in the plum pudding model?
5. Are there any neutrons in the plum pudding model?

The scientists in between:

6. Who discovered the nucleus?

7. Who discovered that electrons travel in shells?
8. Who discovered the existence of neutrons?

The modern (nuclear) model:

9. Draw a diagram of the nuclear model.

10. Where is the positive charge in the nuclear model?
11. Where are the electrons in the nuclear model?
12. Are there any neutrons in the nuclear model? If so, where are they?

Gold foil experiment:

13. What particles were fired at gold foil?

14. What happened to these particles?
15. Why did this disprove the plum pudding model?
16. What three conclusions were made from the gold foil experiment?
The ‘plum pudding’ model of the atom was used by scientists in the early part of the 20th
century to explain atomic structure.

(a) Those scientists knew that atoms contained electrons and that the electrons had a
negative charge. They also knew that an atom was electrically neutral overall.

What did this allow the scientists to deduce about the ‘pudding’ part of the atom?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) An experiment, designed to investigate the ‘plum pudding’ model, involved firing alpha
particles at a thin gold foil.

If the ‘plum pudding’ model was correct, then most of the alpha particles would go straight
through the gold foil. A few would be deflected, but by less than 4°.

The results of the experiment were unexpected. Although most of the alpha particles did
go straight through the gold foil, about 1 in every 8 000 was deflected by more than 90°.

Why did this experiment lead to a new model of the atom, called the nuclear model,
replacing the ‘plum pudding’ model?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(c) The diagram shows the paths, A, B and C, of three alpha particles. The total number of
alpha particles deflected through each angle is also given.
(i) Using the nuclear model of the atom, explain the three paths, A, B and C.

A ____________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

B ____________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

C ____________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(3)

(ii) Using the nuclear model, the scientist E. Rutherford devised an equation to predict
the proportion of alpha particles that would be deflected through various angles.

The results of the experiment were the same as the predictions made by
Rutherford.

What was the importance of the experimental results and the predictions being the
same?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)
(Total 6 marks)
 Types of radiation
1 Atoms are radioactive if the nucleus has too many protons or neutrons. This
2 makes the nucleus unstable. All types of radiation come from the nucleus of the
3 atom. You cannot predict when a nucleus will emit radiation. The process is
4 random. There are three types of radiation:

5 1. Alpha α (helium nucleus)

6 2. Beta β (electron)

7 3. Gamma γ (EM wave).

Alpha 𝟒𝟒𝟐𝟐𝜶𝜶 Beta −𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝜷𝜷 Gamma 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝜸𝜸

What it’s made of A helium nucleus A fast moving A high energy

(2 protons and 2 electron electro-magnetic
neutrons) wave.

Charge +2 -1 0

Atomic mass 4 0 0

Penetrating Stopped by paper Stopped by a few Stopped by thick

power or a few cm of air. mm of aluminium lead or concrete.
or one metre of
air

Ionising effect Strongly ionising. Slightly ionising. Very weakly

ionising.

Effect of electro- Weakly deflected Strongly deflected Not deflected

magnetic field.
 1 Radiation can knock an electron off an atom and turn it into an ion. This is known
2 as ionisation.

3 Because alpha particles are the most massive, they are most likely to ionise an
4 atom (the most ionising). However, in doing so they give up their energy and are
5 not able to travel very far. They are the least penetrating.

6 Beta particles are slightly ionising and slightly penetrating because they have a
7 size in between that of alpha and gamma particles.

8 Gamma particles are only weakly ionising but they are the most penetrating.

9 One application of radioactivity is in a paper/cardboard mill. A radioactive beta

10 source is on one side of the material and a detector on the other.

11 If too much radioactivity is getting

12 through, then the material is too thin
13 and the rollers open up a bit to make
14 the material thicker. If not enough
15 radioactivity is detected then the
16 rollers compress to make the material
17 thinner.

18 This method is used in the manufacture of lots of sheet materials: plastics, paper,
19 sheet steel.
Basic
1. What are the three types of radiation?
2. What are alpha particles made of?
3. What are beta particles made of?
4. What is gamma radiation made of?
5. What is ionisation?
6. Why is radiation dangerous?
7. What do we use to detect radiation?
8. Complete the following sentences.
Use the words in the box. Gains ions unstable decay random loses

Ionising radiation is emitted from ___________ nuclei. The process is __________. This means you cannot predict
when the nucleus will ___________ and emit radiation. This radiation can cause atoms to become __________.
Ionisation occurs when an atom _________ or __________ electrons.

Medium
9. Complete the table of radioactive penetration using the
diagram. For the last two columns use the words
“strongly”, “slightly” or “weakly”.

10. Which of the three types of radiation:

a) Has the greatest mass?
b) Has the greatest charge?
c) Does not have any mass?
d) Has the same mass as an electron?
e) Is equivalent to a helium nucleus.
f) Is a type of electromagnetic radiation.
11. What are the charges of alpha, beta and gamma radiation?
Hard
12. Look at the diagram, which shows trails in a cloud chamber. The
radioactive source is emitting both alpha and beta particles.
a) Which trails are caused by alpha particles?
b) Which trails are caused by beta particles?
c) Explain how you can tell.
d) Can you predict when alpha or beta particles will be emitted? Explain
your answer?
e) What happens when the alpha particles collide with the particles in the cloud chamber?
13. When radioactive sources are stored in boxes in schools, the boxes are always lined with lead on the inside.
Why is this necessary?
14. A student said: “If I were to wear a lead suit, I would be completely protected from radiation!” Explain why
this statement is not true.
 (a) Draw a straight line to link
each type of radiation in
the first list to its correct
property in the second
list.

Draw only three lines. (3)

(b) The diagram shows a system used to control the thickness of cardboard as it is made.

The cardboard passes through a narrow gap between a

beta radiation source and a radiation detector. The table Time Detector reading
gives the detector readings over 1 hour.
08:00 150

(i) Between 08:00 and 08:30, the cardboard is 08:15 148

produced at the usual, correct thickness.
08:30 151
Explain how you can tell from the detector
readings that the cardboard produced at 08:45 is 08:45 101
thicker than usual. (2)
09:00 149

_________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(iii) This control system would not work if the beta radiation source was replaced by an
alpha radiation source.

Why not? (1)

______________________________________________________________
 Dangers of radiation
1 Ionisation of molecules in living cells can cause damage and mutate the
2 cells. This can cause cancer. Radiation is detected using a Geiger-muller
3 tube.

4 Because alpha radiation is the least penetrating, it is the least dangerous outside
5 the body. It cannot penetrate through the skin.

6 Alpha radiation, however, it extremely dangerous if it gets inside the body. It can
7 then ionise internal organs, causing mutations and eventually cancer.

8 Alexander Litvinenko was poisoned in this way with polonium in 2006.

9 Beta radiation is slightly penetrating and therefore carries a risk up to a distance

10 of 1 metre. As gamma radiation is the most penetrating, it carries a danger up to
11 long distances.

12 Workers who use ionising radiation reduce their exposure by:

13 1. Keeping as far away as possible.

14 2. Spending as little time as possible near the radioactive source.
15 3. Shielding themselves with thick concrete/lead.

16

People who work with radiation also often wear film badges. When the film
absorbs radiation it goes darker. These are checked regularly to monitor the
levels of radiation absorbed.
(a) What is alpha, beta and gamma radiation made of? (3)

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

(b) Sam and Kris are arguing about alpha and gamma radiation.

Sam says that alpha radiation is more dangerous.

Kris disagrees. He thinks that gamma radiation is more dangerous. What do you think?
Explain your answer as fully as you can. (4)

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

(c) Tritium is one of the elements

found in the waste material of
the nuclear power industry. The
diagram below shows a worker
behind a protective screen. The
container holds a mixture of
different waste materials which
emit alpha (α), beta (β) and
gamma (γ) radiation.

Suggest a suitable material for

the protective screen. The
material should prevent radiation
from the container reaching the
worker. Explain your answer. (2)

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
 Nuclear Equations
When a nucleus decays, the mass number, atomic number and charge is
conserved. When alpha/beta decay happens, the nucleus transmutes into
another element.
Alpha decay example:
241 237
95𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 → 93𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 + 42𝐻𝐻𝑁𝑁
Beta decay example:
14 14
6𝐶𝐶 → 7𝑁𝑁 + −10𝑁𝑁

The emission of a gamma ray does not cause the mass or the charge of the
nucleus to change.
Task

Alpha decay: complete the following equations

238U → 234Th + He
90

Ra → 218Rn + He
88 86

208Po → Pb + He
84

256Lr → 252Md + He
103 101
Beta decay: complete the following equations

234Th → 234Pa + 0e
90 −1

131I → Xe + 0e
53 54 −1

6He → Li + 0e
2 −1

Na → 24Mg + e
12

Alpha or beta decay? You decide which is which:

231Pa 227 Ac
201Au decays to 201Hg decays to
91 89
79 80

52Fe 52Co
185 Au decays to 181Ir decays to
26 27
79 77
The following task is harder. Use the periodic table to identify which elements
the atoms decay to (remembering that we identify an element from its atomic
number.
Show how Uranium-238 undergoes a sequence of decays naturally to form lead a stable isotope of
lead. You will need to use your periodic table to identify any unknown compounds. Fill in each
decay equation as it happens. Hint
Your isotope at the end of
U decays by α decay to form Th
the decay is at the start of
1. the next one

Th decays twice by β decay to form a different isotope of the original element.

2.
3.
The new U isoptope undergoes 5 α decay processes
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
This isotope of lead is not stable. A sequence of two β decay occur
9.
10.
Po undergoes the α decay process
11.
This isotope of lead is not stable either! Another sequence of two β decay occur
12.
13.
One more alpha decay to create a stable isotope of lead
14.
If your mass is 206 you have a stable isotope of lead. If not go back and check your maths!
Q1. When the nucleus of a radium-225 atom decays, it changes into a nucleus of actinium-225.

What type of radiation is emitted by radium-225?

Draw a ring around your answer.

alpha beta gamma

Explain the reason for your answer.

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(Total 3 marks)

Q2.

(a) Uranium atoms do not always have the same number of neutrons.
What are atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons called?

..................................................
(1)

(b) By emitting an alpha particle, an atom of uranium-235 decays into an atom of thorium.

An alpha particle, which is the same as a helium nucleus, is represented by the symbol

The decay can be represented by the equation below.

Complete the equation by writing the correct number in each of the two boxes.

(2)

(Total 3 marks)
 Half life
1 Over time, the amount of radiation coming from a radioactive sample goes
2 down (decays). How quickly this happens depends on the half life of the sample.
3 There are two definitions for half life:
4 1. The time for the count rate to go down by half.
5 2. The time for half of the radioactive nuclei to decay.
6 The activity (count rate) of a radioactive material has units of Becquerel (Bq).
7 This is equal to one atom decaying per second.
8 To solve wordy half life questions, we can use something called the tree
9 method. For example take the example below. Please fill out the blank space
10 below with the worked solution.
11 Worked example: The half-life of carbon-14 is 5,600 years. A sample of carbon-
12 14 has an initial activity of 1,000 Bq (counts/sec). What is the activity of the
13 sample after 11,200 years?

14 For graph-based questions, we need to look at

15 what the initial count rate is. In the graph the
16 initial count rate is 80 counts/minute.
17 The time taken to drop from 80 to 40
18 counts/minute is 2 minutes. This is therefore
19 the half life.
20 Note how it also takes another 2 minutes to
21 drop from 40 to 20 counts/minute.
Basic
1. If a radioactive sample has an initial count rate of 400 Bq. What is its count rate after: i) 1
half life? ii) 2 half lives? iii) 3 half lives? iv) 4 half lives?
2. The half-life of radium-226 is 1600 years. If a sample of radium-226 has an original activity of
200 Bq, what will it’s activity be after:
i) 3200 years? ii) 4800 years iii) 6400 years
3. Sodium-24 has a half-life of 15 hours. If a sample of sodium-24 has an original activity of 500
Bq, what will its activity be after:
i) 30 hours ii) 45 hours iii) 60 hours?
4. What is the half life of the sample in the graph
opposite?
Medium
5. After 42 days the activity of a sample of
phosphorus-32 has decreased from 400 Bq to
50 Bq. What is the half-life of phosphorus-32?
6. The half-life of radon-222 is 3.8 days. What was
the original activity if it has an activity of 10 Bq
after 7.6 days?
7. The half-life of thorium-227 is 19 days. How many days are required for 75% of a sample to
decay?
Hard
8. The half-life of protactinium-234 is 6.75 hours. What percentage of a sample will remain after
27 hours?
9. The half-life of tritium (hydrogen-3) is 12.3 years. If 48.0 mg of tritium is released from a
nuclear power plant during the course of a mishap, what mass of the sample will remain after
49.2 years?
10. Carbon-14 is an isotope, with a half-life of 5730yrs, naturally occurring in the air. This means
that all living things maintain a fixed ratio of carbon-14 to the stable carbon-12. In a 1g sample
there would be 180 000 C-14 atoms. This number starts to drop the moment the living thing
stops respiring.
a) A 1g scraping of the charcoal from a cave painting in France contained 45000 C-14 atoms.
i) How many half-lives had passed since the tree (that made the charcoal) was felled?
ii) When was the painting made?
b) For many years it was believed that the Romans were the first to introduce grapes to Britain. A
0.02g grape pip found at the British hillfort of Hambledon Hill contained 1800 C-14 atoms.
i) How many C-14 atoms would there have been in 1g of grape pip?
ii) How many half-lives had passed since the grape was picked?
iii) How long ago was the grape picked? iv. What evidence does this give for the introduction of
grapes to Britain?
 (a) The graph shows
how a sample of barium-
143, a radioactive isotope
with a short half-life,
decays with time.

(i) What is
meant by the
term isotope?
(1)

__________________________

__________________________

__________________________

(ii) What is
meant by the
term half-life?
(1)

__________________________

__________________________

__________________________

(iii) Use the graph to find the

half-life of barium-143. (1)

Half-life = _______________
seconds

(b) Humans take in the

radioactive isotope carbon-14 from their food. After their death, the proportion of carbon-14 in their
bones can be used to tell how long it is since they died. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years.

(i) A bone in a living human contains 80 units of carbon-14. An identical bone taken from a
skeleton found in an ancient burial ground contains 5 units of carbon-14. Calculate the age of the
skeleton. Show clearly how you work out your answer. (2)

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Age of skeleton = _______________ years

(ii) Why is carbon-14 unsuitable for dating a skeleton believed to be about 150 years old? (1)

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
 1 One application of radioactive half lives is in carbon dating.
2 Carbon-14 is continually created naturally
3 in the atmosphere. This carbon-14 then
4 combines with oxygen in the atmosphere
5 to form radioactive carbon dioxide, which
6 is then taken in by plants during the
7 process of photosynthesis. Animals then
8 acquire carbon-14 by eating the plants.
9 When the animal or plant dies, it stops
10 exchanging carbon with its environment
11 and so the amount of carbon-14 it
12 contains begins to decrease (as the
13 carbon-14 undergoes radioactive decay).
14 Worked example:
15 The half life of carbon-14 is 5,700 years. A skeleton had an initial activity of
16 1,800 Bq (counts/sec). If the skeleton now has an activity of 450 Bq, how old is
17 it?

18 Task: Answer the questions below. Carbon-14 has a half life of 5,700 years.
19 Complete in your exercise book.
20 1. A tree is found buried underground. It originally had an activity of 150,000
21 Bq. It now has an activity of 37,500Bq. How old is the tree?
22 2. A woolly mammoth skeleton originally had an activity of 20,000 Bq. If it
23 now has an activity of 5,000 Bq. When did woolly mammoths go extinct?
24 3. An insect died and became preserved in amber. It originally had an activity
25 of 300 Bq. It now has an activity of 37.5 Bq. When did the insect die?
 a) An alpha particle is the same as a helium nucleus.
The symbol below represents an alpha particle.

(i) The equation below represents the alpha decay of bismuth-212.

Complete the equation by writing the correct number in each of the two boxes. (2)

(ii) It is impossible for the alpha decay of bismuth-212 to produce the same element as
the beta decay of bismuth-212.

Explain why. (2)

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(b) Humans take in the radioactive isotope carbon-14 from their food. After their death, the
proportion of carbon-14 in their bones can be used to tell how long it is since they died.
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years.

(i) A bone in a living human contains 80 units of carbon-14. An identical bone taken
from a skeleton found in an ancient burial ground contains 5 units of carbon-14.
Calculate the age of the skeleton. Show clearly how you work out your answer.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Age of skeleton = _______________ years

(2)

(ii) Why is carbon-14 unsuitable for dating a skeleton believed to be about 150 years
old?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)
 Contamination and Irradiation
1 Contamination is when radioactive atoms get onto other materials.
2 One example of radioactive contamination is at Chernobyl in Ukraine. In 1986,
3 the nuclear power plant in Chernobyl exploded. This scattered radioactive
4 material across Chernobyl, contaminating the whole city.
5 To help, the top surface (about 10-20 cm) of soil was dug up and buried
6 underground. However, Chernobyl is still highly radioactive and the city is
7 abandoned to this day.
8 Irradiation is when an object/person is exposed to nuclear
9 radiation. The irradiated object does not become
10 radioactive.
11 We irradiate food with gamma rays (so it can travel
12 through packaging) to kill bacteria and prevent sickness.
13 We do the same with medical equipment to prevent
14 infection after an operation.
15 Gamma rays are used to kill bacteria, mould and insects in food. This can be
16 done even after the food has been packaged. It can affect the taste, but
17 supermarkets like it because it lengthens the shelf life.
18 Gamma rays are also used to kill bacteria on medical
19 equipment. It is particularly useful with plastic
20 equipment that would be damaged by heat
21 sterilization.
Contamination and irradiation worksheet
Basic
1. What does contamination mean?
2. What does irradiation mean?
3. Which type of radiation is most dangerous inside the body?
4. Which type(s) of radiation are most dangerous outside the body?
5. What type of radiation do we use to sterilise medical equipment?
6. How can workers who use ionising radiation protect themselves?
Medium
7. Explain your answer to Q3. Why is this type of radiation most dangerous inside the
body?
8. Explain your answer to Q4. Why are these types of radiation most dangerous outside
the body?
9. Why would alpha radiation not be suitable to sterilise medical equipment?
10. What would happen to workers if they are exposed to too much ionising radiation?
11. Why is Chernobyl abandoned to this day?
12. Describe the difference between contamination and irradiation.
Hard
13. HAB have built their own nuclear power plant and Dr. Edmunds has put all of his
classes in charge. But, oh no! There’s been an accident and a small explosion spreads
some radioactive Caesium isotopes across the playground. The initial half life of the
Caesium is 30 years; and the initial count rate is 200 Bq. Southwark council have said
that the playground will be “safe” when the count rate reaches 25 Bq. How long will
we have to abandon HAB for?
14. Tinned food is often irradiated. Why is it irradiated and why would this process not
work with alpha or beta radiation?
15. Chernobyl nuclear power plant is now covered with a sarcophagus. This is the
world’s largest moving structure and the two halves were wheeled into place. Why
couldn’t they build the sarcophagus close to the power plant itself?
16. After the Chernobyl disaster, the Ukrainian government dug up the top layer of soil
and buried it in trenches, covering it with a layer of sand. Why did they do this?
Food irradiation is a process that exposes food to radiation. Irradiation can be used to kill the
bacteria that cause food poisoning or to slow down the ripening of fresh fruit and vegetables.
Frozen foods and food inside packaging can also be irradiated.

(a) The table gives information about five radioactive isotopes.

Isotope Half-life Radiation emitted

Caesium-134 2.1 years beta

Cobalt-60 5.3 years gamma

Curium-242 160 days alpha

Strontium-90 28 years beta

Technetium-99 6 hours gamma

Which of these radioactive isotopes would be most suitable for irradiating food?

___________________________________________________________________

Explain the reasons for your choice. (3)

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

(b) Many people think that food should not be irradiated. Consumer groups have said that
they are worried about the nutritional value and safety of eating irradiated foods.

(i) Suggest one reason why some people may be concerned about the safety of eating
irradiated food. (1)

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(ii) Independent scientific committees in several countries, including Sweden, Canada

and the UK, have concluded that it is safe to eat irradiated food.

These scientific committees need to be independent from government influence.

Suggest why. (1)

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(iii) One group of scientists has compared the vitamin content of non-irradiated foods
with irradiated foods.
 The table below gives the data obtained for 1 kg of cooked chicken.

Vitamin Non-irradiated food Irradiated food

in milligrams in milligrams

B6 1.22 1.35

B12 21.00 28.00

E 3.30 2.15

Niacin 58.00 55.50

Riboflavin 2.10 2.25

Considering only the data in the table, is it valid to conclude that irradiated food is
less nutritional than non-irradiated food?

Explain your answer. (2)

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(iv) In a restaurant, meals with ingredients that have been irradiated must be clearly
identified on the menu.

It is important that people eating in a restaurant are given this information. Suggest
why. (1)

______________________________________________________________

(c) The isotope caesium-137 decays by emitting beta radiation.

Caesium-137 has a half-life of 30 years.

(i) What is a beta particle, and from which part of an atom is a beta particle emitted?
(1)

______________________________________________________________

(ii) A sample containing caesium-137 has a count rate of 600 counts per minute.

Calculate how long it would take for the count rate from the sample to fall to 75
counts per minute. Show clearly how you work out your answer. (2)

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Time taken = _________________________ years

 Half life practical
Task: Calculate the half life of each of the graphs.

Use a ruler to draw the lines & write the answer on the graphs themselves.
 No. of No. of your Average of
Half-life practical rolls dice class dice
remaining remaining
Equipment: • 20 dice 0 20 20
• Pen/pencil 1
2
Instructions: 3
1) Count out 20 dice. 4
2) Pick up all dice and drop onto this sheet.
5
3) Put all dice that show a “six” to one side.
6
4) Count remaining dice and write them where
rolls = 1. 7

5) Repeat from step 2 until either all dice are 8

gone, or the table is full. 9
6) Plot your results making a curved line & then 10
plot the average results of the class.
11
12

Your results Average of class

 (a) A radiation detector and counter were used to detect and measure the radiation emitted
from a weak source. The graph shows how the number of counts recorded in one minute
changed with time.

Even though the readings from the counter were accurately recorded, not all the points fit the smooth
curve. What does this tell us about the process of radioactive decay? (1)

______________________________________________________________

(b) The radioactive isotope sodium-24 injected into the bloodstream can be used to trace
blood flow to the heart. Sodium-24 emits both beta particles and gamma rays.

(i) What is a beta particle? (1)

______________________________________________________________

(ii) What is a gamma ray? (1)

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

(iii) The count rate from a solution containing sodium-24 decreases from 584 counts
per minute to 73 counts per minute in 45 hours. Calculate the half-life of sodium-2.2.
Show clearly how you work out your answer. (3)

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Half-life = _______________ hours

(iv) Give one advantage of using sodium-24 to trace blood flow compared to using an
isotope with a half-life of: (2)

[A] ten years; ___________________________________________________

[B] ten seconds. ________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
Quiz

1. Which subatomic particle has a positive charge? Circle the correct answer. (1)

A) electron B) proton C) neutron

2. Which two particles are in the nucleus? Circle the correct two answers. (1)

A) electron B) proton C) neutron

3. What type of radiation do we use for irradiation? Circle the correct answer. (1)

A) Alpha B) Beta C) Gamma

4. What type of radiation is most penetrating? Circle the correct answer. (1)

A) Alpha B) Beta C) Gamma

5. What type of radiation is most ionising? Circle the correct answer. (1)

A) Alpha B) Beta C) Gamma

6. What is an isotope? (1)

7. What is the definition of half life? (1)

8. What is ionisation? (1)

9. Why is radiation dangerous? (1)

10. What is the plum pudding model? (1)

11. What three things can we do to keep safe around radiation? (3)

12. What happens to the mass number of a radioactive isotope during alpha decay? (1)