VÕ THỊ LIÊN HƯƠNG (Chủ biên)

TRƯƠNG KHÁNH MỸ
NGUYỄN XUÂN QUỲNH

THỰC HÀNH DỊCH

THEO CẤU TRÚC NGỮ PHÁP
(Tái bản có sửa chữa, bổ sung)

Grammar-Based Translation Practice

(Second edition with adaptation)

NHÀ XUẤT BẢN ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ

2024
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................... iii

CONVENTIONS ................................................................................... vi
Abbreviations ..................................................................................... vi
Concepts ............................................................................................. vi
Symbols .............................................................................................. vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...................................................................... vii
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1
The role of translation.......................................................................... 1
About this book ................................................................................... 2
Chapter 1. TRANSLATING TIME-RELATED EXPRESSIONS ... 5
1.1 Objectives ...................................................................................... 5
1.2 Translating time-related expressions ............................................. 5
1.2.1 Verb tenses .............................................................................. 6
1.2.2 Expressions of habits and normality ....................................... 8
1.2.3 Adverbs of time .................................................................... 10
1.2.4 Collocations expressing periods of time ............................... 13
1.2.5 Other expressions of time ..................................................... 15
1.3 Practice Exercises ........................................................................ 16
1.3.1 English-Vietnamese translation ............................................ 16
1.3.2 Vietnamese-English translation ............................................ 18
Chapter 2. TRANSLATING CONNECTIVES ................................ 20
2.1 Objectives .................................................................................... 20
2.2 Translating connectives ............................................................... 20
2.2.1 Connectives of contrast ......................................................... 21
2.2.2 Connectives of cause and effect ............................................ 22
2.2.3 Connectives of alternative .................................................... 25
2.2.4 Connectives of exception ...................................................... 26
iii
 2.2.5 Connectives of condition .......................................................28
2.2.6 Connectives of purpose .........................................................30
2.2.7 Connectives of manner ..........................................................31
2.3 Practice Exercises .........................................................................32
2.3.1 English-Vietnamese translation .............................................32
2.3.2 Vietnamese-English translation .............................................34
Chapter 3. TRANSLATING INFINITIVE AND -ING FORMS ......37
3.1 Objectives .....................................................................................37
3.2 Translating Patterns with Infinitive or -ING form........................37
3.2.1 Infinitive or -ING patterns with no change in meaning .........37
3.2.2 Infinitive or -ING patterns with a change in meaning ...........39
3.2.3 Patterns with an Infinitive, an -ING or a different form ........43
3.3 Practice Exercises .........................................................................47
3.3.1 English-Vietnamese translation .............................................47
3.3.2 Vietnamese-English translation .............................................49
Chapter 4. TRANSLATING COMPARISON...................................51
4.1 Objectives .....................................................................................51
4.2 Translating comparisons...............................................................51
4.2.1 Comparatives and superlatives ..............................................51
4.2.2 Emphatic comparatives and superlatives ...............................58
4.2.3 Comparisons of equality ........................................................59
4.2.4 Other expressions of comparisons .........................................61
4.3 Practice Exercises .........................................................................62
4.3.1 English-Vietnamese translation .............................................62
4.3.2 Vietnamese-English translation .............................................64
Chapter 5. TRANSLATING MODALITY ........................................67
5.1 Objectives .....................................................................................67
5.2 Translating modality.....................................................................67
5.2.1 Expressions of obligation and permission .............................68
5.2.2 Expressions of necessity ........................................................72
iv
 5.2.3 Expressions of suggestion and advice .................................. 74
5.2.4 Expressions of ability, possibility and probability................ 78
5.3 Practice Exercises ........................................................................ 80
5.3.1 English-Vietnamese translation ............................................ 80
5.3.2 Vietnamese-English translation ............................................ 82
Chapter 6. TRANSLATING RELATIVE CLAUSES ..................... 85
6.1 Objectives .................................................................................... 85
6.2 Relative clauses ........................................................................... 85
6.3 Translating English relative clauses ............................................ 88
6.3.1 Translating clauses with WHERE and WHEN ...................... 89
6.3.2 Translating clauses with WHOSE ......................................... 90
6.3.3 Translating clauses with WHO/WHOM and WHICH ........... 90
6.3.4 Other ways of translating relative clauses ............................ 91
6.4 Practice Exercises ........................................................................ 92
6.4.1 English - Vietnamese translation .......................................... 92
6.4.2 Vietnamese - English translation .......................................... 94
Chapter 7. TRANSLATING PASSIVE VOICE .............................. 96
7.1 Objectives .................................................................................... 96
7.2 Translating Passive Voice ........................................................... 96
7.2.1 Translating English passive sentences into Vietnamese ....... 99
7.2.2 Translating Vietnamese passive notions into English ........ 102
7.3 Translating other structures with passive meaning ................... 103
7.3.1 Collocations with passive meaning ..................................... 103
7.3.2 Verb patterns with passive meaning ................................... 104
7.3.3 Adjectival passive ............................................................... 104
7.4 Practice Exercises ...................................................................... 105
7.4.1 English-Vietnamese translation .......................................... 105
7.4.2 Vietnamese-English translation .......................................... 106
References ........................................................................................... 109

v
 CONVENTIONS
ABBREVIATIONS
EFL English as a Foreign Language
SS: Source sentence
TS: Target sentence
CONCEPTS
Equivalent: a corresponding word/expression in another
language.
Pattern: a regular grammatical combination to form a
sentence.
Source sentence/text: the original sentence/text
Target sentence/text: the translated text
(the final text after translation)
SYMBOLS
* When an asterisk is put at the beginning of a
phrase/sentence, it indicates that the
phrase/sentence is not naturally expressed or
grammatically structured
[x.y] The square brackets indicate an example.
Within the brackets, X stands for the chapter
number, Y stands for the order of the example

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We owe our families a great debt of gratitude. Without their
understanding and tolerance while we were working on this book, it
should not have been completed on schedule.
We specially acknowledge the authors who produced entries
in the internet sources of education, and electronic papers and
magazines. The availability of their photocopiable sources allowed
us to head on with the book without difficulty. For reasons of space,
unfortunately, we could not name them individually.
We appreciate our dear colleague, Nguyen Vu Khanh, who
pays careful attention to every detail while proofreading the
manuscript.
We are thankful to the reviewer who spent time reading and
commenting to help us improve the manuscript.
Finally, our special thanks go to Hue University Publishing
House for giving us an opportunity to update and improve our work
in this second edition.
The authors

vii
 INTRODUCTION
THE ROLE OF TRANSLATION
Many people doubt the necessity of translation when more
and more people in the world can speak at least another language
than their mother tongue. In practice, however, translation studies
and translation services have become an important part of life, both
in education and profession.
In teaching and learning foreign languages, although
translation has been disfavored and even ignored in the teaching of
foreign languages for the past few decades, many studies have
recently re-examined the role of translation in improving students’
language skills. D’Amore (2015) argued that translation has been
resourceful to help students improve their foreign language
knowledge and skills through reading comprehension exercises,
contrastive analysis, and reflection on written texts. Atar (2017)
concluded that foreign language teachers should not ignore
translation because learners could possibly benefit from it in terms
of writing skills. Castro-Moreno (2015) noted that translation plays
a crucial role in vocabulary learning, a very crucial step in learning
a foreign language. For students whose first language greatly differs
from the foreign language they are learning, it is even more
important to include translation as part of their learning to
compensate for the lack of understanding the target language due to
linguistic differences. From the first language standpoint, translation
gives students an opportunity to understand their mother tongue from
the angle of language learning rather than natural language
acquisition. They will be able to create better discourses since they
possess a greater degree of knowledge about the vocabulary of the
language.

1
 For these reasons, this book is written with a view to laying
the foundation for translation as part of learning languages in general
and learning English as a foreign language in particular.
ABOUT THIS BOOK
This book is designed as a multipurpose material for teaching
and learning. It taps into issues of translation at a pre-intermediate
level of proficiency, and so it is suitable for both students who study
English as a major leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts in the
English Language Studies and students who study English as a minor
course in their training programs. The book provides users with
essential knowledge of vocabulary and grammar for translation
practice. It can certainly be used as a helpful reference book for those
who show a keen interest in translation.
The book focuses on the discussion of grammatical issues at
the level of vocabulary and sentence structure. These issues often
cause challenges in translation practice. Arguably, vocabulary and
grammar are first prerequisites for a student to study translation.
Vocabulary and grammar involve not only the structures but also the
meanings they express, and the contexts in which they may be used
(Navickienė, 2018). Therefore, the book addresses areas of
vocabulary and grammar that give rise to many differences between
English and Vietnamese. Based on previous research into the
translation problems students of English encounter, both in Vietnam
and in the world, the book presents seven main areas that might cause
difficulties in translation owing to the differences between the two
languages. These areas concern the translation of time-related
expressions, connectives, infinitive and -ing forms of verbs,
comparisons of adjectives and adverbs, modal expressions, relative
clauses and passive voice. The book is organized in seven chapters,
following a consistent structure, including the objectives students are
to achieve, an introduction, an explanation of meaning and uses of
the issue presented, as well as the Vietnamese equivalents to the

2
terms or patterns under discussion. Each chapter also has a section
of practice exercises of both English-Vietnamese and Vietnamese-
English translation to consolidate the knowledge they have acquired.

3
 CHAPTER 1.
TRANSLATING TIME-RELATED
EXPRESSIONS
1.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
• understand the basic uses and have a comparative view of
time-related expressions in English and Vietnamese,
• become aware of the cultural differences in time
expressions between the source language and target
language to handle them well in translation work,
• develop critical thinking in translation.
1.2 TRANSLATING TIME-RELATED EXPRESSIONS
Human beings refer to time as past, present and future.
Despite this, time indicators vary from language to language. Take
English and Vietnamese as examples. In Vietnamese, the three
timelines of past, present and future are rigorously indicated by the
adverbs of time đã, đang and sẽ, respectively. In English, however,
these timelines are expressed in 12 major verb tenses. Therefore,
while learning to use these tenses is difficult for Vietnamese learners
of English, translating these verb tenses into Vietnamese is even
more difficult. In addition to differences in the expressions of tenses,
a wide range of time expressions in the forms of adverbs, verb
patterns and collocations also pose challenges to Vietnamese
learners of English.
This chapter suggests some ways of translating time-related
expressions in English into Vietnamese. Nonetheless, the application
of what is discussed in this chapter is not limited to one-way
translation from English to Vietnamese. Rather, it can be applied the
other way round, that is, in Vietnamese-English translation.

5
1.2.1 Verb tenses
Compared to a variety of expressions with different uses,
Vietnamese, as mentioned, only has three adverbs of time đã, đang
and sẽ indicating past, present and future, respectively. In English-
Vietnamese translation, we often use đã if the verb in the source
sentence is in either past simple or present perfect.
[1.1] SS: They moved into this flat three years ago.
TS: Họ đã chuyển đến căn hộ này cách đây 3 năm.
[1.2] SS: I’ve already written two letters to them.
TS: Tôi đã viết cho họ 2 lá thư rồi.
However, the word đã is sometimes omitted in Vietnamese,
especially when the sentence contains adverbial of time. For
example, the target sentence in [1.1] can be Họ chuyển đến căn hộ
này cách đây 3 năm.
There might not be any difficulty translating from English to
Vietnamese this way, but what tense should be used in case of the
Vietnamese-English translation of a sentence containing the word
đã? The tip is that the past simple is used if the sentence has an
expression of a particular time, for example, cách đây (+ an amount
of time), vào (+ a point in time) and the present perfect is used in the
absence of a time expression.
[1.3] SS: Ngôi nhà này được xây dựng vào năm 1992.
TS: This house was built in 1992.
In the translation of a source sentence containing a verb in the
present time, we do not need any time indicator for verbs in the
present simple. However, đang is used to indicate an action in
progress (i.e., the verb is in the present continuous tense).
[1.4] SS: I come from a small city in Central Vietnam.
TS: Tôi đến từ một thành phố nhỏ ở miền Trung Việt Nam.
[1.5] SS: The children are sleeping in the bedroom.
TS: Mấy đứa trẻ đang ngủ trong phòng.
6
 Some hints for the use of đang in the target sentence include
the expressions of a specific time (e.g., at the moment) and
temporariness (e.g., this week).
[1.6] SS: Michael is working in London this week.
TS: Tuần này Michael đang làm việc ở Luân Đôn.
In case we describe gradual development or improvement, we
can use đang (+ verb) dần as in [1.7] or only dần as in [1.8].
[1.7] SS: Your English is improving.
TS: Tiếng Anh của bạn đang cải thiện dần.
[1.8] SS: It is getting dark.
TS: Trời tối dần.
It should be noted that the present continuous is also used to
refer to a future action. In this case, sẽ will be used instead of đang.
Likewise, sẽ is used in the target sentence for future verb tenses.
[1.9] SS: The boy will sleep till noon if no one wakes him up.
TS: Thằng bé sẽ ngủ đến trưa nếu không ai đánh thức nó.
Interestingly, although English and Vietnamese greatly differ
in language structure and use, there is a correlation between the
English present perfect and the Vietnamese expression đã và đang,
used to describe an action or a plan that lasts a period of time until
the present time. This is worth noting for translation either way,
English–Vietnamese and Vietnamese–English.
[1.10] SS: English has become an international language.
TS: Tiếng Anh đã và đang trở thành ngôn ngữ quốc tế.
In addition, English verb tenses may be accompanied by time-
related expressions that may mostly affect what the target sentence
should be like.

7
1.2.2 Expressions of habits and normality
1.2.2.1 Expressions with -ING forms or nouns
The pattern be used to + -ing form/noun is used to talk about
situations that are familiar to or normal for someone and that they do
not find strange or difficult, accordingly.
[1.11] SS: I’m used to getting up early in the morning.
TS: Tôi quen với việc dậy sớm vào buổi sáng.
Based on the usage explanation, the expression be used to + -
ing form/noun can be expressed in Vietnamese as quen với /thân
thuộc với.
However, the sense of language slightly changes with the
expression get used to + -ing form/noun. The pattern get used to +
-ing form/noun is used to talk about situations becoming familiar or
normal after being strange or difficult at first. There is an emphasis
on the gradual change in the habit. Therefore, the Vietnamese
equivalent to this expression should have an indicator of this gradual
change. In this sense, it should be translated as dần quen với.
[1.12] SS: Don’t worry. You’ll get used to the weather here soon.
TS: Đừng lo. Bạn sẽ dần quen với thời tiết ở đây nhanh thôi.
Similarly, be/get accustomed to + -ing form/noun are used
with the same meanings as be/get used to + -ing form/noun,
respectively, in a more formal context. They can certainly be
translated into Vietnamese as quen với /thân thuộc với or dần quen
với as above. Nonetheless, if the formality of language is taken into
consideration, the phrases thích nghi với and dần thích nghi với
should be used, respectively.
There are also expressions of habits and normality that imply
a speaker’s disapproval. For example, the expression have a habit of
+ -ing form is used to talk about things that people often do,
especially when these things are considered bad. It is acceptable to
translate the expression into Vietnamese as có thói quen (làm gì) if

8
the disapproving attitude is not necessary to be included in the
Vietnamese version. However, if the attitudinal sense should be
brought into the translated version, the expression có (cái) tật (làm
gì) will work better.
[1.13] SS: I’m afraid I have a habit of forgetting people’s names.
TS1: Tôi e là tôi có thói quen hay quen tên người khác.
TS2: Tôi e là tôi có cái tật hay quên tên người khác.
Be always + -ing form is another expression connected with
the use of verb tense in the continuous form. It is used as an emphatic
exclamation to describe habits causing annoyance. For this
expression, the equivalent cứ … hoài will help convey the meaning
of annoyance.
[1.14] SS: You’re always complaining. Please stop!
TS: Bạn cứ phàn nàn hoài. Thôi đi nào!
1.2.2.2 Expressions with Infinitive forms
The expression tend + full infinitive is used to talk about
things that people usually do or that usually happen or are true. In
Vietnamese, there is an equivalent expression có khuynh hướng/xu
hướng.
[1.15] SS: The weather tends to be mild at this time of year.
TS: Thời tiết có khuynh hướng dịu đi vào thời gian này trong
năm.
Nonetheless, when have a tendency + full infinitive is used,
in addition to expressing the same meaning as tend + full infinitive,
this pattern often implies the speaker’s disapproval or dislike.
[1.16] SS: Tom has a tendency to blame other people for his own
mistakes.
TS1: Tom có xu hướng đổ lỗi cho người khác về những sai
lầm của chính mình.

9
 In this way, the attitudinal aspect of meaning is not conveyed.
This way of translation is often found in the written language in
which the polite form of language is required. However, in spoken
language, we can use the phrases cứ hay … and có (cái) tật hay …/
có (cái) kiểu hay … as equivalents to this pattern:
TS2: Tom cứ hay đổ lỗi cho người khác về những sai lầm
của chính mình.
For the habits and normality in the past, English speakers
often use would + bare infinitive (= used to + bare infinitive) to talk
about things that happened repeatedly in the past. For this pattern,
the Vietnamese expressions (đã) từng and vẫn thường can be used
as an equivalent.
[1.17] SS: When I was young, my father would tell me stories
before I went to sleep.
TS: Hồi tôi còn bé, cha tôi vẫn thường kể chuyện cho tôi
trước khi tôi ngủ.
[1.18] SS: People used to think the earth was flat.
TS: Người ta (đã) từng nghĩ rằng trái đất phẳng.
Note that would + bare infinitive can only be used with verbs
indicating activities, while used to + bare infinitive can be used with
both activity verbs and stative verbs.
1.2.3 Adverbs of time
Learners of English often observe that certain adverbs can go
with particular tenses. For example, words like already, yet, just,
lately, recently, etc. are mostly seen in sentences with verbs in the
present perfect. In this section, ways of translating adverbs connected
with particular tenses and meanings are presented.
‘Already’
This adverb is used to say that something has happened before
now, or before the moment you are referring to. It is equivalent to
Vietnamese words rồi, xong, or xong rồi.
10
[1.19] SS: I’ve already finished my homework.
TS1: Tôi hoàn thành bài tập về nhà rồi.
TS2: Tôi hoàn thành xong bài tập về nhà.
It is sometimes used to show surprise in questions. In this
case, the Vietnamese equivalent should be rồi ư?
[1.20] SS: Has it been 10 o’clock already?
TS: Đã 10 giờ rồi ư?
‘Yet’
This word is used to say that something has not happened, but
it is expected to happen. The Vietnamese equivalent is chưa.
[1.21] SS: I haven’t received a letter from him yet.
TS: Tôi chưa nhận được thư của anh ấy.
‘Still’
The adverb still is often found in sentences describing a
situation or action that continues and has not changed or ended. The
common rendering of this word is vẫn, còn or vẫn còn.
[1.22] SS: I still don’t know what you’re talking about.
TS: Tôi vẫn không biết anh đang nói gì.
[1.23] SS: He was still working when I left the company.
TS: Anh ta còn làm việc khi tôi rời công ty.
‘Anymore’ & ‘any longer’
These expressions are used with negative verbs to say that
something was true or happened in the past doesn’t continue to be
true or to happen. The Vietnamese equivalent is không … nữa.
[1.24] SS: Jackie doesn’t live here anymore.
TS: Jackie không sống ở đây nữa.
‘Hardly’
The word hardly has many different equivalents in
Vietnamese, depending on the context in which it is used. Regarding

11
tenses, hardly is commonly used in the pattern hardly + past perfect
to mean ‘only a short time before’ – that is, vừa mới in Vietnamese.
[1.25] SS: I’d hardly met him when he started asking me personal
questions.
TS: Tôi vừa mới gặp anh ta thì anh ta đã hỏi tôi mấy câu hỏi
riêng tư.
‘Lately’ & ‘recently’
Lately and recently can be used with the same meaning. They
are often found in the pattern to talk about a period of time beginning
not long ago and continuing until now: lately/recently + present
perfect/present perfect continuous. These words are equivalent to
mới đây or dạo gần đây in Vietnamese.
[1.26] SS: Lately, I haven’t been sleeping well.
TS: Dạo gần đây tôi ngủ không ngon giấc.
Note that recently can also be used with the past simple to
mean ‘at a point in time not long ago’ but lately cannot.
‘So far’
So far is an expression that means ‘until now’, implying ‘but
the situation might change’. This expression must be used with the
present perfect tense, which is rendered into Vietnamese as cho đến
nay or tính đến nay.
[1.27] SS: They’ve won all the games they’ve played so far.
TS: Tính đến nay, họ đã thắng tất cả các trận đấu mà họ
chơi.
‘Currently’
Currently is used to talk about something that is happening
now but which may not continue. It implies the meaning of a period
of time, and thus it is different from now and at the moment, both of
which indicate a point in time. It should be translated into
Vietnamese as trong lúc này or trong thời gian này.
[1.28] SS: She is currently looking for another job.
12
 TS: Trong thời gian này cô ấy đang tìm một công việc khác.
‘In the last/past + period’
This pattern is used to talk about a period of time before and
until now. It should be translated into Vietnamese as trong … (vừa)
qua. The verb in the sentence containing this pattern must be in the
present perfect.
[1.29] SS: His health has improved in the last few weeks.
TS: Sức khoẻ của ông ấy có tiến triển trong vài tuần qua.
‘Then’
While the adverb now in English means ‘at the present time’
(bây giờ/lúc này in Vietnamese) and clearly relates to the present
tense, the adverb then is more complicated. Then means ‘at that time
(in the past or in the future). It is translated into Vietnamese as (vào)
thời đó/(vào) lúc đó if it indicates the past, and as (đến) khi đó/(đến)
lúc đó if it is about the future event/action.
[1.30] SS: I’ll call you tomorrow. I should have the details of the
meeting by then.
TS: Tôi sẽ gọi cho anh vào ngày mai. Đến khi đó tôi sẽ có
các nội dung chi tiết cuộc họp.
[1.31] SS: Life was harder then because neither of us had a job.
TS: Vào thời đó cuộc sống rất khó khăn vì hai chúng tôi
không ai có việc làm.
1.2.4 Collocations expressing periods of time
There are three common verbs in English that form different
collocations expressing actions done within periods of time, namely,
take, spend and waste. These verbs are particularly used in patterns
as follows.
‘Take’
This verb is used to talk about the amount of time an action
requires. It comes in three collocations.

13
 Subject + take + period
The verb take in this pattern can be translated as mất (+ period
of time).
[1.32] SS: The journey will take five hours.
TS: Chuyến đi sẽ mất năm tiếng đồng hồ.
It + take + period + for + someone to do something
This pattern is English-specific, and the translation of it
should be literal: phải mất (bao lâu) để (ai làm gì).
[1.33] SS: It will take five hours for us to get there.
TS1: Phải mất 5 tiếng đồng hồ để chúng tôi đi đến đó.
As ‘it’ in this pattern is a preparatory subject, there is an
alternative for the translation of this sentence. The target sentence
can begin with the person who does the action: (Ai) mất (bao lâu) để
(làm gì).
TS2: Chúng tôi mất 5 tiếng đồng hồ để đi đến đó.
It + take + someone + period + to do something
Translating this pattern is more complicated compared with
the other patterns. ‘It’ in this pattern is also a preparatory subject, so
the arrangement of information in the target sentence is quite
different from the source sentence. Normally, the action is put in the
position of subject in a Vietnamese sentence: (làm việc gì) khiến (ai)
mất (bao lâu).
[1.34] SS: It will take us five hours to get there.
TS: Đi đến đó khiến chúng tôi mất 5 tiếng đồng hồ.
‘Spend’
The verb spend is used to talk about the amount of time
someone uses for a particular activity. Spend comes in the pattern:
Someone + spend + period + -ing form. Therefore, we render it as
dùng/dành, bỏ ra in Vietnamese: (Ai) dành/bỏ ra (bao lâu) (làm
việc gì).

14
[1.35] SS: The girl spent two hours doing her homework.
TS: Cô bé đã dành 2 tiếng đồng hồ để làm bài tập ở nhà.
‘Waste’
The verb waste comes in the pattern (Someone) + waste +
(period) + -ing form. It is used to talk about the amount of time
someone uses doing something unnecessary or useless, so we
translate it into Vietnamese as (Ai) bỏ phí (bao lâu) để (làm gì).
[1.36] SS: We’ve wasted a whole week discussing this useless
subject.
TS: Chúng tôi đã bỏ phí cả tuần để thảo luận chủ đề vô bổ
này.
1.2.5 Other expressions of time
In English, there are expressions of time without any time
indicators. The following are some common expressions of this kind.
‘Be about to do something’
This pattern is used to talk about a plan or an intention of
doing something in a very short time. It is equivalent to sắp
sửa/chuẩn bị (làm gì) or (làm gì) ngay đây.
[1.37] SS: Could you phone back later? I’m about to have a
meeting.
TS: Anh gọi lại sau được không? Tôi sắp sửa/chuẩn bị có
cuộc họp.
‘Be on the point of doing something’
This pattern is similar to the pattern be about to do something,
but it is used more with intention. Thus, we render it as định (làm
gì).
[1.38] SS: I was on the point of explaining when suddenly she left.
TS: Tôi định giải thích thì bỗng dưng cô ấy bỏ đi.

15
 ‘Be due to do something’
This pattern is used to talk about future arrangements that are
expected to happen at a specific time. It is equivalent to sắp phải
(làm gì), đến hạn (làm gì) or có lịch (làm gì) in Vietnamese.
[1.39] SS: I’m due to give my presentation in class next week.
TS: Tôi sắp phải trình bày bài trước lớp vào tuần tới.

1.3 PRACTICE EXERCISES

1.3.1 English-Vietnamese translation

Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences into Vietnamese

1. It took Jack three years to save enough money for his trip to
Europe.
2. Zoe has a habit of making jokes about other people’s problems.
3. My father gets angry with me because I’ve wasted this afternoon
watching silly TV programs.
4. How long will it take to finish that work?
5. The program you want to watch is about to start, so come in and
sit down.
6. People tend to have more energy in the morning.
7. I was on the point of leaving home when he arrived.
8. The plane is due to arrive at 1:55 pm.
9. My mother has a tendency to worry too much.
10. I’m too busy with my work, so I don’t spend much time with my
children these days.
11. His story may mean nothing to some people but it reminds me of
my childhood back then.
12. They don’t actually need the parcel on Friday, but if it arrives by
then, so much the better.
13. I’m not quite interested in the concert at the Grand Theatre as
finding a parking spot at that time takes ages.
16
14. For the time being, I’m working for a small company, but I hope
to have a better job with a higher salary soon.
15. I had hardly started to play video games when my mother came
home with an angry face.
16. In the last few years, the Japanese government has been trying to
increase the share of women in the workforce, in general, and in
leadership positions, in particular.
17. She got the doctor’s permission to get around recently.
18. I’m waiting for the train which is due to arrive at 10:15 am.
19. It is certainly true that in recent times money has become so
important in sports.
20. My father has worked for this company for almost 30 years. He’s
going to retire next month.
(Adapted from assorted sources)
Exercise 2. Translate the following short story into Vietnamese.
Pay attention to the expressions of time.
One day last summer I was walking through the local park. It
was a hot day and I was eating an ice cream. As I was walking past
the boating lake, I saw my friends, Carol and Jim. They were taking
their dog for a walk. When we met, we stopped for a chat. While we
were taking, the dog suddenly jumped up and tried to get my ice
cream. I pulled my hand away and unfortunately the ice cream came
out of the cone. Now there was a bald man behind me. The poor man
wasn’t doing anything harm. He was just sitting on a bench and
reading a newspaper. When I pulled my hand away, the ice cream
flew through the air and landed on the man’s head. I didn’t know
what to do then. I was terribly embarrassed!

(Source: ‘I Love Translation’)

17
1.3.2 Vietnamese-English translation
Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into English
1. Tôi vừa mới mua chiếc váy đó thì bố tôi lại mua cho tôi một chiếc
tương tự.
2. Sang xuân thời tiết ấm áp hơn, tinh thần của ông ấy cũng phấn
chấn hơn.
3. Tuần này tôi phải hoàn thành phần việc được giao.
4. Mấy ngày gần đây tôi cảm thấy không được khỏe. Có lẽ tôi nên đi
kiểm tra sức khỏe.
5. Chúng tôi đã dành 2 tuần để hoàn tất bài tập nhóm nhưng tiếc là
vẫn không thể hoàn thành đúng hạn.
6. Theo lịch thì máy bay sẽ đáp vào lúc 9 giờ tối.
7. Tôi sẽ đến cuộc họp trong 5 phút nữa vì vậy hãy đảm bảo mọi thứ
được chuẩn bị sẵn sàng trước khi tôi đến.
8. Tuần vừa rồi là một tuần tồi tệ đối với cô bé khi nó chỉ đạt 5 điểm
cho môn Toán.
9. Chính phủ sẽ tăng cường lực lượng cứu hộ đến các khu vực bị ảnh
hưởng bởi cơn bão số 8 trong tuần tới.
10. Khu vực miền Bắc đang hứng chịu một đợt nắng nóng khác được
dự báo kéo dài đến hết tháng.
11. Trong những năm gần đây, nhiều tỉnh và thành phố đã rất quan
tâm đến phát triển và hiện đại hóa hạ tầng đô thị.
12. Lúc trước, thành phố vẫn còn rất ít người dân sinh sống. Từ khi
có nhiều đường sá hơn, nó mới trở nên đông đúc như bây giờ.
13. Tại sao chúng ta cứ có cái tật chờ đến tối muộn rồi mới bắt đầu
làm bài tập? Mỗi bài mất ít nhất 2 tiếng mà chúng ta có tới tận 3 bài.
Sắp thức đến sáng rồi đây!
14. Bạn ăn gì chưa? Tôi mới ăn một ít salad cho buổi trưa thôi vì tôi
không quen ăn nhiều vào giờ này.

18
15. Tôi sắp bỏ việc rồi đây. Mấy đồng nghiệp của tôi cứ ngồi tán gẫu
hoài trong khi việc còn rất nhiều.
16. Những người giàu có thường có thói quen dậy sớm và đọc sách
mỗi ngày. Tôi cũng đọc sách, nhưng dậy sớm thì chưa.
17. Công ty của anh ta đang làm ăn được lắm. Tính tới nay, anh ta
đã thuê tới 3000 nhân viên.
18. Cần tới 4 năm để đào tạo được một cử nhân, 5 năm cho kỹ sư,
nhưng phải mất ít nhất 6 năm để đào tạo ra được một bác sĩ.
19. Các trường học ngày nay có xu hướng cân bằng giữa việc học lý
thuyết và thực hành hơn so với trước đây khi thầy cô giáo thường chỉ
đọc bài giảng cho sinh viên chép.
20. Trong tương lai gần, tiếng Anh vẫn sẽ là phương tiên giao tiếp
phổ biến toàn cầu.
(Adapted from assorted sources)
Exercise 4. Translate the following short story into English. Pay
attention to the expressions of time.
Ngày Thứ Bảy
Thuở bé, tôi luôn luôn chờ
đợi ngày thứ bảy. Vì đó là ngày ba
tôi thường đưa cả nhà đi ăn tối, đi
xem phim. Đến tuổi dậy thì, ngày
thứ bảy càng đáng yêu hơn, vì đó là ngày tôi đến nơi hẹn với người
yêu. Khi lập gia đình, tôi cũng mong ngày thứ bảy để được nghỉ việc,
được giặt ủi quần áo, dọn dẹp nhà cửa.
Và bây giờ, tôi sợ ngày thứ bảy! Đó là ngày chồng tôi họp bạn
nhậu, con tôi hẹn với người yêu, tôi hoàn toàn cô đơn.
(Adapted from Fatasa, 2013)

19
 CHAPTER 2.
TRANSLATING CONNECTIVES
2.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
• understand the basic uses of linking words and phrases, and
have a comparative view of those in English and in
Vietnamese,
• become aware of the cultural differences in connectives
between the source language and target language to handle
them well in translation work,
• develop critical thinking in translation.
2.2 TRANSLATING CONNECTIVES
‘Connectives’ refers to words or phrases that link sentences or
clauses together. As connectives show the relationship between
clauses or sentences, they help writers arrange ideas in a logical
manner. In English, connectives can be conjunctions, prepositions
and adverbs. This variety makes it difficult not only for learners of
English to learn the usages of connectives, but also for translators to
make decisions about relevant expressions in the target language.
Research into translating connectives has shown that this area of
vocabulary has potential problems. For example, in their
investigation of students’ difficulties in translating conjunctions
between Arabic and English, Rizvi, Saujan and Munas (2021)
pointed out that it would be important for students to determine
appropriate conjunctions and understand their meaning in both
languages before any renderings have been made. Learning how to
deal with connectives in translation should not be overlooked,
especially when it is at the beginning level of developing translation
skills.

20
 It would be hard to make a good flow of speech without
connectives. In this chapter, some of the commonly used connectives
in English and their equivalents in Vietnamese are presented.
2.2.1 Connectives of contrast
Connectives of contrast link two ideas that are different from
each other (for example, one is positive and the other is negative) or
link one idea to another which is surprising or unexpected.
‘Although/though/even though’
These connectives, used at the beginning of a sentence or
between two clauses, have a similar meaning and equivalent to
Vietnamese (mặc) dù, but even though is more emphatic and can be
translated into Vietnamese as cho dù … đi nữa.
[2.1] SS: They’ve decided to buy a new car although their car is
still in good condition.
TS: Họ đã quyết định mua xe mới mặc dù xe của họ vẫn
đang còn tốt.
[2.2] SS: Even though he had all the required qualifications, he
didn’t get the job.
TS: Cho dù anh ấy có đủ các bằng cấp theo yêu cầu đi nữa,
anh ấy vẫn không xin được việc.
In English, despite and in spite of are also used with a similar
meaning to although/though, but as prepositions, they are followed
by a noun or an -ing form.
‘However’
This connective is used at the beginning of a second sentence
to introduce a statement that contrasts with something that has just
been said. It is common to translate however into Vietnamese as tuy
nhiên, but we can also render it as mặc dù vậy.
[2.3] SS: We thought the manuscript was fine. However, we have
now discovered some typographical errors.

21
 TS: Chúng tôi nghĩ bản thảo đã ổn. Tuy nhiên, bây giờ
chúng tôi đã phát hiện một số lỗi đánh máy.
Note that however and though can be put at the end of a
second sentence. In this case, it is preferred to translate them into
Vietnamese as mặc dù vậy.
[2.4] SS: I left early. I arrived late, however/though.
TS: Tôi đi sớm. Mặc dù vậy, tôi vẫn đến trễ.
‘While/whereas’
These connectives are used to show that the second idea is
surprising or unexpected with whereas being more emphatic than
while. The Vietnamese equivalent is trong khi đó.
[2.5] SS: My brother is good at sciences while/whereas I’m good
at foreign languages.
TS: Anh trai tôi giỏi các môn khoa học, trong khi đó tôi lại
giỏi ngoại ngữ.
Sometimes, when while is used at the beginning of a sentence,
we can treat it as although in the Vietnamese version.
[2.6] SS: While I understand your problem, I can do nothing to
help you.
TS: Mặc dù tôi hiểu vấn đề của bạn, tôi chẳng làm được gì
để giúp bạn cả.
Note that while here shows the contrast. It is different from
the conjunction of time that we often translate as trong khi as in the
sentence ‘While I was sleeping at home, the doorbell rang.’
2.2.2 Connectives of cause and effect
Connectives of cause and effect are used to introduce sentence
elements that express the concept of cause and effect.

22
 ‘Because/since/as’ &
‘Due to/owing to/in view of/on account of’
These connectives are used when we focus on the cause. They
all have similar meaning, and the Vietnamese equivalent is vì/bởi vì
or do/vì lý do. They come in two main patterns:
Clause 1 + because/since/as + clause 2
due to/owing to
Clause + in view of + noun/-ing form
on account of
For the first pattern, it is common to translate conjunctions
because/since/as into Vietnamese as vì/bởi vì.
[2.7] SS: Sam was late for class because he overslept.
TS: Sam trễ học vì nó đã ngủ quên.
For the complex prepositions due to/owing to/ in view of/on
account of, we often render as do/vì lý do. However, it is worth
considering their subtle differences.
First, due to and owing to are slightly different in that the
preposition due to emphasizes the meaning of caused by while owing
to simply means because of. For translation, it is preferable to
translate due to as do or do tác động của, if emphatic, and owing to
as vì/vì lý do.
[2.8] SS: The flight was canceled due to bad weather.
TS: Chuyến bay đã bị huỷ do thời tiết xấu.
Note that due to is used more frequently after the verb BE than
owing to.
[2.9] SS: Their failure was due to a lack of care and attention.
TS: Sự thất bại của họ là do thiếu quan tâm và chú ý.
For on account of and in view of, they are often used to mean
that the speaker takes an action or makes a decision after considering

23
something and being influenced by it. In view of is often translated
into Vietnamese as xét về/sau khi cân nhắc.
[2.10] SS: The event will now be held indoors in view of the
weather.
TS: Sự kiện sẽ được tổ chức trong nhà sau khi cân nhắc vấn
đề thời tiết.
On account of is translated into Vietnamese as vì lý do if it is
followed by a noun phrase indicating a thing, and as vì quyền lợi
của/theo nguyện vọng của if it is followed by a noun phrase
indicating a person.
[2.11] SS: She decided to return to her hometown on account of
her parents.
TS: Cô ấy đã quyết định trở về quê hương theo nguyện vọng
của bố mẹ cô ấy.
‘So’, ‘Therefore’, ‘Consequently/As a result’
These connectives are used to talk about the logical
consequence. The connectives so and therefore are often translated
into Vietnamese as vì vậy/vì thế, while consequently and as a result
are translated as kết quả là. As a coordinating conjunction, so is used
to link two independent clauses. Note that so is more informal, and
more commonly used in spoken English.
[2.12] SS: We were thirsty, so we stopped at a café for a drink.
TS: Chúng tôi thấy khát nước, vì vậy chúng tôi đã ghé một
quán cà phê để uống.
As sentence connectors, therefore, consequently and as a
result are more commonly used in written English at the beginning
of the second sentence (as in [2.13]). However, note that these
connectives can come after a semicolon as in [2.14].
[2.13] SS: Our company’s profits have increased 150% in the past
year. Therefore, we’re going to invest in new equipment
and training programs.

24
 TS: Lợi nhuận của công ty chúng ta đã tăng 150% trong năm
qua. Vì thế, chúng ta sẽ đầu tư vào các thiết bị mới và
các chương trình tập huấn.
[2.14] SS: The tennis player had knee surgery; consequently, he
took the whole season off.
TS: Tay vợt đã mổ đầu gối, kết quả là anh ấy phải nghỉ mất
một mùa giải.
2.2.3 Connectives of alternative
Connectives of alternative are used to link two ideas, either of
which is a possibility, choice or idea over the other.
‘Instead’ & ‘instead of’
These connectives are used to introduce a substitution of one
thing over another. The expression instead of is used with a
noun/pronoun/-ing form. Its Vietnamese equivalent is thay vì.
[2.15] SS: Let’s sit at that table instead of this one.
TS: Chúng ta hãy ngồi ở bàn kia thay vì bàn này.
[2.16] SS: Instead of taking a bus, I walked.
TS: Thay vì đi xe buýt, tôi đã đi bộ.
Instead is put at the end of the sentence. It means instead of
something also mentioned. Therefore, it should be translated into
Vietnamese as thay vào đó.
[2.17] SS: I don’t feel like doing this now. I’ll do it tomorrow
instead.
TS: Tôi không có hứng thú làm việc này bây giờ. Thay vào
đó, tôi sẽ làm vào ngày mai.
‘Rather than’
Rather than is used to state a comparative preference.
Depending on its position in a sentence, it is translated into
Vietnamese as thay vì (if at the beginning of a sentence) and as hơn

25
là (if in the middle, indicating a comparative preference). It comes
in the following patterns:
rather than + bare infinitive
rather than + -ing form
rather than + noun/pronoun
[2.18] SS: Rather than waste any more time, I gave up.
TS: Thay vì lãng phí thêm thời gian, tôi đã từ bỏ.
[2.19] SS: Rather than standing there, why don’t you give us a
hand?
TS: Thay vì đứng đấy, sao anh không giúp tôi một tay?
[2.20] SS: I wanted to buy a Samsung tablet rather than an ipad.
TS: Tôi muốn mua cái máy tính bảng Samsung hơn là cái
ipad.
‘Otherwise’
Otherwise is used after stating a situation or fact, in order to
talk about what will/would happen if this situation or fact was not
the case. This connective is translated into Vietnamese as nếu không
thì.
[2.21] SS: If I see Mary today, I’ll tell her. Otherwise, I’ll call her
later.
TS: Nếu hôm nay tôi gặp Mary, tôi sẽ nói với cô ấy. Nếu
không thì tôi sẽ gọi điện thoại sau.
2.2.4 Connectives of exception
Connectives of exception are words and phrases that express
exclusion after a generalization is made.
‘Apart from’
Apart from is used to talk about the only way the statement is
not true. Its Vietnamese equivalent is ngoài … ra. It comes in these
patterns:

26
 apart from + -ing form
apart from + noun/pronoun
apart from the fact that + clause
[2.22] SS: Apart from going to the shop, I’ve done nothing today.
TS: Ngoài việc đi mua sắm ra, hôm nay tôi không làm gì cả.
[2.23] SS: Apart from Helen, I didn’t know anyone at the party.
TS: Ngoài Helen ra, tôi không quen biết ai ở bữa tiệc đó.
[2.24] SS: Apart from the fact that the plane was a bit late, we had
a good journey.
TS: Ngoài chuyện máy bay hơi trễ một tí ra, chúng tôi đã có
một chuyến đi tốt đẹp.
‘Except (for)/but’
Except (for) and but are used to talk about the only way in
which a statement is not completely true. We often translate them
into Vietnamese as ngoại trừ. These are common patterns with
except (for) and but.
except for + -ing form (= apart from)
except/but + noun/pronoun
except/but + bare infinitive
Except for is used only when it is followed by an -ing form.
Except (for) can be placed either at the beginning or in the middle of
a sentence while but is placed only in the middle of a sentence (e.g.,
*But carrots, he likes all vegetables).
[2.25] SS: They work every day except Sunday.
TS: Họ làm việc mỗi ngày ngoại trừ chủ nhật.
[2.26] SS: He doesn’t care about anything except money.
TS: Ông ấy chẳng quan tâm gì ngoại trừ tiền.
[2.27] SS: I can do nothing except/but apologize for my
carelessness.

27
 TS: Tôi không thể làm gì ngoại trừ xin lỗi về sự bất cẩn của
mình.
‘No choice (= alternative/option) but + full infinitive’
The expression is used to talk about the only possible action.
The Vietnamese equivalent is không có lựa chọn nào hơn là …
[2.28] SS: I’ve got no choice (= alternative/option) but to start
again.
TS: Tôi không có sự lựa chọn nào hơn là làm lại từ đầu.
2.2.5 Connectives of condition
We often think of the conjunction if (Vietnamese nếu) when
we talk about a condition. Nevertheless, there are more connectives
of condition in English than just if and their Vietnamese equivalents
vary, too. This section presents the connectives of condition rather
than if.
‘Unless’
Unless is used in the first conditional with the meaning of “if
… not” in the pattern Unless + present tense clause + future simple
clause. In this pattern, the verb after unless refers to the future but in
a present form. Its Vietnamese equivalent in this case is nếu …
không …
[2.29] SS: We’re going for a walk tomorrow unless it is raining.
TS: Ngày mai chúng ta sẽ đi dạo bộ nếu trời không mưa.
Unless is also used to refer to any present or past situation
with the meaning “except if” and is translated into Vietnamese as trừ
phi, trừ trường hợp.
[2.30] SS: I don’t know why she was angry unless my comments
had annoyed her.
TS: Tôi không biết vì sao cô ấy giận dữ, trừ trường hợp
những nhận xét của tôi đã khiến cô ấy khó chịu.

28
 ‘In case’
In case is used to talk about something that might possibly
happen or be true. The other part of the sentence concerns an action
that is taken because that possibility exists. It is translated into
Vietnamese as trong trường hợp if it is at the beginning of the
sentence and phòng khi if it is placed in the middle of the sentence.
The pattern in case + present tense is used as in the first
conditional pattern. The present verb form is used to refer to the
future. In case + any tense is used to refer to the present or past.
[2.31] SS: I’m going to leave early in case it takes a long time to
wait for the bus.
TS: Tôi đi sớm phòng khi chờ xe buýt mất nhiều thời gian.
[2.32] SS: She is not so absent-minded. In case she forgot, I would
remind her.
TS: Cô ấy không quá đãng trí đâu. Trong trường hợp cô ấy
quên, tôi sẽ nhắc.
‘As long as’, ‘provided (that)’ & ‘providing (that)’
As long as, provided (that) & providing (that) have similar
meaning and can be translated into Vietnamese as miễn là. When as
long as is placed as the beginning of a sentence, it can be translated
into Vietnamese as chừng nào mà… mới …. However, we should
not confuse it with an expression of time.
As long as, provided (that) & providing (that) + present tense
is used to refer to the future.
[2.33] SS: As long as you leave before 3.00 pm, you’ll catch the
bus.
TS1: Chừng nào mà bạn rời đi trước 3 giờ chiều, bạn mới
bắt được xe buýt.
TS2: Miễn là bạn rời đi trước 3 giờ chiều, bạn sẽ bắt được
xe buýt.

29
[2.34] SS: I’ll go back to work provided that I’m feeling better.
TS: Tôi sẽ đi làm lại miễn là tôi thấy khoẻ hơn.
As long as, provided (that) & providing (that) + any tense is
used to refer to the present or past.
[2.35] SS: He told me I could stay here providing that I was quiet.
TS: Anh ấy bảo rằng tôi có thể ở lại miễn là tôi giữ im lặng.
‘Even if’
Even if can be used in all the patterns for conditionals. It is
used to talk about a possibility which does not affect or make any
difference to what is stated in the other part of the sentence. The
Vietnamese equivalent to this connective is ngay cả khi.
[2.36] SS: Even if she apologizes, I won’t forgive her.
TS: Ngay cả khi cô ấy xin lỗi tôi cũng sẽ không tha thứ cho
cô ấy.
Note: Do not confuse even if and even though. Use even if to
refer to possibilities and even though to refer to facts or things that
are actually true.
2.2.6 Connectives of purpose
In English, there is a variety of expressions of purposes,
including a prepositional phrase with for, an infinitive phrase with
to/in order to, and a clause with so that/in order that. No matter what
form they take, the Vietnamese equivalents for these purpose
indicators are để and nhằm.
‘For’ (in a preposition phrase)
The expression of purpose through a preposition phrase is
common in English, but there is non-equivalent in Vietnamese. As a
result, there must be an adaptation, normally an addition of a relevant
verb that goes with the noun after for, and translate into Vietnamese
as để ….

30
[2.37] SS: They raise cows for meat.
TS: Họ nuôi bò để lấy thịt.
In the target sentence, the verb lấy is added, making the
sentence become ‘They raise cow to have meat’ if a back translation
is done. In formal situations, nhằm … is more suitable.
[2.38] SS: They signed a Memorandum of Agreement for a
stronger bond.
TS: Họ đã ký kết thỏa thuận hợp tác nhằm đạt được sự gắn
kết bền chặt hơn.
When to/in order to is at the beginning of the sentences, it can
be translated as ‘muốn ... cần phải ...’.
[2.39] SS: In order to get a good job later, you now have to be
prepared with soft skills in addition to widening your
knowledge.
TS1: Muốn có được một công việc tốt sau này, bây giờ các
em cần phải trang bị cho mình các kỹ năng mềm bên
cạnh việc nâng cao trình độ.
Notably, if the translation is from Vietnamese into English,
sometimes there are expressions that lie in between a condition and
an adverbial of the purpose, which is hard to define. The expression
‘muốn ... cần phải ...’ is the case.
The expression ‘muốn có được một công việc tốt sau này’ in
[2.39] can also be considered as a condition clause, and thus
translated into English as:
TS2: If you want to get a good job later, you now have to be
prepared with soft skills in addition to widening your
knowledge.
2.2.7 Connectives of manner
While the connectives of manner in English are easily realized
through as, as if, as though, how, just as, or the way that, the
Vietnamese counterparts are often hidden. The most common sign
31
of connective of manner in Vietnamese is the word như in the
sentence.
[2.40] SS: The quiet life of the village still goes by as it does.
TS: Cuộc sống bình lặng ở ngôi làng này vẫn trôi qua như
nó vẫn vậy.
Sometimes, the expressions như thế nào and nhường nào
used after a description of a characteristic or feeling is seen as an
expression of manner:
[2.41] SS: Please admire these 20 impressive photos to see how
interesting the world around us is.
TS: Hãy chiêm ngưỡng 20 bức ảnh ấn tượng này để biết thế
giới quanh ta thú vị đến nhường nào.
Fortunately, the connectives of manner do not cause any
difficulty to the process of translation.
2.3 PRACTICE EXERCISES
2.3.1 English-Vietnamese translation
Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences into Vietnamese.
1. Even though they’ve lived here for years, they don’t know the
place very well.
2. While she has no real problems, she is always complaining.
3. The weather wasn’t very good. We enjoyed the holiday, though.
4. The athlete was caught using drugs. Consequently, he was kicked
off the team.
5. You won’t get anywhere in life unless you work hard.
6. When some people get bored with their corporate job, they have
nothing else to do but to quit it and start their own business.
7. The company has recently announced plans to lay off one-fifth of
its workforce.

32
8. Although the local authority has taken certain measures to protect
tigers, numerous threats remain for them.
9. Let’s talk about this now in case we do not have an opportunity
later.
10. The cotton-manufacturing industry fulfilled different roles in
each town, and consequently had a different impact on each political
environment.
11. I would have been late even if I’d run all the way.
12. Even though the bus was late, I got to work on time.
13. The manager has got no option but to admit that he was wrong.
14. Provided that you’ve followed my instructions, everything will
be fine.
15. I’ll lend you the book as long as you give it back to me next week.
16. While I understand your problem, there is nothing I can do to
help you.
17. I’m exhausted after a hard-working day; however, I still need to
finish my homework before going to bed.
18. The Japanese diet is apparently quite healthy, apart from the fact
that they consume a bit too much salt.
19. Attendance was small, partly owing to the fact that the invitation
didn’t reach a number of intended participants.
20. You’re driving too fast. We’ll get into trouble with the police
unless you slow down.
(Adapted from assorted sources)
Exercise 2. Translate the following short story into Vietnamese.
Pay attention to the connectives of contrast.
The Wrong Word
For the first time in my life, I was alone in a foreign country.
However, I wasn’t worried. Although I couldn’t speak the language
very well, I could make myself understood fairly well. I decided to
33
be confident, and even though the things I said probably weren’t
totally correct, it didn’t matter. However, there were some difficult
moments and this was one of them.
I walked into a café to buy a pineapple juice. Though I wasn’t
completely sure of the word for ‘pineapple’, I thought I could
remember it. When I asked for my drink, the waiter simply looked at
me. Despite that, I tried again, saying the word in a slightly different
accent. Later, I found out the stupid mistake I had made. Although
the word I used was similar to the word for ‘pineapple’, it had a
different meaning. Despite this, the waiter wrote down my order and
went away as normal. However, I thought I could see him smiling
when he left. It didn’t matter, though, because he returned with the
right drink. I was lucky, though. I found out later that the word I’d
used meant ‘paint’.
(Adapted from Harrison, 2016)
2.3.2 Vietnamese-English translation
Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. IQ được thừa nhận là chỉ số quan trọng để dự báo khả năng thành
công trong cuộc đời của một người dù nó chưa phải là tất cả.
2. Ở Trung Quốc, kết hôn được coi là một phần quan trọng để hoàn
thành nghĩa vụ của con cái với cha mẹ. Tuy nhiên, áp lực phải kết
hôn cũng được cho là nguyên nhân chính gây ra những tranh cãi
trong các gia đình.
3. Tôi buồn vì kết quả thi cuối kì không được như kì vọng cho dù tôi
đã cố gắng hết sức đi nữa.
4. Mặc dù điều kiện kinh tế gia đình khó khăn, cậu ấy vẫn đậu Đại
học với số điểm cao và là niềm tự hào của cả gia đình.
5. Tôi quên đặt báo thức trước khi đi ngủ, kết quả là tôi đã đến muộn
và không được tham dự buổi phỏng vấn.

34
6. Theo các chuyên gia, TP HCM chỉ có thể cầm cự không quá một
ngày nếu mất nguồn nước, bởi đô thị 10 triệu dân chưa có đủ nguồn
dự phòng trong tình huống khẩn nguy.
7. Tôi từng bỏ phí nhiều thời gian để xem những chương trình truyền
hình mà tôi thậm chí không thích. Vì thế tôi quyết định vứt cái ti-vi
để có thể tập trung cho công việc.
8. Cô ấy thực sự thích đối đầu, trong khi tôi thích một cuộc sống yên
tĩnh hơn.
9. Nếu tôi không lầm thì bạn là người đã đến nhà tôi sáng nay, đúng
không?
10. Giám thị sẽ không để thí sinh vào phòng thi nếu thí sinh không
tháo khẩu trang và mang theo căn cước.
11. Phòng khi có sự cố cháy nổ, tất cả các tòa nhà phải có cầu thang
thoát hiểm. Ngoài ra, các cuộc diễn tập phòng cháy chữa cháy cũng
cần thực hiện thường xuyên.
12. Trường hợp khẩn cấp về y tế, hãy gọi đến số 115 để gọi xe cứu
thương. Nếu xảy ra hỏa hoạn thì gọi số 114, còn các vấn đề về trật tự
xã hội thì gọi số 113.
13. Ngoại trừ nhân viên công ty, không ai được phép đi lối này.
14. Máy tính của tôi bị hỏng khi tôi đang làm bài luận được 3 trang
mà chưa kịp lưu. Chẳng còn cách nào khác, tôi phải gõ lại từ đầu.
15. Tôi đến dự đám cưới mà không quen một ai ngoài cô dâu chú rể.
16. Chừng nào con trưởng thành, con sẽ hiểu được thành công chỉ
đến khi chúng ta nỗ lực hết mình.
17. Tôi e là có chuyện xảy ra với cậu ấy rồi. Nếu không thì bây giờ
cậu ấy đã đến được đây rồi.
18. Chúng ta cần cố gắng giảm thiểu thiệt hai về môi trường và con
người do tác động của cơn bão số 10.
19. Thay vì ngồi đó lo lắng, sao ta không thử đến đó xem tình hình
thế nào?

35
20. Mấy năm qua, du lịch bị đóng băng do hậu quả của đại dịch
Covid. Kết quả là nhiều công ty lữ hành vừa và nhỏ phải đóng cửa
vĩnh viễn.
(Adapted from assorted sources)
Exercise 4. The following is an extract from a tourist brochure.
Translate it into English. Pay attention to the connectives.
Hãy tránh xa đám đông!
Quý vị đừng đến những điểm du lịch đông đúc, thay vào đó
hãy đến với thành phố nhỏ của chúng tôi! Không nơi nào khác trên
đất nước này có thể mang đến cho quý vị sự thoải mái trong khung
cảnh yên bình. Thay vì phải xếp hàng dài vô tận với những khách du
lịch khác, quý vị có thể thoải mái mọi lúc và làm mọi thứ mình muốn.
Chúng tôi có mặt trời chiếu sáng, biển, cát, các trò giải trí và tất cả
các thứ khác mà quý vị có thể muốn. Vì vậy, thay vì chạy theo đám
đông, hãy đến với thành phố của chúng tôi. Nhưng hãy nhanh lên;
nếu không, quý vị có thể đã quá muộn.
(Adapted from a tourism promotional text)

36
 CHAPTER 3.
TRANSLATING INFINITIVE AND -ING FORMS
3.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
• understand the basic uses of Infinitive and -Ing forms in
English,
• have a comparative view and ability to find an appropriate
equivalent to each form,
• become aware of the cultural differences between the
source language and target language to handle them well in
translation work,
• develop critical thinking in translation.
3.2 TRANSLATING PATTERNS WITH INFINITIVE OR -ING
FORM
One of the difficulties of Vietnamese students learning
English is the infinitive and -ing forms of verbs because Vietnamese
verbs, like other parts of speech, do not change their forms when they
come after another verb or a word of a different part of speech. Verbs
in English, however, can take an infinitive or -ing form after certain
nouns, verbs and adjectival phrases. This grammatical characteristic
of verb has some effects on aspects of meaning of the verb in an
infinitive or -ing form. This chapter focuses on the way of translating
the infinitive and -ing forms after verbs.
3.2.1 Infinitive or -ING patterns with no change in meaning
There are some verbs and expressions in English that can be
followed by a full infinitive or an -ing form with little or no change
in meaning. Common verbs of this kind include begin, continue,
intend, prefer and start. There are slight differences in the use,
though.

37
 Continue
The verb continue, meaning tiếp tục in Vietnamese, can be
used in the following patterns. Both patterns are used with the same
meaning. Continue in these patterns does not usually take a
continuous form although it can be used in other patterns with similar
meaning.
continue + -ing form
continue + full infinitive
[3.1] SS: He continued talking/to talk although nobody was
listening.
TS: Anh ta cứ tiếp tục nói mặc dù không ai lắng nghe.
Intend
Intend is another verb that can be used with both an infinitive
and an -ing form without any change in the meaning. Its Vietnamese
equivalent is dự định.
[3.2] SS: I intend to use/using these statistics to support my
argument.
TS: Tôi dự định dùng những con số thống kê này để hỗ trợ
cho luận điểm của tôi.
Prefer
The verb prefer means want or choose one thing rather than
another. It is translated into Vietnamese as thích/muốn … hơn.
Prefer can be used with both an infinitive and an -ing form with no
change in the meaning if there is no second part of the sentence.
[3.3] SS: I prefer working/to work on my own.
TS: Tôi thích/muốn làm việc độc lập hơn.
However, there is a difference in the second part of the
sentence, as in the underlined words in the following examples.
[3.4] SS: He prefers watching football to playing it.
TS: Anh ấy thích xem bóng đá hơn chơi bóng đá.

38
[3.5] SS: Do you prefer to exercise indoors or out of doors?
TS: Bạn muốn tập thể dục trong nhà hay ngoài trời hơn?
The verb prefer also implies the comparison. This
characteristic will be discussed in Chapter 4.
Start & begin
Start and begin have the same meaning, which is equivalent
to Vietnamese bắt đầu. Both verbs can be followed by either an
infinitive or -ing form with little change in the meaning. However,
different patterns show different uses.
start/begin + -ing form
In this pattern, they are used if the action or activity expressed
in the -ing form continue for a period, but begin is less common than
start in this pattern.
[3.7] SS: When did you start smoking?
TS: Anh bắt đầu hút thuốc khi nào?
start/begin + full infinitive
This pattern is used when we want to mean that the action or
activity expressed in the infinitive has already started but not
completed.
[3.8] SS: I’d hardly started to write an email to him when he
phoned.
TS: Tôi vừa mới bắt đầu viết thư điện tử (= email) cho nó
thì nó gọi điện.
If start or begin is in a continuous form, we can only use an
infinitive after it.
3.2.2 Infinitive or -ING patterns with a change in meaning
Some verbs can take either a full infinitive or an -ing form to
communicate a different meaning. Common verbs of this kind are
forget, like, love, regret, remember, stop and try.
Remember & forget
39
 These two verbs are probably the most discussed in grammar
lesson about infinitive and -ing form because they have different
meanings when they take either form.
Remember/forget + full infinitive
In this pattern, the action or activity expressed by the infinitive
takes place after the act of remembering or forgetting takes place.
This means that a person remembers something and then do it, or
forgets something and then not do it. This pattern is translated into
Vietnamese as nhớ/quên (làm gì).
[3.9] SS: It’s my mother’s birthday this Friday. I must remember
to buy her a bouquet of flowers.
TS: Thứ sáu này sinh nhật mẹ tôi. Tôi phải nhớ mua cho mẹ
một bó hoa.
In [3.9] if the person remembers, then he/she will buy a
bouquet of flowers. If not, the act of buying bouquet of flowers does
not occur.
[3.10] SS: Oh, my goodness! I forgot to buy milk when I was at
the shop.
TS: Ôi trời ơi! Lúc tôi ở cửa hàng tôi đã quên mua sữa rồi.
In [3.10] the act of buying milk was not fulfilled because the
person already forgot about it.
remember/forget + -ing form
In this pattern, the action or activity expressed by the -ing
form already took place. This means that the person remembers that
something already happened, or forgets that something ever
happened in the past. The Vietnamese version of this pattern should
be nhớ/quên là đã (làm gì).
[3.11] SS: I remember locking the door. Why is it now open?
TS: Tôi nhớ là đã khoá cửa rồi. Sao bây giờ nó lại mở?
[3.12] SS: She forgot calling me, so she did it again.
TS: Cô ấy quên là đã gọi cho tôi, nên cô ấy gọi lại lần nữa.
40
 In both [3.11] and [3.12], the acts of locking the door and
calling have been fulfilled, and the person (in the subject of the
sentence) only remember or forget about it.
Stop
The verb stop comes in many patterns. The common patterns
are with an infinitive and an -ing form.
stop + full infinitive
The verb stop in this pattern is similar to the verb interrupt; a
person stops an action/activity in order to do something else. When
we translate this pattern into Vietnamese, we should make sure the
difference in the meaning of the verb stop is conveyed. It should be
dừng lại để (làm gì).
[3.13] SS: I was tired from driving so I stopped to rest and buy a
drink.
TS: Lái xe mệt quá nên tôi đã dừng để nghỉ ngơi và mua đồ
uống.
stop + -ing form
This pattern indicates an end of something that has been
continuing for a period of time. It should be translated into
Vietnamese as ngừng (làm gì) or không (làm gì) nữa.
[3.14] SS: Stop worrying. Everything’s going to be fine.
TS: Hãy ngừng lo lắng đi. Mọi thứ sẽ ổn mà.
(= Không/Đừng lo lắng nữa. Mọi thứ sẽ ổn mà.)
Try
Try occurs in two patterns with infinitive and -ing form with
different meaning.
Try + full infinitive
This pattern is closest in meaning to the pattern attempt + full
infinitive, so it is translated into Vietnamese as cố gắng/nỗ lực (làm
gì).

41
[3.15] SS: Stop complaining. You haven’t even tried to search for
any information about it.
TS: Hãy ngừng phàn nàn đi. Bạn thậm chí còn không cố
gắng tìm kiếm thông tin gì về nó.
Try + -ing form
This pattern is used when we want to talk about testing
something to see if it is suitable or useful, or if it works. Therefore,
it should be translated into Vietnamese as thử (làm gì).
[3.16] SS: Your hair seems to become drier. Try using a different
shampoo.
TS: Tóc bạn dường như trở nên khô hơn. Hãy thử dùng một
loại dầu gội đầu khác xem.
Like & love
Like and love can also be used in the two patterns with
infinitive and -ing form. The difference is very subtle and, in some
contexts, there may be no distinction at all between the two.
However, there are different ways of rendering their equivalents into
Vietnamese so that the difference in meaning is clearer.
Like/love + full infinitive
This pattern is generally used to refer to a preference or a
choice to do something. It is translated into Vietnamese as
thích/muốn (làm gì).
[3.17] SS: The boy loves to spend his evenings watching
television.
TS: Thằng bé thích/muốn dành các buổi tối để xem ti-vi.
Like/love + -ing form
This pattern is used to express the enjoyment, so the
Vietnamese equivalent should be thích thú/hứng thú (làm gì).
[3.18] SS: I don’t like upsetting people.
TS: Tôi chẳng thích thú việc gây tổn thương người khác.

42
3.2.3 Patterns with an Infinitive, an -ING or a different form
There are verbs and phrasal verbs that take another form, such
as a prepositional phrase, a Wh-word phrase or a clause to form
sentence patterns, in addition to the infinitive or -ing form.
Can’t help & can’t bear/can’t stand
The expressions can’t help and can’t bear/can’t stand are
followed by an -ing form.
Can’t help + -ing form
This pattern means to be unable to stop doing something and
it can be translated into Vietnamese as không thể nhịn (làm gì)
được, không thể không (làm gì) or không thể tránh (làm gì).
[3.19] SS: She couldn’t help thinking about what happened.
TS: Cô ấy không thể không/không thể tránh nghĩ về những
điều đã xảy ra.
Can’t bear/can’t stand + -ing form
Can’t bear and can’t stand are synonymous. They are
followed by an -ing form to talk about something that someone feels
unable to accept it or annoyed with it. The Vietnamese equivalent
should be không thể chịu được (việc gì) or rất khó chịu với (việc
gì).
[3.20] SS: I can’t bear people smoking in public places.
TS: Tôi không thể chịu được/rất khó chịu với việc người
khác hút thuốc nơi công cộng.
Continue & synonymous phrasal verbs
In addition to the patterns used with an infinitive or -ing form,
continue can be used in the pattern continue with + noun, which is
translated into Vietnamese as tiếp tục (việc gì).
[3.21] SS: Are you going to continue with your studies?
TS: Bạn vẫn sẽ tiếp tục việc học của mình chứ?

43
 The verb continue also has many synonymous phrasal verbs
used in different patterns as follows:
Carry on
This phrasal verb has the same meaning as continue in these
two patterns:
carry on + -ing form
carry on with + noun
[3.22] SS: Despite the noise, she carried on working.
TS: Mặc kệ ồn ào, cô ấy vẫn tiếp tục làm việc.
[3.23] SS: Despite the noise, she carried on with her work.
TS: Mặc dù ồn ào, cô ấy vẫn tiếp tục công việc của mình.
Go on
This phrasal verb has the same meaning as continue and carry
on if it comes in the pattern go on with + noun (= continue/carry on
+ noun). However, if it comes in the pattern go on + full infinitive,
it means ‘do later, as a result of progress’. In this case, depending
on the context, it may be translated into Vietnamese as tiếp tục (làm
gì) or tiếp theo (sẽ làm gì).
[3.24] SS: The boy was a good player at school, and he went on to
become one of the best in the country.
TS: Thằng bé là một cầu thủ giỏi ở trường và tiếp tục trở
thành một trong những cầu thủ giỏi nhất cấp quốc gia.
Keep on
This phrasal verb means continue when it comes in the
pattern keep on + -ing form.
[3.25] SS: If you keep trying, I’m sure you’ll succeed.
TS: Nếu bạn tiếp tục cố gắng, tôi chắc chắn bạn sẽ thành
công.

44
 Other verbs and phrasal verbs
Dream
The verb dream itself is not special, but the expressions with
it need exploring. The pattern dream of + -ing form, which means to
think about something that is desired but unlikely to happen, can be
literally translated into Vietnamese as ao ước (làm gì).
[3.26] SS: She always dreams of running her own business.
TS: Cô ấy luôn ao ước điều hành công ty riêng của mình.
However, the pattern wouldn’t dream of + -ing form (which
is an idiom) should be translated into Vietnamese as có nằm mơ
cũng không dám nghĩ sẽ (làm gì).
[3.27] SS: I wouldn’t dream of letting a stranger look after my son!
TS: Có nằm mơ tôi cũng không dám nghĩ sẽ để người lạ
trông con trai mình.
Enjoy
The pattern enjoy + -ing form means to get pleasure from
something. It should be translated into Vietnamese as thích thú (làm
gì).
[2.28] SS: I’ve always enjoyed traveling to other countries.
TS: Tôi luôn thích thú việc đi du lịch đến các nước khác.
However, when enjoy is followed by another part of speech
(a noun/pronoun), it has a completely different meaning. In the
pattern enjoy + reflexive pronoun, it simply means having a good
time, or having fun. Its Vietnamese equivalent should be thấy vui.
[2.29] SS: Did you enjoy yourself last night?
TS: Tối qua bạn có thấy vui không?
For the pattern enjoy + noun/pronoun, on the other hand, it
should be rendered as tận hưởng or thưởng thức.
[3.30] SS: After we had enjoyed the cool afternoon by the sea, we
enjoyed the meal with lots of seafood.

45
 TS: Sau khi tận hưởng buổi chiều mát mẻ bên bờ biển,
chúng tôi đã thưởng thức bữa ăn có rất nhiều hải sản.
Remind
The verb remind has different Vietnamese equivalents when
it is followed by an infinitive or when it comes in a collocation with
the preposition of.
remind (+ someone) + full infinitive
In this pattern, remind means to tell someone not to forget to
do something and has nhắc/nhắc nhở as the Vietnamese equivalent.
[3.31] SS: Please remind me to phone Alan before I leave the
office.
TS: Vui lòng nhắc tôi gọi điện cho Alan trước khi tôi rời văn
phòng.
remind someone of something/someone
This collocation means to cause someone to remember
something or someone else. The collocation is often translated into
Vietnamese as gợi cho (ai) nhớ về (điều gì/ai).
[3.32] SS: Anna really takes after her father. She reminds me of
him.
TS: Anna giống ba của cô ấy lắm. Cô bé ấy gợi cho tôi nhớ
về ông ấy.
Save
The verb save has different meanings in different patterns, but
when it comes in a pattern with an -ing form, it means to make it
unnecessary for something unpleasant or effort-requiring to happen.
There can be an object after save and the preposition from is either
there or not: save someone/something (from) + -ing form. The
Vietnamese equivalent should be để (ai) khỏi mất công (làm gì).
[3.33] SS: I bought a ticket in advance to save queuing.
TS: Tôi mua vé trước để khỏi mất công xếp hàng.

46
[3.34] SS: Computers have helped save you (from) doing a lot of
extra work.
TS: Máy tính đã giúp bạn khỏi mất công làm nhiều việc phát
sinh.
Think
The verb pattern think of with an -ing form implies a process
of thinking about something and then making a decision. For this
meaning, its Vietnamese equivalent should be suy tính (làm gì) or
suy xét (việc gì).
[3.35] SS: She is thinking of changing her job.
TS: Cô ấy đang suy tính để thay đổi công việc.
3.3 PRACTICE EXERCISES
3.3.1 English-Vietnamese translation
Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences into Vietnamese.
1. I couldn’t help laughing even though the situation was serious.
2. The kids all seemed to enjoy themselves at the theme park.
3. I really love to go that concert but I couldn’t get a ticket.
4. I sent my wife an SMS to say that my flight was delayed to save
her from waiting hours for me at the airport.
5. I’m not going to that party unless you come along with me too. I
can’t stand being surrounded by strangers.
6. I continued with my plans for the holiday, despite her objections.
7. We’re thinking of moving to another city to live near our parents.
8. This is the first time I’ve lost my job so I just can’t bear the thought
of having to start everything all over again.
9. I’ve dreamed of being a doctor since I was 9 years old.
10. My mother called to remind me to buy a loaf of bread.
11. One of the best ways to save endangered species from going
extinct is to protect their natural habitats.
47
12. If she keeps on training, she’ll become a top athlete one day.
13. Trying to stay focused for a long time can be exhausting. By
shifting your focus, you can be more attentive when tackling new
tasks.
14. Cherry blossoms usually bloom between mid-March and early
May, so my husband and I intend to visit Japan this spring.
15. I look at my closet and regret buying so many clothes that I don’t
even wear anymore.
16. Eating rice and fish sauce in the middle of Europe reminds me of
my homeland.
17. I prefer playing football to watching TV when I have free time.
18. I always try to balance work and personal life by spending some
time at the weekend going to the park to enjoy fresh air.
19. If you have finished your first assignment, go on with the next
one right now, or you’ll be late for the deadline.
20. Hey, stop making a noise. The baby is sleeping.
(Adapted from assorted sources)
Exercise 2. Translate the following text into Vietnamese.
The Secret Performance
I had a fantastic night out at the weekend. First, I went to a
restaurant with some friends. We were just finishing our food when
someone came up to us and offered us some free concert tickets. We
couldn’t believe our luck when we realized it was one of our
favourite bands doing a secret concert before going on tour.
The concert went on for ages and it was fantastic. At first, they
played some new songs and then they went on to some songs from
their last CD. The concert ended very late, and after it finished, we
were all too excited to go straight home. We ended up in a park,
talking about it until the sun came up.
(Adapted from Harrison, 2016)

48
3.3.2 Vietnamese-English translation
Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Mặc dù đại dịch Covid-19 đã làm nhiều công ty thua lỗ nặng nề,
họ vẫn tiếp tục cố gắng duy trì sản xuất.
2. Dành nhiều thời gian cho bản thân và làm những gì mình thích là
cách mà tôi tận hưởng cuộc sống.
3. Tôi không thể chịu đựng được việc con trai mình thường xuyên
trốn học để đi chơi game.
4. Tôi thích việc dắt chú cún con của mình đi dạo trong công viên
vào mỗi buổi sáng.
5. Sao bạn không thử thay đổi kiểu tóc mới? Tóc ngắn trông rất hợp
với bạn.
6. Tôi cố gắng thức dậy sớm mỗi buổi sáng để tập thể dục.
7. Cô ấy đã làm mọi cách nhưng chiếc xe vẫn không ngừng rung lắc.
8. “Con đừng quên tắt đèn khi đi ra ngoài nhé!” – mẹ tôi dặn.
9. Tôi đang suy tính việc mua một chiếc xe ô tô để thuận tiện hơn khi
đi làm.
10. Tôi định sang năm sẽ đi du lịch châu Âu cùng với gia đình mình.
Đã lâu lắm rồi tôi không dành nhiều thời gian cho gia đình.
11. Tôi tiếc vì đã không mua chiếc váy đó. Khi tôi quay lại thì nó bị
người khác mua mất!
12. Sau hai giờ chạy bộ, tôi phải dừng lại để uống nước và ăn nhẹ để
tiếp thêm năng lượng.
13. Khi còn nhỏ, tôi từng mơ ước trở thành phi hành gia.
14. Tôi luôn cố gắng hết sức để đạt điểm cao trong học tập. Vì vậy,
bố mẹ tôi rất vui vì thành tích học tập của tôi.
15. Chậu hoa hồng mà tôi yêu thích đã chết vì tôi quên tưới nước cho
nó trong 2 ngày.
16. Tôi bắt đầu học chơi piano 2 tháng trước và bây giờ tôi có thể
đàn được các bản nhạc đơn giản.
49
17. Tôi thích tập thể dục ngoài công viên hơn là đến các phòng tập.
18. Tôi quên làm bài tập về nhà trước khi đến lớp vì vậy tôi đã bị cô
giáo mắng.
19. Có nhiều kênh Youtube dạy cách nấu ăn và cho sẵn các công thức
nấu nướng miễn phí để mọi người cùng thử. Điều này đã giúp tôi
khỏi mất công nghĩ hôm nay nấu gì.
20. Tôi muốn trở thành đầu bếp vì tôi thích sáng tạo nhiều món ăn
mới.
(Adapted from assorted sources)
Exercise 4. Translate the following text into English.
Các nhà khoa học trên thế giới đều đang nỗ lực tìm ra giải
pháp bảo vệ môi trường. Nếu con người cứ tiếp tục tiêu dùng và xả
rác, tình trạng ô nhiễm môi trường sẽ ngày một tệ hơn. Nhưng ngày
nay, nhiều người trẻ dường như đang muốn tận hưởng cuộc sống hơn
là bảo vệ môi trường sống xung quanh mình. Họ đi ra ngoài nhưng
lại quên tắt điện. Họ không thể chịu đựng được việc mặc một bộ quần
áo hai lần nên phải mua sắm thật nhiều. Tất cả những điều này sẽ
làm cho tình hình càng lúc càng xấu đi.
Một trong những cách đơn giản nhất để bảo vệ môi trường là
mỗi một chúng ta nên bắt đầu hạn chế sử dụng ni lông. Ngoài ra,
chúng ta có thể thử đi xe đạp thay vì lái xe, cố gắng sử dụng phương
tiện công cộng nhiều nhất có thể và trồng thật nhiều cây xanh. Nếu
chúng ta cùng cố gắng thì những hành động nhỏ sẽ mang lại kết quả
to lớn.
(Adapted from assorted sources)

50
 CHAPTER 4.
TRANSLATING COMPARISON
4.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
• understand the basic uses and have a comparative view of
comparison in English and Vietnamese,
• become aware of the cultural differences in comparison
between the source language and target language to handle
them well in translation work,
• develop critical thinking in translation.
4.2 TRANSLATING COMPARISONS
Comparison is a way of examining two or more things for
their similarities, using an established logical system. Comparison is
universal as it is found in almost all living languages, but it is also
specific as it reflects the way of thinking of a nation. The use of
comparison ranges from everyday use to rhetorical use of language.
Comparison is a grammatical area that marks the differences
between English and Vietnamese, and thus it causes certain
difficulties in translation.
This chapter presents different levels of comparison, emphatic
comparatives and superlatives, and patterns and expressions that
embed comparisons in English. Vietnamese equivalents to these
forms and patterns are also suggested.
4.2.1 Comparatives and superlatives
4.2.1.1 Comparatives
Comparatives look into the differences between the two
objects. Comparatives can be with adjectives or adverbs. In
translating comparatives into Vietnamese, we add the word hơn after
the equivalent to the English adjective/adverb.
51
 For adjectives, the comparative rules depend on the number
of syllables an adjective has.
Adjectives of one syllable
• Add –ER: smaller, older
• If the adjective ends with –E, add –R: nicer, larger
• If the adjective ends with a single vowel and a single
consonant, double the consonant and add –ER: bigger,
hotter
• If the adjective ends with –ED, use the pattern MORE +
adjective: more shocked
Adjectives of two syllables
• The pattern MORE + adjective is usually used: more
common, more useful.
• If the adjective ends with –Y, use the comparative ending
–IER: prettier, happier.
• If the adjective ends with –ER, –OW, –PLE, –BLE, and
certain adjectives, the ending –ER is usually used (instead
of MORE + adjective): cleverer, narrower, simpler,
quieter.
Adjectives of three or more syllables
• Always use the pattern MORE + adjective: more
interesting, more expensive.
Adjectives with different comparative forms
The following adjectives have irregular forms of comparative:
good – better
bad/ill – worse
far – farther/further
old – older/elder
little – less
many/much – more

52
 Some of these adjectives not only have irregular forms, but
also vary in meaning.
Far – farther/further
For the adjective far, the comparative form of a physical
distance is farther, and is translated into Vietnamese as xa hơn.
However, further is often used in an abstract way, meaning ‘more’
or ‘additional’. The Vietnamese equivalent should be vượt trội
hơn/nhiều hơn/thêm.
[4.1] SS: We watched their ship moving gradually farther away.
TS: Chúng tôi nhìn con tàu của họ đang dần đi xa hơn.
[4.2] SS: They have provided further evidence of an unfolding
global energy crisis.
TS: Họ đã cung cấp thêm bằng chứng về một cuộc khủng
hoảng năng lượng toàn cầu đang diễn ra.
[4.3] SS: Telecommunication industry has recently had further
advancements in 5G technology.
TS: Ngành viễn thông gần đây đã và đang có những tiến bộ
vượt bậc trong công nghệ 5G.
Old – older/elder
The Vietnamese literal equivalent to old is già. The meaning
is related to both appearance and age of a person. Even so, there is
sometimes a mismatch between the appearance and the age. A person
who looks old is not always aged. Therefore, in translating the word
old into Vietnamese, we need to consider the contextual meaning. If
it refers to the age, it is more pleasant to translate it as chững chạc/có
tuổi/lớn tuổi.
[4.4] SS: He looks quite old.
TS: Anh ấy trông khá chững chạc/lớn tuổi.
In comparative, however, there is a distinction between the
two forms older and elder. Elder is particularly used for age, so the
Vietnamese equivalent is lớn tuổi hơn. Using elder, we do not imply
53
the comparison of the appearance. Elder often comes before a noun,
while older can come before a noun or after the verb to be in a
sentence.
[4.5] SS: His elder sister works in this hospital.
TS: Chị của nó làm việc ở bệnh viện này.
The comparative form older is translated normally as chững
chạc/có tuổi/lớn tuổi hơn.
[4.6] SS: He looks quite old, so I guess he is older than me.
TS: Anh ấy trông khá chững chạc, vì thế tôi đoán anh ấy lớn
tuổi hơn tôi.
In English, there are adjectives that do not have comparative
and superlative forms. These include blind, dead, fatal, final,
horizontal, left, perfect, right, unique, universal, vertical and wrong.
There are also some adjectives whose comparative and
superlative forms have both literal meaning and idiomatic meaning.
For example, when new and late are used in comparative or
superlative, they mean different from the adjectives of the base form.
The superlatives newest and latest can mean ‘the most updated’ if
they come before a noun. In this case, they are synonyms and have
cập nhật nhất/gần nhất as their Vietnamese equivalent.
[4.7] SS: The latest version of their software has been sold out.
TS: Phiên bản phần mềm mới nhất của họ đã được bán hết.
However, when latest is used after an expression of time in
the phrase at the latest, it implies that something must happen or be
done before a stated time. It is translated into Vietnamese as chậm
nhất là.
[4.8] SS: I have to get this essay finished by Friday at the latest.
TS: Tôi phải hoàn thành bài luận này chậm nhất là vào thứ
sáu.

54
 The comparative later, in addition to the regular meaning, has
the meaning of ‘at a time in the future’ and is translated into
Vietnamese as sau này/sau đó.
[4.9] SS: She pretended to have no idea about the incident, but I
discovered later that she’d known all about it from the
beginning.
TS: Cô ấy giả vờ không biết gì về sự việc, nhưng sau đó tôi
phát hiện ra ngay từ ban đầu cô ấy đã biết hết mọi
chuyện.
Besides, when the comparative later is used in the phrase no
later than (+ an expression of time), it has similar meaning to at the
latest.
[4.10] SS: The book should be returned no later than next Friday.
TS: Cuốn sách phải được trả chậm nhất là thứ sáu tuần tới.
For adverbs, the Vietnamese equivalents also follow the
pattern: … hơn. The comparative adverbs follow these rules:
Adverbs end with –LY
• Use the pattern MORE/LESS + Adverb, except EARLY 
EARLIER
• For adverbs of frequency, only OFTEN has the comparative
form: MORE OFTEN
[4.11] SS: This machine works more quickly than the old one.
TS: Cái máy này chạy nhanh hơn cái máy cũ.
Other adverbs
• For fast, hard, soon, late & near, add –ER to the adverbs
[4.12] SS: The traffic was heavy and he couldn’t drive faster.
TS: Giao thông rất đông đúc và anh ấy không thể lái nhanh
hơn.
• For well & badly, the comparative forms are better & worse.

55
4.2.1.2 Superlatives
Superlative adjectives and adverbs are often translated into
Vietnamese as … nhất. The rules for superlative adjectives are as
follows:
• Add –EST: (the) smallest, (the) oldest
• If the adjective ends with –E, add –ST: nicest, largest
• If the adjective ends with a single vowel and a single
consonant, double the consonant and add –EST: biggest,
hottest
• If the adjective ends with –ED, use the pattern (the)
MOST + adjective: (the) most shocked
Adjectives of two syllables
• The pattern (the) MOST + adjective is usually used: (the)
most common, (the) most useful.
• If the adjective ends with –Y, use the superlative ending –
IEST: (the) prettiest, (the) happiest.
• If the adjective ends with –ER, –OW, –PLE, –BLE, and
certain adjectives, the ending –EST is usually used
(instead of (the) MOST + adjective): (the) cleverest, (the)
narrowest, (the) simplest, (the) quietest.
Adjectives of three or more syllables
• Always use the pattern (the) MOST + adjective: (the) most
interesting, (the) most expensive.
Adjectives with different supaerlative forms
The following adjectives have irregular forms of suparlative:
good – (the) best
bad/ill – (the) worst
far – (the) farthest/furthest
old – (the) oldest/eldest
little – (the) least

56
 many/much – (the) most
For adverbs, the superlative follows these rules:
Adverbs end with –LY
• Use the pattern MOST + Adverb, except EARLY 
EARLIEST
• For adverbs of frequency, only OFTEN has the superlative
form: MOST OFTEN
Other adverbs
• For fast, hard, soon, late & near, add –EST to the adverbs
• For well & badly, the superlative forms are best & worst.
Note that in English, the comparative and superlative forms
can be used when we refer to a smaller/smallest amount, quantity, or
degree. The patterns for all types of adjectives and adverbs are as
follows:
LESS + Adjective/adverb is for comparative and is translated
into Vietnamese as kém/ít … hơn.
(The) LEAST + Adjective/adverb is for superlative and is
translated into Vietnamese as kém/ít … nhất.
[4.13] SS: We don’t work together any more, so I see him less
frequently than I used to.
TS: Chúng tôi không làm việc với nhau nữa nên tôi ít thường
xuyên gặp anh ấy hơn trước đây.
4.2.1.3 Comparatives with -ER AND -ER & MORE AND MORE
The patterns -er and -er & more and more are used to talk
about a process of changing and gaining more of a particular quality.
This pattern is not followed by than. We translate such comparisons
into Vietnamese as càng ngày càng … (hơn).
[4.14] SS: The weather is getting hotter and hotter.
TS: Thời tiết càng ngày càng nóng hơn.

57
[4.15] SS: I’m getting more and more interested in conservation.
TS: Tôi càng ngày càng quan tâm hơn đến vấn đề bảo tồn.
4.2.1.4 Comparatives with THE -ER, THE -ER & THE MORE …,
THE MORE …
If a person or things gains more of a particular quality and this
causes a parallel increase of another quality, we can repeat the + a
comparative adjective. This pattern is often translated into
Vietnamese as càng… càng …
[4.16] SS: The colder it is, the hungrier I get. (= As the weather
gets colder, I get hungrier.)
TS: Trời càng lạnh, tôi càng thấy đói.
4.2.2 Emphatic comparatives and superlatives
In English, there are certain words used with comparatives or
superlative forms of adjectives to either intensify (much, a lot, far,
by far) or mitigate (a little, a bit, a little bit) the degree to which the
property denoted by the comparative/superlative adjective obtains.
The following are common words performing the emphatic function
of this kind.
Much/a lot/far + comparative
This English structure perfectly matches the way Vietnamese
people emphasize their comparison. For much/a lot, the equivalent
is [hơn] … nhiều. For far, the equivalent is [hơn] … xa or [hơn] …
hẳn.
[4.17] SS: This dish is much better than the one we had yesterday.
TS: Món này ngon hơn món chúng ta ăn hôm qua nhiều.
[4.18] SS: The town is far more crowded these days because of the
new shopping mall.
TS: Thị xã những ngày này đông đúc hơn hẳn nhờ có trung
tâm thương mại mới.

58
 A little/a bit/a little bit + comparative
We can soften a comparative adjective using a little, a bit or
a little bit. The Vietnamese equivalent to these expressions is [hơn]
một tí. A bit and a little bit are less formal.
[4.19] SS: She feels a little more confident after she has given her
first public speech.
TS: Cô ấy cảm thấy tự tin hơn một tí sau lần thuyết trình đầu
tiên trước công chúng.
In order to emphasize superlative adjectives, we can by far or
easily. By far is used with the meaning of ‘by a great amount’ and
thus, it should be translated into Vietnamese as [nhất] về mọi mặt.
[4.20] SS: The Beatles were by far the most successful rock band
of the 1960s.
TS: The Beatles là ban nhạc rock thành công nhất về mọi
mặt trong thập niên 1960.
We should not confuse by far and so far/as far, and translate
by far into Vietnamese as *cho đến nay.
The adverb easily used with a superlative adjective means
‘definitely’ and it should be translated into Vietnamese as dĩ
nhiên/đương nhiên.
[4.21] SS: She’s easily the best dancer in the group.
TS: Cô ấy dĩ nhiên là diễn viên múa giỏi nhất trong nhóm.
4.2.3 Comparisons of equality
As … as …
The pattern as … as … has the Vietnamese equivalent cũng
… như … or … bằng (với). It is used when two things are equal in
some way. The comparison may involve adjectives or adverbs after
the first as, and noun phrases or clauses after the second as.
[4.22] SS: The boy has grown so quickly. He is as tall as his father
now.

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 TS: Thằng bé lớn nhanh quá. Bây giờ nó cao bằng ba nó rồi.
[4.23] SS: The company is performing as successfully this year as
it did last year.
TS: Năm nay công ty hoạt động cũng thành công như năm
ngoái.
Note that the clause in the second part of the comparison is
often a reduced clause or one with a substitute verb or a modal verb.
As … as … is also used in as in the following patterns to
compare proportion.
Half + as + adjective/adverb + as
Twice/three times, etc. + as + adjective/adverb + as
The Vietnamese equivalents to these patterns are … bằng một
nửa … and … gấp hai/ba lần …, respectively.
[4.24] SS: I earn half as much as him.
TS: Tôi thu nhập bằng một nửa anh ấy.
[4.25] SS: This car is twice as expensive as mine.
TS: Chiếc xe này đắt gấp hai lần chiếc xe của tôi.
We can also express possibility or ability using as … as
possible. In this case, we translate the pattern into Vietnamese as
càng … càng tốt.
[4.26] SS: We should try to finish our project as soon as possible.
TS: Chúng ta nên cố gắng hoàn thành dự án càng sớm càng
tốt.
Not as … as (= not so … as)
Not as … as … (= not so … as) is used to make comparisons
between things which are not equal. Its Vietnamese equivalent
expression should be không … như ….
[4.27] SS: The suitcase is not as heavy as I thought, actually.
TS: Thật sự thì cái va-li không nặng như tôi nghĩ.

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4.2.4 Other expressions of comparisons
Prefer & would prefer
Prefer is used for general preferences. Its Vietnamese
equivalent is thích hơn, which implies a comparison.
[4.28] SS: I’m not keen on football. I prefer tennis.
TS: Tôi không đam mê bóng đá. Tôi thích quần vợt hơn.
Would prefer is used for particular preferences that are true at
a particular time. Although it expresses preference, its Vietnamese
equivalent indicates a desire: mong muốn/có nguyện vọng. If the
source sentence shows a choice between two things, the expression
can be translated as muốn hơn.
[4.29] SS: I don’t want to continue with my job here. I’d prefer to
leave.
TS: Tôi không muốn tiếp tục công việc ở đây nữa. Tôi có
nguyện vọng rời đi.
[4.30] SS: “Tea or coffee?” – “I’d prefer coffee.”
TS: “Trà hay cà phê?” – “Tôi muốn cà phê hơn.”
Would prefer & would rather
Would prefer and would rather are used with the same
meaning, that is, for particular preferences. Therefore, the
Vietnamese equivalents for these expressions are mong muốn/có
nguyện vọng/muốn hơn. However, would prefer and would rather
differ in the verb patterns following them. Would prefer is used in
the following patterns:
would prefer (+ object) + infinitive
[4.31] SS: I’d prefer them to start the project now.
TS: Tôi mong muốn họ bắt đầu dự án ngay.
would prefer it if + second subject + past simple:
For this pattern, the Vietnamese equivalent expression is
mong muốn rằng.
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[4.32] SS: I’d prefer it if they started the project now.
TS: Tôi mong muốn rằng họ bắt đầu dự án ngay.
Would rather is followed by a bare infinitive. It is often
translated into Vietnamese as có nguyện vọng.
would rather + bare infinitive
[4.33] SS: I’d rather leave now.
TS: Tôi có nguyện vọng đi bây giờ.
would rather (that) + second subject + past subjunctive
[4.34] SS: I’d rather that they had set the interview on another day.
TS: Tôi có nguyện vọng là họ đặt lịch phỏng vấn vào một
ngày khác.
If would prefer and would rather are used to refer to a
preference in the past, perfect infinitive or past perfect subjective is
used after them.
4.3 PRACTICE EXERCISES
4.3.1 English-Vietnamese translation
Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences into Vietnamese
1. My grandmother prefers a darker and more traditional kind of
clothing, which I think is quite old-fashioned.
2. Mount Everest is not only the highest mountain on Earth, but it is
also the most well-known among mountain climbers.
3. I would prefer it if we had a bigger house, but we can’t afford it.
4. I’d rather resign from my job than take a cut in salary.
5. The more time parents can spend with their children, the fewer
problems they will have in adulthood.
6. I’ll start by introducing to you some fairly basic stuff first and
depending on how things go, I will make some changes later.
7. The hotter the weather is, the more water we should drink to
prevent dehydration.
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8. If you wear loose clothing made from natural materials, such as
cotton, you will feel more comfortable as your skin will be able to
breathe more easily.
9. Thanks to modern technology, people nowadays find it much
easier to communicate with each other over long distances.
10. I’d rather you didn’t smoke in here. There are more children
coming in.
11. The harder students practise writing, the more correctly they can
use English grammar.
12. Let’s sit down and talk about this topic a little bit more. I have a
far more interesting question for you.
13. Bring in as many books as possible. We’ll need more reference
materials for this project.
14. The percentage of male students at our university in 2011 was
almost exactly the same as in 2010.
15. What annoyed me was not so much what he said as how he said
it.
16. The government has to take drastic measures now as the problem
regarding energy crisis is rather more complicated than expected.
17. After taking the medicine and having a good rest, I feel slightly
better today.
18. According to a recent survey, two most popular reasons for
owning a car are freedom and independence, with 30% stating this.
19. The month with the most wet days in London is November, with
an average of 9.2 days with at least 0.04 inches of precipitation.
20. Last week, the UN’s global population project announced a
major shift in the way the world looks. Next year, India, not China,
will be the world’s most populous country.

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Exercise 2. Translate the following film review into Vietnamese.
Pay attention to the expressions of comparisons.
Crime Does Pay, the latest comedy from the director Sam
Martin, has to be one of the least interesting films I have ever seen.
The acting is terrible and the story is much worse than Martin’s other
flop, Escape. Crime Does Pay was apparently more expensive than
any other film this year, but it’s hard to see where the money went.
The plot concerns a gang of burglars who decide to steal the most
valuable painting in the world. It was fine, except these criminals are
far less amusing than they should be. There isn’t a single real laugh
in the whole movie. When I saw it, even younger members of the
audience thought it was stupidly childish. Dean Richards, playing
Scarnose, does a slightly better job than the others, but there isn’t
much in it. When will Hollywood realize that as ticket prices get
higher, more people are finding that the best form of entertainment
is to spend an evening at home with a DVD?
(Source: Mann & Taylore-Knowles, 2008)
4.3.2 Vietnamese-English translation
Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Tôi muốn nghỉ ở một khách sạn gần sân bay hơn.
2. Bạn càng tập trung thì câu trả lời của bạn càng chính xác.
3. Tính tới năm 2022, thành phố Hồ Chí Minh là thành phố đông dân
nhất Việt Nam với dân số xấp xỉ 9 triệu người.
4. Tôi thích ăn cá hơn ăn thịt vì ăn cá tốt cho sức khỏe tim mạch.
5. Nhiều người ngày nay thích mua nhà to hơn nhu cầu sử dụng. Họ
nghĩ nhà càng to, càng đẹp.
6. Ngày càng nhiều thanh niên nông thôn từ bỏ cuộc sống làng quê
để lên thành phố tìm kiếm cơ hội việc làm tốt hơn.
7. Thói quen ăn thực phẩm nhiều muối ảnh hưởng xấu đến sức khỏe
vì nó khiến tim phải làm việc nhiều hơn.

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8. Thành phố Huế trở nên thơ mộng hơn vào mùa hè khi hàng cây
phượng hai bên bờ sông Hương nở rộ.
9. Điều mà ít người nhận thấy là ô nhiễm không khí trong nhà thậm
chí còn tệ hại hơn cả ô nhiễm ngoài trời.
10. Sự khác biệt đáng chú ý nhất giữa học trực tuyến và học truyền
thống là sự linh hoạt về thời gian và địa điểm.
11. Nhờ những tiến bộ khoa học kỹ thuật, chất lượng cuộc sống hiện
nay đã được cải thiện hơn trước rất nhiều.
12. Ôn lại kiến thức cũ, không làm nhiều việc cùng một lúc là cách
giúp bạn học tập hiệu quả hơn.
13. Tránh tiếp xúc với ánh sáng xanh vào buổi tối giúp bạn dễ đi vào
giấc ngủ hơn và ngủ ngon hơn.
14. Một trong những cách tốt nhất để giảm căng thẳng là tán gẫu với
bạn bè hoặc nghe nhạc không lời.
15. Bài tập lần này khá khó nên tôi không chắc liệu mình có làm
đúng hết toàn bộ các câu hỏi hay không?
16. Quyển sách này rất hay vì vậy tôi đã đọc đi đọc lại nhiều lần.
17. Mặc quần áo có sọc dọc sẽ giúp bạn trông có vẻ cao hơn nhờ vào
hiệu ứng kéo dài đôi chân.
18. Du lịch không gian đang ngày càng chứng tỏ được sức hút của
nó đối với các tỉ phú trên thế giới.
19. Sau 2 năm thực hiện việc giảng dạy trực tuyến, ngày càng có
nhiều học sinh hứng thú hơn với hình thức học tập này.
20. Tôi thích sống ở nông thôn hơn ở thành thị vì nó cho tôi cảm giác
được tự do và được hòa mình vào thiên nhiên.
(Adapted from assorted sources)

65
Exercise 4. Translate the following description into English. Pay
attention to the expressions of comparisons.
Công việc của tôi
Công việc hiện tại của tôi không tốt như tôi mong đợi. Ngược
lại, tôi nghĩ đây là công việc tồi tệ nhất mà tôi từng làm. Công việc
trước của tôi tốt hơn nhiều so với công việc này. Ở đó tôi làm ít hơn
nhiều và sếp của tôi thực sự rất tốt. Còn sếp của tôi ở công ty hiện tại
là người nghiêm khắc nhất trong toàn công ty. Ngày làm việc ở đây
cũng dài hơn so với công việc trước của tôi. Tuy nhiên, điều tốt nhất
trong công việc của tôi hiện tại là văn phòng gần nhà tôi hơn cơ sở
cũ. Ít ra là giờ đây tôi về nhà sớm hơn tôi trước đây.
(Adapted from a sample text)

66
 CHAPTER 5.
TRANSLATING MODALITY
5.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to
• understand the basic uses and have a comparative view of
modal words and expressions in English and Vietnamese,
• become aware of the cultural differences in modality
between the source language and target language to handle
them well in translation work,
• develop critical thinking in translation.
5.2 TRANSLATING MODALITY
The English modals are not only subjective but also
complicated because “a modal verb or modal expression in a
sentence can be used for different purposes and with different
meanings in different situations.” (Greere & Zdrenghea, 2000, p. 98).
This makes it a challenge to translate English modal expressions to
professional translators, let alone EFL learners (Imre, 2010). In a
study of errors made by Arabic-speaking translator trainees in
translating modal expressions from English to Arabic, Eades (2011)
argued that raising students’ awareness of the nature of English
modality is essential and that the equivalent expressions in students’
first language should be introduced in the training process.
In Vietnam, there are a number of studies exploring and/or
contrasting the modality between English and Vietnamese (e.g., Ngũ
Thiện Hùng, 2003; Nguyễn Thị Thu Hiền, 2008; Nguyễn Thị Thu
Thủy, 2012). However, these studies focus on the linguistic
properties rather than the applicability in translation studies. Despite
this, the findings of these studies serve as a foundation for a formal
discussion of how modal expressions should be translated between
English and Vietnamese. In this chapter, common modal verbs and
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expressions in English will be presented and their Vietnamese
equivalents suggested.
5.2.1 Expressions of obligation and permission
The obligation and permission in English can be expressed in
a variety of patterns related to different modal verbs. For this,
learners often find it confusing to translate a modal expression.
5.2.1.1 Must, mustn’t, have to & not have to
Must + bare infinitive & have to + infinitive
Although these patterns are translated into Vietnamese as
phải (làm gì), they have many uses, and so it may confuse learners
when they translate these from Vietnamese into English. These uses
include:
• to talk about an obligation or order:
[5.1a] SS: You must get to bed early.
TS: Bạn phải đi ngủ sớm.
[5.1b] SS: Everyone has to dress smartly at work.
TS: Mọi người phải ăn mặc lịch sự khi đi làm.
The difference between [5.1a] and [5.1b] is that the speaker
of [5.1b] must be in authority.
• to say that it is very important that someone does or
doesn’t do something
[5.2a] SS: I must go home now. It’s very late.
TS: Tôi phải về đây. Muộn rồi.
[5.2b] SS: We’ll have to work harder next week to finish the
project on time.
TS: Chúng ta sẽ phải làm việc cật lực hơn vào tuần tới để
hoàn thành dự án đúng hạn.
However, must and have to are also different. Must is used to
recommend something very strongly.

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[5.3] SS: You must see that film. It’s fantastic!
TS: Bạn phải xem phim đó. Tuyệt lắm!
Have to is used to talk about actions that are required because
of the circumstances (not because a person in authority has
demanded them).
[5.4] SS: I was nearly there when the power was suddenly off.
That means I had to do the work from the beginning.
TS: Tôi đã gần như xong thì tự nhiên điện cúp. Thế là tôi
phải làm lại từ đầu.
Note that must can be used for both present or future meaning.
There is no past form of must. Instead, use the past form of have to.
Must not + bare infinitive & not have to + infinitive
Unlike the affirmative expressions, must and have to in
negative expressions differ greatly.
Must not + bare infinitive
This pattern is used to talk about what is not permitted. It is
often found on notices informing people of rules and laws. The
Vietnamese equivalent is không được (phép).
[5.5] SS: Guests must not make noise after 10 p.m.
TS: Quý khách không được gây ồn ào sau 10 giờ đêm.
Not have to + infinitive
This pattern is used to show that it’s not compulsory for
someone to do something. They can do it if they want to. The
Vietnamese equivalent is không cần phải.
[5.6] SS: You don’t have to go to the bank to do a transfer. You
can do it online.
TS: Quý vị không cần phải đến ngân hàng để chuyển tiền.
Quý vị có thể thực hiện trực tuyến.

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5.2.1.2 Can(not), may (not), could (not), be able & be allowed
Can(not), may (not) & could (not)
Can(not) and may (not) are used to say that something is or
is not permitted in the present. May is used in formal contexts. They
are both translated into Vietnamese as có thể/được or không
thể/được.
[5.7] SS: You can’t wear jeans at work.
TS: Các bạn không được mặc đồ jeans đi làm.
[5.8] SS: Visitors may park here for a period of fifteen minutes at
most.
TS: Khách có thể đỗ xe ở đây tối đa 15 phút.
When we want to say that something was or was not permitted
in the past, use could (not). Note that may does not have the past
form.
[5.9] SS: When I was young, I couldn’t stay out late at night.
TS: Khi tôi còn nhỏ, tôi không được đi chơi bên ngoài
khuya.
Be able & be allowed + full infinitive
Be allowed + full infinitive is used when we want to say that
someone has a permission to do something with the same meaning
as can/may. It is translated into Vietnamese as được phép (làm gì).
This pattern can be used with a negative form of the verb to be.
[5.10] SS: Students are not allowed to use any kind of dictionary
during the exam.
TS: Sinh viên không được phép sử dụng bất kỳ một loại tự
điển nào trong kỳ thi.
Note that we have to use a person as the subject. We cannot
say It is not allowed to do (something).
Be able + full infinitive is often used to talk about permission
to do something in the future.

70
[5.11] SS: But they will be able (=will be allowed) to use a
dictionary in the exam next week.
TS: Nhưng trong kỳ thi tuần tới, họ có thể sử dụng tự điển.
5.2.1.3 Other expressions of obligation and permission
In addition to modal verbs, there are expressions with
ordinary verbs that convey the meaning of obligation and
permission.
Make, get & order
Make + object + bare infinitive
This pattern is used to say that someone forces someone else
to do something because they have power in that situation. For this
meaning, the Vietnamese equivalent should be khiến/bắt (ai) (làm
gì).
[5.12] SS: The boss makes us work harder to finish the plan ahead
schedule.
TS: Sếp bắt chúng tôi làm việc cật lực hơn để hoàn thành kế
hoạch trước thời hạn.
Get + object + full infinitive
This pattern is used to say that someone asks a person to do
something for them and that person does it for them. The subject of
get does not force the other person to do it. They ask or persuade
them. For this, the pattern should be translated into Vietnamese as
nhờ (ai) (làm gì).
[5.13] SS: She’s always getting other people to do her work for
her.
TS: Cô ấy cứ nhờ người khác làm việc cho mình hoài.
Order + object + full infinitive
This pattern is used to tell someone that they must do
something. The subject of order usually has power over the object.
It can be translated as into Vietnamese as yêu cầu (ai) (làm gì).

71
[5.14] SS: His boss ordered him to do as he was told.
TS: Sếp anh ta yêu cầu anh ta làm đúng như những gì đã
được truyền đạt.
Let, allow & permit
The three verbs are related to expressions of permission
although the patterns are different.
Let + object + bare infinitive
This pattern is often translated into Vietnamese as để (ai) (làm
gì). When we want to talk about not giving permission, use do(es)n’t
let for the present, won’t let for the future, and didn’t/wouldn’t let
for the past.
[5.15] SS: She won’t let her children do whatever they want. She
has her family rules.
TS: Bà ấy sẽ không để cho con bà làm bất kỳ điều gì chúng
muốn. Bà ấy có quy tắc trong gia đình mình.
Allow/permit + object + full infinitive
The Vietnamese equivalent is cho phép (ai) (làm gì). The
negative is formed in the same way as let. Permit is used in formal
contexts.
[5.16] SS: The teacher allowed us to go home early.
TS: Thầy giáo đã cho phép chúng tôi về sớm.
[5.17] SS: Her parents don’t allow her to go to the parties.
TS: Ba mẹ cô bé không cho phép cô bé đi dự tiệc.
[5.18] SS: The contract permits you to redecorate the flat.
TS: Hợp đồng cho phép bạn trang trí lại căn hộ.
5.2.2 Expressions of necessity
There are many ways of saying that an action is necessary. For
the modal verb need, each pattern implies a different meaning.

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 Need + full infinitive
This pattern is the most literal when it is translated. Its
Vietnamese equivalent is cần (thiết/phải) (làm gì).
[5.19] SS: The boy is very fat at his age. He needs to lose some
weight.
TS: Thằng bé quá mập so với tuổi của nó. Nó cần phải giảm
cân.
Note that need is a special verb. In the negative form, we can
use do not need + full infinitive or needn’t + bare infinitive to say
that an action is not necessary in the present. However, if talk about
the past, we should say didn’t need + full infinitive. The Vietnamese
equivalent in the negative form is không cần thiết (làm gì).
[5.20] SS: You don’t need to (=needn’t) apologize. You’ve done
nothing wrong.
TS: Bạn không cần phải xin lỗi. Bạn có làm gì sai đâu.
Needn’t have + past participle
This pattern is used when we want to say that someone did
something unnecessary in the past. The translated version of this
pattern should be lẽ ra không cần phải (làm gì).
[5.21] SS: I needn’t have worried too much because in fact
everything was fine.
TS: Lẽ ra tôi không cần phải lo lắng quá vì mọi thứ thực tế
rất ổn.
Need + -ing form (= need + to be + past participle)
This pattern is used with a passive meaning (the action is not
done by the subject of need). It should be translated into Vietnamese
as cần được (làm gì).
[5.22] SS: My flat will need painting before the rainy season.
TS: Căn hộ của tôi sẽ cần được sơn trước mùa mưa đến.

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 There + be + no need (+ for someone) + full infinitive
In this pattern, need is used as a noun to say that something is
not necessary. The translation into Vietnamese needs some adaption.
The expression by the full infinitive should be the subject, and the
Vietnamese sentence should follow this order: không cần thiết phải
làm gì.
[5.23] SS: There is no need to get up early at weekends.
TS: Không cần thiết phải dậy sớm vào cuối tuần.
Alternatively, the person after preposition for comes in the
position of the subject in the Vietnamese sentence: (Ai) không cần
thiết phải (làm gì).
[5.24] SS: There was no need for him to be angry with me. I don’t
do anything wrong.
TS: Anh ta không cần thiết phải nổi nóng với tôi. Tôi không
làm gì sai cả.
5.2.3 Expressions of suggestion and advice
5.2.3.1 Expressions with Should & Ought to
The two verbs should and ought to are specifically used for
suggestion and advice. They have two main patterns.
Should/ought to + bare infinitive
This pattern is used for present and future to give or ask for
fairly strong advice (as in [5.25]) and to talk/ask about things we
believe to be right or wrong (as in [5.26]). In these cases, both should
and ought to are translated into Vietnamese as nên.
[5.25] SS: Should I take the job or not?
TS: Tôi nên nhận công việc này hay không?
[5.26] SS: You ought to tell the truth at all times.
TS: Bạn nên luôn luôn nói sự thật.
Should and ought to are also used to talk about expectations
which are not reality or things which are not expected (as in [5.27]).
74
In this case, should and ought to are translated into Vietnamese as
đáng ra phải.
[5.27] SS: You should know how to do this because I told you
yesterday.
TS: Đáng ra bạn phải biết cách làm việc này vì hôm qua tôi
đã bày cho bạn.
Should/ought to + perfect infinitive (have +p.p.)
This pattern is used for past, so it is not used to ask for advice.
It is used to talk/ask about beliefs or expectations that were not reality
(i.e., they were not done). The pattern is translated into Vietnamese
as lẽ ra (thì/là) nên.
[5.28] SS: You should/ought to have been more careful.
TS: Lẽ ra thì bạn phải cẩn thận hơn.
[5.29] SS: They were the better team. They shouldn’t have lost on
carelessness.
TS: Họ là đội chơi tốt hơn. Lẽ ra họ không nên thua chỉ vì
bất cẩn.
5.2.3.2 Other modal verb patterns used for suggestion and advice
In addition to should and ought to, many other modal verbs
enter various patterns of suggestion and advice.
Had better + (not) bare infinitive
This pattern is used to give very strong advice or express the
idea that an action is necessary or urgent and that there will be a bad
result if it is not done. It refers to the present and future only. The
Vietnamese equivalent should be (phải) nên.
[5.30] SS: You’d better leave or you’ll miss the train.
TS: Bạn phải nên đi bây giờ chứ không là (bạn) sẽ trễ mất
chuyến tàu.

75
 Would be better off (+ -ing form)
This idiomatic pattern is used to say that there is a better way
to do something than the way that someone is planning or doing it.
The Vietnamese equivalent to this pattern is tốt hơn (là) nên.
[5.31] SS: Don’t drive to city center now. You won’t be able to
find a parking space. You’d better off using public
transport.
TS: Đừng lái xe vào trung tâm thành phố giờ này. Bạn sẽ
không thể tìm được chỗ đỗ xe. Tốt hơn là bạn nên đi
phương tiện công cộng.
Would have been better off (+-ing form)
This idiomatic pattern is used to say that there was a better
way to do something in the past than the way it was done. It should
be translated into English as lẽ ra nên … thì hơn.
[5.32] SS: You arranged things badly. I’d have been better off
doing it on my own.
TS: Bạn thu xếp mọi việc quá tệ. Lẽ ra tôi nên tự làm nó thì
hơn.
May/might as well + bare infinitive
This pattern is used to suggest something, not because it is
particularly desirable but because there is not a better idea or choice.
It is translated into Vietnamese as sẽ phải … thôi.
[5.33] SS: There won’t be a bus any more, so we might as well
walk home.
TS: Sẽ không còn chuyến xe buýt nào nữa, vì vậy chúng ta
sẽ phải đi bộ về nhà thôi.
This pattern is also used to suggest that somebody does
something they would prefer to do or that is easy for them and its
Vietnamese equivalent in this case should be nên … thì hơn.
[5.34] SS: You’ve done all your work quite hard, so you might as
well go home for a rest now.
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 TS: Bạn đã làm cật lực tất cả công việc của mình, vì thế bây
giờ bạn nên đi về nhà nghỉ ngơi thì hơn.
5.2.3.3 Other structures used for suggestion and advice
It’s better/best + full infinitive
This pattern is used for suggestion of how to or how to get the
best result, in general. Its Vietnamese equivalent is Tốt hơn là/Tốt
nhất là (làm gì).
[5.35] SS: It’s better/best to do this kind of task slowly or you make
a mistake.
TS: Tốt hơn là/Tốt nhất là bạn làm công việc này chậm rãi,
nếu không bạn sẽ phạm sai lầm.
It would be better/best + full infinitive
This pattern is used in a particular case to suggest how to get
the best result. The Vietnamese equivalent is Có lẽ sẽ tốt hơn/tốt
nhất nếu (làm gì).
[5.36] SS: It would be better/best not to disturb my mum when she
was busy.
TS: Có lẽ sẽ tốt hơn/tốt nhất nếu không làm phiền mẹ tôi khi
bà ấy đang bận.
Let’s + bare infinitive (= Shall we + bare infinitive?)
This pattern is used to suggest something that the speaker will
also do. For Let’s + bare infinitive, we translate it into Vietnamese
as Chúng ta cùng … đi!
[5.37] SS: Let’s go out for a meal together one evening.
Shall we go out for a meal together one evening?
TS: Một tối nào đó chúng ta cùng đi ăn với nhau đi!
The Vietnamese word đi is an adjunct to show an imperative
or urge. It should be used in this structure to make it different from
an affirmative sentence.

77
 Sometimes, there is a combination Let’s + bare infinitive, +
shall we? in real-life communication. In this case, we translate it into
Vietnamese with a little difference: Chúng ta cùng … nhé.
[5.38] SS: Let’s go out for a meal together one evening, shall we?
TS: Một tối nào đó chúng ta cùng đi ăn với nhau nhé?
The interjection nhé in Vietnamese is used when we expect
the listener to agree with our statement. This is similar to the use of
the question tag in English. Therefore, it is used in the equivalent
pattern to indicate this grammatical characteristic.
When we want to make a negative suggestion, use Let’s NOT
+ bare infinitive and translate it into Vietnamese as Chúng ta đừng
(làm gì).
[5.39] SS: Let us not interrupt them when they are talking.
TS: Chúng ta đừng ngắt lời khi họ đang nói.
It’s (about/high) time + subject + past subjunctive
The pattern is used to suggest that it is now very important or
urgent for someone to do something. It should be translated into
Vietnamese as Đã đến lúc (ai) phải (làm gì).
[5.40] SS: It is (about/high) time you made decision. I can’t wait
any longer.
TS: Đã đến lúc anh phải đưa ra quyết định. Tôi không thể
chờ đợi được nữa.
5.2.4 Expressions of ability, possibility and probability
The modal verbs can, may and should in English have more
uses than others. Apart from indicating oblication and permission,
can is used to talk about ability and possibility, may is used for
possibility and should is used for probability. The translation of these
modal verbs depends greatly on their use in the source sentences.

78
 Can/can’t + bare infinitive
This pattern is translated into Vietnamse as có thể/có khả
năng or không thể/không có khả năng (làm gì) to talk about
abilities in the present (as in [5.41]), and as có khả năng là … to talk
about things that are possible/impossible in the present/future (as in
5.42]).
[5.41] SS: She can play the guitar very well.
TS: Cô ấy có thể/có khả năng chơi ghi ta rất hay.
[5.42] SS: I can’t see you tomorrow.
TS: Có khả năng là ngày mai tôi không gặp anh được.
A problem with Vietnamese lies in the number of equivalent
expressions. Có thể and có khả năng are used interchangeably to
refer to both ability and possibility (for permission, we only use có
thể). Therefore, it is hard for learners to translate a source English
sentence into a target Vietnamese sentence, conveying both the
meaning and use. It is recommended that for possibility, the
expression có thể là/có khả năng là should be used after the subject
(i.e., we translate the modal verb as part of verb expressing the
activity) when we refer to ability as in [5.41], and at the beginning
of the sentence (i.e., we make the modal verb as part of an adverbial
expression indicating the context or condition) when we refer to the
possibility as in [5.42].
May (not)/might (not) + bare infinitive
This pattern is used when we want to say that there is a
possibility that something will happen in the future, but we are not
certain. The Vietnamese equivalent is có thể là/có khả năng là. As
explained above, the modal expressions with may and might should
be placed at the beginning of the target sentence to indicate the
possibility.
[5.43] SS: Mummy, I might be late home tonight.
TS: Mẹ à, có khả năng là tối nay con sẽ về nhà trễ.

79
[5.44] SS: I may not see you again for a while. I have to go abroad
on business.
TS: Có thể là tôi sẽ không gặp lại anh trong một thời gian.
Tôi đi nước ngoài có việc.
Should/shouldn’t + bare infinitive
This pattern is used to talk about things that you think
probably will/won’t happen. The modal expression is translated into
Vietnamese as có lẽ sẽ/sẽ không (làm gì).
[5.45] SS: It shouldn’t take long to get there.
TS: Có lẽ sẽ không mất nhiều thời gian đi đến đó.
I should/shouldn’t think + subject + positive verb
This pattern is used to introduce something that you think
probably will/won’t happen. It is similar to the above pattern except
that you indicate your own opinion. Therefore, the Vietnamese
equivalent Tôi nghĩ có lẽ … sẽ/sẽ không… (làm gì).
[5.46] SS: I shouldn’t think it will take me long to get there.
TS: Tôi nghĩ có lẽ tôi sẽ không mất nhiều thời gian để đi đến
đó.
Note the difference in the negative expression between the
source and the target sentence. In English, the negative expression is
on the modal verb, but in Vietnamese, the negative expression is on
the main verb in the second part of the sentence.
5.3 PRACTICE EXERCISES
5.3.1 English-Vietnamese translation
Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences into Vietnamese
1. You don’t have to wear a tie in our office, but some people like to
dress more formally.
2. People must wear masks that completely cover the mouth and nose
in public places.

80
3. I couldn’t find my car key this morning, so I had to take a bus to
go to work.
4. “May I see your passport, Mr. Dunkley?” said the customs officer.
5. Students don't need to wear school uniforms on Friday.
6. My mother made me wash the dishes even though I was very
sleepy.
7. You don’t have to give me a lift. I can easily walk home from here.
8. I get my sister to do the laundry for me because I don’t feel well.
9. The police ordered everyone to leave the building immediately
because of a bomb threat.
10. This is a secret between two of us. You mustn’t tell this to
anyone.
11. You need to drink 2 liters of water a day for your bodies to
function well.
12. There is no need to lock that door. It will be locked automatically.
13. You are not allowed to use your mobile phone in the examination
room.
14. You should wait at least 20 minutes after your workout before
taking the shower.
15. You needn’t have done your sister’s homework. She should have
done it herself.
16. You'd better not go out tonight; you look really tired.
17. Let's not do anything until we have further information.
18. Look at what you did with your room! It needs cleaning now.
19. I’m really disappointed because my mother no longer lets me
play video games late at night.
20. He was raised bilingually so now he can speak English and
Chinese very well.
(Adapted from assorted sources)

81
Exercise 2. Translate the following article into Vietnamese.
Choosing a Gym
Choosing to go to a gym regularly should change your life for
the better. Don’t let it be a decision you regret!
Good gyms can provide exercise equipment that is just too
expensive to buy, and their trained staff can provide quality health
and fitness advice. But if you’re planning to join a gym, you should
bear in mind a number of things before choosing which gym to to
become a member of.
Before the law changed a few years ago, anyone could set up
a gym and even today gyms don’t have to employ trained fitness
instructors. Find out what qualifications the staff have. If they’re
untrained, it’s best to go elsewhere.
You mustn’t be put
off by the gym’s hard sell.
You don’t have to decide
there and then. See a few
gyms before you make your
final decision. Look at the
equipment and facilities they
have. Find out if you have to book equipment in advance, or you can
just turn up and use it. Also observe how busy the gym gets. It won’t
be very pleasant turning up to find there’s no room in the changing
room and there’s a huge queue for each piece of equipment. It might
also be a good idea to talk to people who already go to that gym to
find out their opinion.
(Adapted from Mann & Taylore-Knowles, 2008)
5.3.2 Vietnamese-English translation
Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Bạn không cần phải đi cùng tôi đâu. Thật đấy. Tôi ổn mà.
2. Đã đến lúc con đi ngủ rồi. 10h tối rồi đấy!
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3. Có khả năng là ngày mai chúng ta sẽ có bài kiểm tra đột xuất. Vì
vậy các cậu nên chuẩn bị trước đi!
4. Tôi bị dị ứng với hải sản vì vậy tôi không thể ăn mực và tôm.
5. Ngày mai chúng ta đi xem phim cùng nhau nhé. Đã lâu rồi chúng
ta không đi chơi chung.
6. Tốt hơn là bạn không nên tắm vào giờ này. Đã 10h tối rồi.
7. Bố của tôi đã bị nhỡ chuyến bay vì không bắt kịp chuyến xe buýt
504 đến sân bay. Lẽ ra tôi nên chở ông ấy tới sân bay thì hơn.
8. Để nhanh bình phục thì con cần uống thuốc đúng giờ mỗi ngày.
9. Bố mẹ tôi đi vắng vì vậy tôi phải ở nhà trông em gái.
10. Mẹ tôi là một người nghiêm khắc. Bà ấy không cho phép chúng
tôi đi chơi sau 10h đêm.
11. Thầy giáo yêu cầu học sinh giữ im lặng trong lớp.
12. Tôi không tự tin về ngoại hình của mình vì vậy tôi không thể ra
đường mà không trang điểm.
13. Khi đi xem phim bạn không được dùng điện thoại để quay lại các
cảnh phim.
14. Trận bóng đá giữa câu lạc bộ Real Madrid và Barcelona là một
trận cầu kinh điển. Bạn nhất định phải xem!
15. Quán café này chỉ cho phép khách sử dụng internet trong vòng 1
tiếng. Thật bất tiện!
16. Mẹ nhờ tôi trông cửa hàng giúp vì mẹ phải đi đón em của tôi ở
trường.
17. Hôm nay bố không cần đến trường đón con. Con sẽ về cùng với
bạn Josh.
18. Lẽ ra bạn nên nói chuyện này với bố mẹ thay vì giấu giếm. Họ
chắc hẳn rất thất vọng về bạn!
19. Gió bão hôm qua đã làm vỡ kính cửa sổ phòng tôi. Nó cần phải
được thay mới.

83
20. Thời tiết gần đây có vẻ thất thường. Tốt hơn là bạn nên hoãn kế
hoạch du lịch lại.
(Adapted from assorted sources)
Exercise 4. Translate the following text into English.
Nhiều người trẻ hiện nay không ngủ đủ giấc. Giấc ngủ có ảnh
hưởng rất lớn đến khả năng tập trung và hiệu quả làm việc. Đối với
học sinh, thiếu ngủ thường xuyên có thể ảnh hưởng đến kết quả học
tập. Các nhà khoa học đã đưa ra các lời khuyên để giúp chúng ta có
được một giấc ngủ ngon hơn.
Trước khi đi ngủ khoảng 30 phút chúng ta nên ngâm chân với
nước nóng. Không nên ăn quá nhiều vào buổi tối vì nó có thể gây
khó chịu cho dạ dày, dẫn đến khó đi vào giấc ngủ. Các thực phẩm tốt
cho giấc ngủ có thể kể đến như sữa ấm, cháo, các loại quả mọng v.v.
Một số người có thói quen tập thể dục vào buổi tối. Theo các nghiên
cứu, việc vận động mạnh vào ban đêm không có lợi cho giấc ngủ.
Tốt hơn hết là bạn nên tập các bài thể dục nhẹ nhàng để thư giãn.
Cuối cùng để có được một giấc ngủ ngon bạn nên để các thiết bị điện
tử xa khỏi khu vực giường ngủ.
(Adapted from a sample text)

84
 CHAPTER 6.
TRANSLATING RELATIVE CLAUSES
6.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
• understand the basic uses of relative clauses in English,
• have a comparative view of English relative clauses and the
equivalent expressions in Vietnamese,
• become aware of the cultural differences between the
source language and target language to handle them well in
translation work,
• develop critical thinking in translation.
6.2 RELATIVE CLAUSES
The relative clause is a grammatical phenomenon typical of
European languages, and so it is sometimes an obstacle for EFL
learners in aquiring and using it, not to mention translating it into a
language that does not have this grammatical point. This section
provides an overview of relative clauses as a grammar review to
establish fundamental tactics of translating ralatives presented in the
subsequent sections.
A relative clause is used to join two clauses without repeating
the information. There are two types of relative clauses: defining and
non-defining relative clauses. A relative clause can be either
adjectival or adverbial in nature. Considering the adjectival function,
it comes after a noun or a noun phrase to provide more about the
people or things, joining by means of relative pronouns (who, whom,
which, that, whose). In terms of adverbial function, the two clauses
are joined via the use of a relative adverb (when, where, why).

85
 Uses Examples
Defining clause
Which or that to refer to things.
Who/whom or that to refer to people.
A defining relative clause is [6.1] I like the woman who lives
used to give essential next door.
information that identifies or (without the clause who lives
specifies which person or thing next door, which woman is
is being talked about. being talked about is unknown).
The relative pronouns which, [6.2] The kind of music my
that and who can be left out of group plays is hard to describe.
the relative clause if the (the main subject of the sentence
relative clause contains a is the kind of music, and a
second subject that is different different subject, my group, is
from the subject of the whole the subject of the relative clause
sentence. and the verb play).
Non-defining clause
Which to refer to things.
Who/whom to refer to people.
A non-defining relative clause is usually put between the two
commas.
A non-defining relative clause [6.3] My car, which I only
gives additional information bought two months ago, has
about people and things. broken down.
Which can be used to link a
whole sentence describing a [6.4] They lost the game, which
fact, situation or action. disappointed their supporters.
Whose + noun is used as a possessive form in both defining and
non-defining relative clauses
[6.5] She is a writer whose books I love to read.
[6.6] Rachel, whose address I don’t know, lives somewhere
outside the city centre.

86
 Note that in formal situations, whom is used when it is the
object of the relative clause. In natural English, who is used instead.
However, after a preposition, whom must be used. The information
in the non-defining clause is not essential, and the sentence still has
a clear meaning without a relative clause.
Where is used in both defining [6.5] In the part of the city
and non-defining relative where I live, nothing
clauses interesting ever happens.
to refer to places in both [6.6] The hotel, where I had
defining and non-defining stayed previously, was
relative clauses. It cannot be left excellent.
out.
When is used in both defining [6.7] This is the time of year
and non-defining relative (when) the tourists start to
clauses to refer to times. arrive.
It is possible to leave when out [6.8] At this time of year, when
of defining relative clause but the tourists have left, this place
not in non-defining relative becomes peaceful again.
clause.
Notes
Where and when can be replaced by a preposition + which.
In a less formal situation, the preposition can be put at the end of the
clause.
[6.9a] The theatre where/in which I first acted is somewhere around
here.
[6.9b] The theatre which I first acted in is somewhere around here.
[6.10a] Do you know the year when/in which the first western was
made?
[6.10b] Do you know the year which the first western was made in?

87
 Relative clauses can be shortened into participial phrases,
which are used as adjectives to modify nouns or pronouns. These
phrases are formed using both past participles (end with an -ed form
or equivalents), and present participles (ending with an -ing form).
Note that the subject of the participle must always be the same as the
subject of the main verb in a sentence.
The present participial phrase can be used instead of
repeating a subject to talk about two things happening at the same
time.
[6.11] The woman stood still there, not knowing what to do next. (=
The woman who did not know what to do next stood still
there).
The past participial phrase can be used a relative clause with
a passive verb.
[6.12] Built in 1927, this is one of the finest cinemas in London.
(This is one of the finest cinemas in London which was built
in 1927).
6.3 TRANSLATING ENGLISH RELATIVE CLAUSES
While relative clauses are regarded as a point of grammar in
European languages, they should be better treated as a point of style
when they are translated into languages, especially East Asian
languages. Research into translating relative clauses has been carried
out in many language pairs, such as English-Thai (Leenakitti &
Pongpairoj, 2019), English-Vietnamese (Nguyen, 2002).
Vietnamese EFL learners often have difficulties translating relative
clauses from English into Vietnamese, according to Nguyen (2002).
They tend to use the connective word mà to join the main clause and
the subordinate clause. This makes the target sentence sound
“Western” rather than “pure Vietnamese”. The problem may come
from the mismatch in grammatical issues between the two languages.
Many Vietnamese linguists (e.g., Diệp Quang Ban, 1989); Hoàng
Trọng Phiến, 2009) stated that the Vietnamese language does not
88
have relative pronouns, and that the word mà that EFL learners often
used in their translation was a function word, connecting the two
parts of the sentence. However, although there is no such a relative
pronoun in Vietnamese, there are ways of expressing the relative
clause structures.
The following are different ways of translating relative
clauses based on the types of relative clauses and the relative words
that introduce them.
6.3.1 Translating clauses with WHERE and WHEN
In most situations, where can be literally translated into
Vietnamese words nơi. However, its translation is sometimes
omitted.
When the source sentence contains the word place, the word
where should not be translated, because these two words are
equivalent to Vietnamese words nơi.
[6.13] SS: Do you remember the place where we caught
the bus?
TS: Anh còn nhớ nơi chúng ta đón xe buýt không?
When the source sentence contains a word that is generally
understood as a place, the translation of the word where is often
omitted.
[6.14] SS: Stratford-upon-Avon is the town where Shakespeare
was born.
TS1: Stratford-upon-Avon là thị trấn nơi Shakespeare đã ra
đời.
TS2: Stratford-upon-Avon là thị trấn Shakespeare đã ra đời.
Similar to where, the relative adverb when can be translated
into Vietnamese as khi or omitted in the Vietnamese sentences.
When the SS contains the phrase the time, the translated
version can be ‘khoảng thời gian khi/lúc’:

89
[6.15] SS: The time when I was studying at college was the best
learning experience in my life.
TS: Khoảng thời gian khi tôi đang học đại học là trải nghiệm
học hỏi đẹp nhất của đời tôi.
When the source sentence contains a word or phrase that is
generally used as an expression of time (e.g., the day, the holiday,
summer), the translation of the word when is often omitted in the
target sentence.
[6.16] SS: I remember my twentieth birthday. It was the day when
the tsunami happened.
TS: Tôi vẫn nhớ sinh nhật lần thứ 21 của mình. Hôm ấy là
ngày xảy ra sóng thần.
6.3.2 Translating clauses with WHOSE
As whose is a word indicating possessive relation to the
antecedent noun, in most situations, this word is translated into
Vietnamese as có.
[6.17] SS: The woman whose car is a BMW is coming tonight.
TS: Người phụ nữ có chiếc xe BMW tối nay sẽ đến.
[6.18] SS: Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?
TS: Bạn có biết thằng bé có mẹ làm y tá không?
6.3.3 Translating clauses with WHO/WHOM and WHICH
Words like who, whom and which in English relative clauses
are usually not translated into Vietnamese. The relative clause turns
into a modifier to the noun in the target sentence.
[6.19] SS: I don’t like people who are big-headed.
TS: Tôi không thích những kẻ kiêu căng.

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6.3.4 Other ways of translating relative clauses
There are some situations in which other ways of translating
are needed because the omission of the relative words may affect the
smoothness and naturalness of the target sentence.
6.3.4.1 Using an appositive
The non-defining relative clauses sometimes look like
appositive clauses because they appear between two commas and the
uses of these two clauses are somewhat similar. Although
Vietnamese grammar does not have relative clauses, Vietnamese
speakers do use appositive clauses. Therefore, it is a useful
alternative providing there is an appropriate adjustment.
[6.20] SS: St Andrew University, which is the oldest university in
Scotland, is the Scottish equivalent of Oxford.
TS: Đại học St Andrew, Đại học cổ kính nhất Scotland,
được coi là bản sao của Đại học Oxford của nước này.
As mentioned, it is important to adjust the target sentence to
avoid unnecessary repetition because the apposition in English often
repeats the key noun or nominal expression, or makes use of a
synonym of the key noun.
6.3.4.2 Splitting the source sentence into independent simple
sentences
Splitting the source sentence into independent simple
sentences is a good way to handle the translation of the source
sentence that contain a non-defining clause, as the ideas in the two
clauses are fairly independent.
[6.21] SS: My grandmother, who is 96 now, is a big fan of the
Beatles.
TS: Bà tôi là một người hâm mộ cuồng nhiệt của nhóm nhạc
Beatles. Bà năm nay đã 96 tuổi.

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 This way of translation is also applicable to a relative clause
that modifies the whole idea of the main clause.
[6.22] SS: New Zealand has no snakes or dangerous wild animals,
which makes it the ideal spot for an outdoor vacation.
TS: New Zealand (Tân Tây Lan) không có rắn hoặc các
động vật hoang dã nguy hiểm. Điều đó khiến đất nước
này trở thành địa điểm lý tưởng cho những kỳ nghỉ
ngoài trời.
6.4 PRACTICE EXERCISES
6.4.1 English - Vietnamese translation

Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences into Vietnamese

1. November 5th was the day when Guy Fawkes tried to blow up
Parliament.
2. There were none of my favourite biscuits left when I had a cup of
tea, which was really annoying.
3. The Ring of Fire, which goes from New Zealand up to Asia and
across the ocean to Alaska, is an enormous chain of volcanoes all
around the Pacific Ocean.
4. The Godfather was made by Francis Ford Copolla, whose
daughter is also a film director.
5. Can you think of any reason why Cathy should be angry with me?
6. Here’s a photo of the hotel where we stayed in when we were in
Beijing.
7. To many people around the world, Australia is the land of
kangaroos and koala bears, where residents and tourists alike romp
on any of thousands of beaches.
8. The coat, which Dan had on yesterday, was made of pure alpaca
and cost a bomb.
9. This is the first occasion when the leaders of these countries have
met.
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10. The moment when the hero suddenly appears from behind a tree
is the best moment in the whole film.
11. Brian said goodnight to his roommate Justin, who continued to
play video games until his eyes were blurry with fatigue.
12. The police are looking for the car whose driver was masked.
13. The car, the driver of which jumped out just before the accident,
was completely destroyed.
14. The Maya civilization was developed by the Maya peoples in an
area that encompasses southeastern Mexico, all of Guatemala and
Belize, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador.
15. The heavy rain, which was unusual for the time of year, destroyed
most of the plants in my garden.
(Adapted from assorted sources)

Exercise 2. Translate the following text into Vietnamese, highlight

the relative pronouns or adverbs that you translate.
Steven Spielberg
Steven Spielberg is an American film director whose films
have been very successful. They include Jaws, which he made in
1975. It was about a shark which attacked people on a beach. In 1982
he made ET, which is about a creature from space that has been left
on earth by mistake and protected by three children until it can go
back to its own planet. Spielberg was probably the most well-known
film director in the world in the 1980s, when he made a series of
Indiana Jones films, which were about an archaeologist who often
got into dangerous situations. Schindler’s List, which won seven
Oscars, came out in 1993 and was about a real German man who
saved the lives of Jews that had been sent to work in his factory
during World War II. Most of the films that Spielberg has made have
been enormously popular all over the world.
(Adapted from Harrison, 2016)

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6.4.2 Vietnamese - English translation

Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into English

1. Là một siêu sao, Cristiano Ronaldo luôn trở thành tâm điểm của
cánh báo chí. Chính điều này đã khiến cho cuộc sống của anh đôi khi
trở nên căng thẳng và dễ tổn thương.
2. Tôi muốn đi Tây Ban Nha vào mùa đông, khi ấy sẽ ít khách du
lịch hơn.
3. Tôi bỗng nhiên nhớ ra nơi để quên chìa khóa khi tôi đang đợi xe
buýt.
4. Chuyến bay bị hoãn, đồng nghĩa với việc chúng tôi phải chờ thêm
3 tiếng nữa ở sân bay.
5. Không có con đường bằng phẳng và rộng mở trong khoa học; chỉ
những ai không sợ khó khăn mới có thể đạt đến thành tựu cao nhất.
6. Có phải đó là nhà hàng mới nơi anh ấy vừa được nhận vào làm
không?
7. Cuốn tiểu thuyết này được viết cách đây hơn 100 năm vẫn còn giá
trị cho đến ngày nay.
8. Có nhiều lý do khiến tôi quyết định trở thành nhà phê bình truyền
hình.
9. Đó là cô gái có ông bố trúng số hàng triệu đô la.
10. Vị Bộ trưởng được bổ nhiệm tuần trước đã bất ngờ từ chức.
(Adapted from assorted sources)

Exercise 4. Translate the following text into English

Ngày hội thể thao
Khánh đã chờ đợi rất lâu ngày hội thể thao của trường. Ngày
này chỉ diễn ra một năm một lần là một ngày đặc biệt khi tất cả học
sinh đều được nghỉ học và chơi thể thao cả ngày. Cậu ấy tò mò muốn
biết các bạn học cùng lớp sẽ chơi môn thể thao nào. Khánh biết chắc
chắn bạn Minh học lớp bên cạnh chơi cầu lông, nhưng lại không biết
Quân là bạn thân của mình sẽ chơi môn gì. Khánh biết quyết định
94
của mình rất quan trọng nhưng lại có thể thay đổi ở phút cuối. Thế
nên cậu ấy vẫn chưa quyết định sẽ chơi môn gì. Mặc dù vậy, khi
Khánh gặp cô Giang giáo viên dạy cậu ấy năm ngoái, cậu ấy đã đột
ngột quyết định sẽ chơi bóng rổ khi trả lời câu hỏi của cô ấy về môn
thể thao sẽ chơi ở ngày hội thể thao.
(Adapted from a sample text)

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 CHAPTER 7.
TRANSLATING PASSIVE VOICE
7.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
• understand the basic uses of passive voice in English,
• and have a comparative view of English passive voice and
the equivalent expressions in Vietnamese,
• become aware of the cultural differences between the
source language and target language to handle them well in
translation work,
• develop critical thinking in translation.
7.2 TRANSLATING PASSIVE VOICE
Passive voice is a natural part of English grammar. There has
been much controversy over its use because it sometimes causes
difficulty to even native speakers of English. However, it is
undeniable that it is useful in some specific genres. In English, the
passive voice is used when the person who does/did something is
unknown or unnecessary to mention, or they are too obvious to name.
Sometimes, passive voice is used when the speaker wants to
emphasize new information or use a formal style. In other words, the
passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that
experiences an action rather than the person or object that performs
the action. The sentence structure of a passive voice pattern
comprises:
Subject [action recipient] + be + past participle + by + agent
The verb patterns of English passive sentences can be
summarized as follows.

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Active Passive
Present simple am/is/are + past participle
They grow bananas in tropical Bananas are grown in tropical
countries. countries.
Present continuous am/is/are + ‘being’ + past
They are building a shopping participle
mall. A shopping mall is being built.
Past simple was/were + past participle
They served the meal in an The meal was served in an elegant
elegant dining room. dining room.
Past continuous was/were + being + past participle
They were repairing the road The road was being repaired this
this time last month. time last month.
Present perfect simple have/has + been + past particple
Someone has changed the The arrangements have been
arrangements. changed.
Past perfect simple had been + past participle
Someone had eaten all the food All the food had been eaten by the
by the time I got there. time I got there.
will (future) will be + past participle
They will publish the book nextThe book will be published next
year. year.
Be going to (future) is/are going to be + past participle
They are going to hold a meeting
A meeting is going to be held
tomorrow. tomorrow.
Future perfect simple will have been + past participle
They will have harvasted all the
All the grapes will have been
grapes by the end of September.harvasted by the end of September.
Modal modal + BE + past participle
You can change the date of yourThe date of your journey can be
journey. changed.
Modal + perfect infinitive modal + have been + past
They should have delivered the participle
groceries by now. The groceries should have been
delivered by now.
-ING form being + past participle
I don’t like people telling me I don’t like being told what to do in
what to do in the kitchen. the kitchen.

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 Many EFL speakers often translate the word by into
Vietnamese as bởi, retaining the structure of the English sentence.
This translation is acceptable among English users while it sounds
strange to the ears of non-English users. Comparative studies
between English and one of the Asian languages have pointed out
that passive contsructions are not one-to-one corresponding.
In Vietnamese, the passive notion is often presented through
the use of words được and bị, which means ‘receiving the positive
or negative effect’, respectively. Consider the following English
source sentences and the Vietnamese target sentences.
[7.1] SS: Jill was given a bar of chocolate.
TS: Jill được cho một thanh sô-cô-la
[7.2] SS: A bar of chocolate was given to Jill.
TS: *Một thanh sô-cô-la được đưa cho Jill.
The Vietnamese sentence in [7.2] does not sound natural in
Vietnamese. A remedy for this is that the sentence is transformed
into active voice by adding an indefinite person subject người ta, có
người or ai đó:
Người ta đưa một thanh sô-cô-la cho Jill.
or, Có người đưa một thanh sô-cô-la cho Jill.
Difficulties are also encountered while doing Vietnamese–
English translation due to the differences in the style of expressing
and the category of verbs. For example, it is natural for a Vietnamese
to say
[7.3] SS: Tôi được biết anh đã chuyển ra Hà Nội sinh sống.
In this sentence, the word được does not mean anything
passive, so the passive target sentence does not make any sense to
the target audience if it is like this:
[7.3] *TS: I am known that you have moved to Hanoi.

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 In fact, the phrase được biết means that the speaker happens
to know something. The following sentence should be a better
translated version:
[7.3] TS: I heard that you had moved to Hanoi.
The examples have demonstrated that translating passive
voice requires careful considerations for both English–Vietnamese
and Vietnamese–English translation. In the following sections,
therefore, particular ways of translating passive voice will be
presented with the view to helping students deal with the translation
more effectively.
7.2.1 Translating English passive sentences into Vietnamese
Toyota (2009) described the English passive voice as follows:

It is commonly divided into two constructions, the verbal

passive and the adjectival passive. The distinction is
made according to the characteristics of the past
participle. When it behaves like the verb, the
construction is considered to be the verbal passive and
when it shows adjectival characteristics, the adjectival
passive” (p. 476-477).

This section primarily discusses the translation verbal passive,

leaving the adjectival passive in the later discussion in Section 7.3.3.
In the first instance, the verb pattern in passive sentences can
be translated into Vietnamese as cần phải or nên when the action is
emphasized.
[7.4] SS: Preventive measures should be taken to reduce crime in
the area.
TS: Cần phải áp dụng các biện pháp phòng tránh để giảm
tội phạm trong khu vực.
When the passive sentence comes in the causative form, that
is, someone else will make the action happen, the Vietnamese
equivalent will depend on the context in which the passive causative
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is used. In most situations, the Vietnamese expressions should be
cho/thuê (làm gì) as in [7.5] and đi (làm gì) as in [7.6].
[7.5] SS: She will have an air-conditioner installed in the dining
room.
TS: Bà ấy sẽ cho/thuê lắp đặt một máy điều hòa trong phòng
ăn.
[7.6] SS: I had my hair cut yesterday.
TS: Hôm qua tôi đi cắt tóc.
In the translation of causative form, the Vietnamese equivalent
sentence might not fully convey the meaning. Especially, it
sometimes loses the indication of the source sentence being passive:
[7.7] SS: I had this photo taken when I went on holiday in
Germany.
TS: Tôi chụp ảnh này khi đi nghỉ hè ở Đức.
If a back translation is done with the target sentence of [7.7] it
is hard to decide whether the speaker took a photograph or had a
photograph taken. Another structure in English that is difficult to
translate is the impersonal passive structure:
It + BE + past participle + that + clause
To express other people’s opinions in a formal style,
impersonal passive with reporting verbs (RV) being used in either
structure:
(1) NP + is/are + p.p. (RV) + to-infinitive/perfect infinitive
(2) It is + p.p. (RV) + that + clause
Common reporting verbs include say, believe, think, suppose
claim, estimate, expect, etc. Some other verbs such as argue,
suggest, calculate, etc., are usually used with only the second
structure.
The Vietnamese equivalent to the first structure often begins
with an active reporting clause: người ta (nói/tin/nghĩ ...) rằng ....

100
[7.8] SS: It is supposed that thieves doped a guard dog and stole
$10, 000 worth of goods.
TS: Người ta cho rằng kẻ trộm đã đánh thuốc chó bảo vệ và
lấy đi món hàng có giá trị 10.000 đô-la.
If the source sentence begins with It is expected that ... and It
is estimated that ..., the target sentence can be expressed in an
impersonal way: Dự báo/dự kiến rằng ... and Ước tính rằng …,
respectively.
[7.9] SS: It is expected that there will be over ten million
Vietnamese traveling abroad via aviation next year.
TS: Dự báo trong năm tới sẽ có hơn mười triệu khách Việt
Nam đi du lịch nước ngoài bằng máy bay/qua đường
hàng không.
In some situations, you need to understand the action, the
actor and the reason behind the action to produce a sound translated
version. For example,
[7.10] SS: Something must be done.
This sentence requires the consideration of the context in
which the sentence be used, the person who can do ‘something’, and
the reason why it is done, etc.). These are possible target sentences:
[7.10] TS1: Chúng ta phải làm gì đó.
[7.10] TS2: Một vài biện pháp phải được thực hiện.
Similarly, [7.11] and [7.12] require special considerations:
[7.11] This system is already being introduced.
[7.12] Transport must be felt reliable, convenient and comfortable.
It is necessary to consider what system it could be, who
introduces it, to whom it is introduced, where it is introduced, etc. in
[7.11] and which context [7.12] is used, who feels reliable,
convenient and comfortable, etc.).

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7.2.2 Translating Vietnamese passive notions into English
As mentioned, Vietnamese sentences containing the word
được or bị are not necessarily passive sentences. The translation of
these sentences, therefore, needs a special consideration. The optimal
remedy is to make the English sentence active. For example,
[7.13] SS: Chúng tôi đến sân vận động sớm để được thưởng thức
không khí vui nhộn.
*TS: We arrived at the stadium early to be enjoyed the
exciting atmosphere.
The word được in this situation can be considered as a filler
or can mean ‘an opportunity to do something’. The source sentence,
in this sense, should be translated as it is an active sentence.
TS: We arrived at the stadium early to enjoy the
exciting atmosphere.
In some cases, the word được connotes a benefit as a result of
a certain activity. Therefore, translating a Vietnamese sentence
containing được should sometimes be a transfer of the meaning,
which requires a change of the main verb as in the target sentence
[7.3] discussed earlier.
Likewise, the word bị is sometimes not a passive indicator.
Vietnamese often use the word bị to describe a health condition:
[7.14] SS: Tôi bị cảm hai ngày rồi.
TS: I have had a cold for two days now.
In such situation, there is no other choice but an equivalent
expression to describe a health condition must be used. However,
when bị is used to describe an external impact, the target sentence
should correspondingly be transformed into passive voice.
[7.15] SS: Cả thành phố bị ngập lụt sau một đêm mưa lớn.
TS: The city was entirely flooded after a pouring night.

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7.3 TRANSLATING OTHER STRUCTURES WITH PASSIVE
MEANING
7.3.1 Collocations with passive meaning
In the actual use of English, the passive voice is not used if
the verb is in the present continuous, past perfect continuous, future
continuous or future perfect continuous. Instead, a phrase with
passive meaning is used.
[7.16] SS: Khu nhà đã và đang được xây dựng suốt bốn năm qua.
*TS: The block of flats has been being built for four years.
TS: The block of flats has been under construction for four
years.
In a similar vein, collocations on the left-hand column will be
used instead of those in the right-hand column:
(be/have been) in training (be/have been) being trained
VIE: đang được huấn luyện/đào tạo
(be/have been) in use (be/have been) being used
VIE: đang được dùng
(be/have been) in development (be/have been) being developed
VIE: đang được phát triển
(be/have been) under attack (be/have been) being attacked
VIE: bị tấn công
(be/have been) under the influence (be/have been) being
of influenced by
VIE: chịu ảnh hưởng của
(be/have been) under discussion (be/have been) being discussed
VIE: đang (được) thảo luận
(be/have been) under observation (be/have been) being observed
VIE: đang bị giám sát

103
7.3.2 Verb patterns with passive meaning
In English, there are two verb patterns with -ING form used
with a passive meaning. One is the use of need + -ING form
mentioned in the discussion of expressions of necessity in chapter 5
(Section 5.2.2), with the Vietnamese equivalent as cần được (làm
gì). Another is want + -ING form. This verb pattern expresses that
something is very necessary and should be done and the Vietnamese
equivalent should be cần/nên được (làm gì). Note that bị should not
be used because the action brings about a positive effect.
7.3.3 Adjectival passive
In English, it is common to have two constructions as follows:
[7.17] SS: I was surprised by the noise.
[7.18] SS: I was surprised at the noise.
Although the same verb is used, the two sentences differ in
terms of the characteristics of the past participle. The participle in
[7.17] behaves like a verb, while the participle in [7.18] is treated as
an adjective, and thus known as adjectival passive.
The adjectival passive describes a characteristic and it does
not necessarily correspond to its active counterpart. If [7.17] is
changed into a sentence in active voice, the sentence should be ‘The
noised surprised me’. Therefore, the Vietnamese translation of this
sentence is like other verbal passive sentences, being rendered as bị
(cái gì) làm cho … or replaced by a translated sentence in active
voice.
[7.17] TS(a): Tôi bị tiếng ồn làm cho kinh ngạc.
TS(b): Tiếng ồn khiến tôi kinh ngạc.
The example [7.18], on the other hand, cannot be changed into
active voice because the agent that causes the surprise may not be
the noise. Consider [7.18] in a longer discourse: I was surprised at
the noise. Before coming here, I thought this was a peaceful
neighborhood. Obviously, the agent causing the surprise was the
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reality that went against the speaker’s expectation. For the
construction of adjectival passive, the Vietnamese translation of the
participle takes place as with a normal adjective, typically, thấy…
vì/về ….
[7.18] TS: Tôi thấy ngạc nhiên vì/về tiếng ồn.
Adjectival passive is present in a construction that contains a
past participial adjective, which means an adjective that derives from
and get its meaning from a past participle form of a verb.
7.4 PRACTICE EXERCISES
7.4.1 English-Vietnamese translation
Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences into Vietnamese
1. To encourage students to obtain great achievements in their
studies, many scholarships are given to them every year.
2. Students are not allowed to use a dictionary in the examination.
3. I can’t imagine how people communicated over long distances
before telephone was invented.
4. A bridge spanning the two riverbanks have been under
construction.
5. The director have new computers installed in all offices in the
company.
6. This city is said to get crowded in summer and deserted in winter.
7. One of my wisdom teeth really hurt, so I went to the dentist to
have it removed.
8. Ann spoke very quietly to avoid being heard by her mother.
9. The town have been under attack once again.
10. She had the walls knocked down and before she had her
apartment renovated.
11. The dog was very excited when it smelled the delicious food.
12. Andrea was disappointed about the decision.

105
13. I was more frightened of dogs than spiders when I was a child.
14. The manager had the report written by the assistant.
15. The company had its website redesigned.
(Adapted from assorted sources)
Exercise 2. Translate the following text into Vietnamese.
The Story of Hamburgers
The hamburger is the most eaten food in the whole world. The
first hamburgers were made and sold in Connecticut in 1895 by an
American called Louis Lassen. Louis called them hamburgers
because he was given the recipe by sailors from Hambourg in
Germany.
Hamburgers became a favourite meal in America in the early
part of the twentieth century. Their popularity grew even more after
the second world war, when they were bought in large quantities by
teenagers who preferred fast food to family meals. In 1948, a
hamburger restaurant in San Bernardino, California was opened by
two brothers Dick and Mac Donald. Since then, over 25,000
McDonald’s restaurants have been opened worldwide. Now 35
million MacDonald’s hamburgers are eaten every day in 115
countries from India to the Arctic Circle.
(Adapted from ‘To Learn English’)
7.4.2 Vietnamese-English translation
Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into English
The Vietnamese words được and bị does not always have to
be expressed in passive voice in English. Yet, some Vietnamese ways
of speaking without the words được or bị still require passive voice
expressions in English.
1. Sinh viên theo học tại khoa tiếng Anh sẽ được học với đội ngũ
giảng viên có kinh nghiệm, nhiệt tình trong môi trường năng động,
và hệ thống cơ sở vật chất hiện đại.
106
2. Ngoài các chương trình học tập chính khóa, sinh viên được tham
gia vào các hoạt động ngoại khóa, các câu lạc bộ để rèn luyện các kỹ
năng mềm và tạo kết nối xã hội.
3. Tổng điều tra dân số và nhà ở năm 2019 được tiến hành vào ngày
01/4/2019 theo Quyết định số 772/QĐ-TTg ngày 26/6/2018.
4. Mặc dù tỉ lệ hút thuốc đang giảm tại nhiều nước trên thế giới, ước
tính đến năm 2025 vẫn có khoảng 18 triệu người hút thuốc tại Việt
Nam, chiếm 23% dân số cả nước.
5. Triều Tiên đang cho lắp đặt lại nhiều loa tuyên truyền cỡ lớn ở các
khu vực dọc biên giới liên Triều. Những chiếc loa này đã từng dỡ bỏ
theo thỏa thuận vào năm 2018 với Hàn Quốc.
6. Khoảng 30% người Việt Nam trưởng thành bị mất ngủ và không
thể làm tốt công việc trong ngày hôm sau.
7. Khán giả VTV sẽ được thưởng thức một chương trình nghệ thuật
đặc sắc chào mừng Tết Độc lập của đất nước.
8. Khi bạn tham gia các hoạt động tình nguyện bạn sẽ được gặp gỡ
với nhiều bạn đồng trang lứa hoặc các anh chị lớn hơn để học hỏi
kinh nghiệm trong học tập và cuộc sống.
9. Chính quyền thành phố vừa cho nâng cấp hệ thống thoát nước để
chống ngập lụt vào mùa mưa.
10. Người ta cho rằng có quá nhiều trở ngại đối với tiến trình hòa
bình tại Trung Đông.
11. Cô ấy muốn được mời đến dự tiệc.
12. Tôi mong đợi sẽ được bất ngờ vào ngày sinh nhật của mình.
13. Khi chúng tôi đến, anh ấy đang cho sơn lại ngôi nhà.
14. Dự án đó vẫn đang được phát triển. Người ta mong đợi một phiên
bản hoàn chỉnh của dự án sẽ được đệ trình cuối năm sau.
15. Máy photocopy này đã và đang được dùng hơn 10 năm nay.
(Adapted from assorted sources)

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Exercise 4. Translate the following text into English.
Những ngôi nhà kiểu Pháp ở Đà Lạt
Ở Đà Lạt có rất nhiều ngôi nhà to và đẹp. Những ngôi nhà này
thường được xây dựng theo phong cách Gothic dưới thời Pháp thuộc.
Hồi ấy, những ngôi nhà này do các gia đình giàu có hoặc các gia đình
quan chức người Pháp sở hữu. Ngày nay, nhiều ngôi nhà do nhà nước
quản lý và được dùng làm trụ sở các cơ quan chính quyền. Một số
ngôi nhà được giữ gìn trong điều kiện tốt nhưng một số khác đã bị
hư hại nặng. Một số ngôi nhà trở thành điểm đến du lịch và du khách
được phép vào bên tham quan bên trong. Việc khám phá cuộc sống
quá khứ thông qua cách bài trí của ngôi nhà cũng rất thú vị.
(Adapted from assorted sources)

108
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