TOPIC 1: COMMUNICATING INTERPERSONALLY  Active listening occurs when we engage the speaker to find out

more.
Interpersonal communication occurs between two or more people
in a personal or professional relationship. 6 different feedback styles
1. A judgmental style of feedback means a listener makes a
Self-disclosure is the act of giving your personal information to judgment about both the content and the speaker.
another person. You need to disclose information about yourself in 2. Questioning is another feedback style. The listener asks
order for others to get to know you. probing questions of the speaker that are not necessarily
supportive questions.
Monitoring Self-Disclosure. One way to gauge the appropriateness 3. Directive style means a listener tells the speaker what to do.
of self-disclosure is by interpreting the nonverbal behavior of the 4. Empathetic style of feedback means a listener gives the
conversation partner. speaker an emotional form of support.
5. The interpreting style of feedback means a listener tries to
Conversation is an extemporaneous interpersonal exchange. offer another explanation of what happened.
Some communicators are better at participating in conversations 6. Active style of feedback means a listener offers supportive
than others. questions and makes it clear that he is willing to listen.

spewers—people who talk nonstop about everything they are doing Implications of Styles
but never have any interest in letting you into the conversation. This Communication misunderstandings occur when people don’t get the
is not conversation; it is a monologue. feedback style they are expecting.

Effective communicators know there are three stages in the Communicating with Technology
conversational process: the opening, the body, and the To be effective in interpersonal communication, we must now be
closing.The opening lets the other person know you would like to adept at technical communication.
talk.  Voice Mail
 E-mail Addresses
1. Conversational setup—the introductory remarks to the  Social Networking, Blogs and Tweets
conversation that give the other person a sense of what is coming  Frustrations
next.
2. The second stage, the body, is the longest section of a TOPIC 2: RELATIONSHIP STAGES AND CONFLICT
conversation.This is where you exchange information, share stories, RESOLUTION
tell jokes, or try to persuade.
3. The third stage is the closing. In U.S. culture, we expect Stages of Relationships
conversations to have an informal or formal ending. This brief There are many models for relationship stages, but we think Mark
statement allows the communicators to agree the conversation is Knapp and Anita Vangelisti (2009) provide the most meaningful
coming to a close. one for college students:
1. Contact stage - This is where you meet someone for the first
Conversational Tips. time. You usually decide right away whether a person meets your
 Remember to be polite. criteria for someone you would want to get to know better.
 Be concise. 2. Involvement - In this stage, we continue to get to know another
 Do not waste another person’s time. person. We may start to see or contact him or her on a regular basis.
 Keep the conversation focused 3. Intimacy - This can be either romantic intimacy or friendship
intimacy. People commit to each other in different ways depending
The Johari Window on their circumstances.
 Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham developed the Johari Window in 4. Deterioration - most people try not to enter this stage if they truly
the 1950s care about the other person. However, it takes two people to sustain
 The symbolic representation of that knowledge consists of four a relationship, and if one gives up, it is next to impossible to save the
areas: information known to others, unknown to others, known relationship even if the other partner wants to save it.
to self, and unknown to self. 5. Repair or Dissolution - Following stage four, there are two
options: repair or dissolution. If you choose to move to the repair
1. The open area refers to what we know about ourselves and stage, then you have intrapersonal
what other people know about us. or interpersonal repair options.
2. The blind area refers to qualities or characteristics about
yourself that others are aware of but that you are not. I” messages are designed to enable communicators to embrace
3. The hidden area refers to information you know about yourself their responsibility in the exchange and to state their personal needs
but choose not to share with others. clearly in a non accusatory manner rather than to accuse someone
4. Finally, the unknown area refers to information neither you nor else of
anyone else knows about you. wrongdoing.

Listening Conflict and Conflict-Resolution Styles

Most of us have the ability to hear from birth, but listening is an - Conflict occurs any time there is a disagreement between two or
acquired skill. Hearing is a passive action. It is simply the process of more people. While many people think conflict is undesirable, it is
sound hitting your eardrums and then being decoded for a possible actually essential to any growing relationship. What is important is
response. how you resolve the conflict that occurs.

3 basic goals of listening In their classic work on conflict-resolution styles, Ralph

 We perform informational listening when we need directions, Kilmann and Kenneth Thomas (1977) identify five different
new information, insight, etc. styles
 Critical listening is analytical listening. In this instance I’m 1. Competing Style - When it is important to “win” the conflict at all
comparing what I hear to other things that I know to be true. costs, the competing
style is appropriate. Bullying occurs when a person
must be right no matter what, and they railroad you into doing or 5. Choose a topic that interests you.
believing as they do.
2. Avoiding Style- When people walk away from conflict, they are 2. Narrow the topic - The next step is to narrow the topic. Beginning
using an avoiding style. When a heated argument begins, some speakers often make the mistake of using a topic that is much too
people’s reaction is to broad, such as the symptoms, causes, and cures of depression.
leave; they physically remove themselves from the situation.
3. Find the key organizing feature - The next step in the speech
There are two subsets of avoidance. design process is to find a key. The key is the organizing feature that
Someone might withdraw from a conflict for one of two reasons: (1) describes the similarity among your main points. Examples of a key
He or she has no opinion on the topic or no vital interest in the are: steps, aspects, characteristics, parts,areas, or reasons.
outcome; there e is no reason to
(2) The person is truly afraid of conflict. 4. Write the specific goal statement - Instructors will call this a
The second subset of avoidance is delaying. purpose statement, a specific purpose statement, or a specific goal
Delaying happens when someone is too upset to continue with the statement. The specific goal statement is for design purposes only.
conflict at that moment.
5. Write the thesis statement - The next step of the design process is
3. Accommodating Style- When people give in to someone else to to write the thesis statement. Some instructors call this the central
promote harmony in the relationship, they are using an idea.
accommodating style.
4. Compromising Style- When both people give in slightly, they are 7. Analyze the audience - Since speaking is a receiver-oriented
using a compromising style. phenomenon, adapting your speech to the audience is essential.
5. Collaborating Style - When people work through the problem- There are numerous choices to make as you design your speech:
solving process to come to the best solution for each of them, they structure, language, the performance space, and time of day just to
are engaging in a collaborating style. name a few. The two main considerations in audience analysis are
types of characteristics of the people and the characteristics of the
6 step collaboration process: situation.
1. Define the problem.In this step each party needs to identify that
there is indeed a problem requiring attention.
2. Explore the facts. Each party identifies their needs. Even more Creating Stage
importantly, they must listen carefully to learn the needs of the other 1. Research
party. 2. Organize
3. Brainstorm for possible solutions. In this phase, people 3. Outline
generate a list of solutions off the top of their heads—as many as 4. Select delivery style, visual aids, and practice
possible without stopping to analyze.
4. Set criteria to determine the best solution. Generating a list of Characteristics of People
what satisfies each person helps to determine the best solution. Demographic analysis is an analytical look at the age, sex,
5. Evaluate and select a solution. Here each solution is evaluated socioeconomic status, educational level, and professional
against the list of criteria to determine which solution might work experience of the audience.
best.
6. Finally, test the solution to see whether it will work. Put the Some of the following questions could provide useful insight about
solution into action and see if it is effective. audience characteristics:
1. How familiar is the audience with the topic?
TOPIC 3: INITIAL SPEECH PREPARATION 2. How interested is the audience in the topic?
The Speech Design Process 3. Why is the audience there?
-I nitially, you need to get into the proper frame of mind. One of the 4. How much experience does the audience have with the
authors once heard someone say, “It is important to say ‘I have a topic?
speech to give,’ not ‘I have to give a speech.
Characteristics of the Physical Setting
Speech Design Process Good speakers should always be familiar with the physical setting
Planning Stage of the speaking situation. The arrangement of a room is important.
1. Select a general purpose - A general purpose is the overall goal
of your speech. There are three main purposes for public speaking: TOPIC 4: CONSTRUCTING THE SPEECH
to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.
Step 8: Research
2. Select a topic - The next part of the design process is to select a Once you determine the design elements of the speech, it is time to
topic. This is generally the hardest part of the public speaking do your research. The first thing that you want to do is look at your
endeavor. What should you talk about? The first thing to do is begin key and your thesis.
brainstorming: write down as many ideas as you can think of
without evaluating them. Brainstorming is a nonjudgmental,creative Places to Find Research
process where thoughts are not necessarily regulated by logic. There are three places to begin research. You can look on the
Internet, use library research, or conduct interviews. It is
As you try to decide which topics would be acceptable for your important to find the most up-to-date sources as you select
audience, there are a number of criteria you should consider: information that will support
1. Choose a topic that accomplishes your general purpose your presentation.
(inform,persuade, or entertain).  The Internet
2. Choose a topic that fits within the time limit. Most students go immediately to the Internet.
3. Choose a topic that is appropriate for the audience.  Library Research
4. Choose a topic the audience does not know much about (if Traditional research tools include hard copies of books, periodicals,
the speech is to be informative) or a topic the audience does magazines, journals, and newspapers.
not agree with or needs to have reinforced (if the speech is to  Interviews
be persuasive). You can also gather information by making a connection with
members of your community. When you organize your main points and subpoints in an outline
format, you are building the structure of your speech.
In preparing for an interview, it is important to:
 Schedule the interview well in advance. The purpose of outlining is to make sure your thoughts are
 Know the background of the person you are interviewing to sequential and thoroughly developed.
make sure he or she has the expertise you need.
 Know what part of the speech you want to reinforce with You use a title to capture attention since it is read by the emcee
quotations from your source, so the interview is focused and before you stand up to give your presentation.
you don’t waste the interviewee’s time.
 Plan your questions carefully in advance. This is not a  INTRODUCTION
brainstorming session; do not ask questions you have not The introduction of any informative speech has four parts: gaining
prepared. attention, making a connection, stating credibility, and stating the
 Make sure to be on time. preview.
The attention getter is the first statement you make. There are a
Types of Supporting Material number of attention gaining devices:
Supporting material is the information you use to convey a point. 1. Painting a picture. When you paint an image with words,
Once you find your sources of information, you pull supporting you engage the audience.
material from them that will assist you in explaining your topic to the 2. Quotations. You can use literary quotations, historical
audience. quotations,or contemporary quotations.
3. Rhetorical questions. This is a question where you are not
 Supporting material can include expert opinion, facts, statistics, expecting any response from the audience.
definitions, and examples that describe, illustrate, or explain. 4. Actual questions. You can also ask an actual question to
 Expert opinion can come from a local source or get your audience’s attention.
quotations in national publications. Expert opinion helps 5. Startling or striking statements. You must do this
boost your credibility. responsibly. Would it get your attention to hear the statement,
 Facts include information known to be true, such as “Americans are lazy and uncompetitive”? This might be a great
dates, names,titles, and numbers. attention getter for a speech that compares the work schedule
 Statistics are a descriptive use of numbers and a good of Americans and Europeans.
way to make numbers have meaning to a listener. 6. Personal references. If you have a unique or strong connection
with your topic, a personal reference can be useful as an attention
When using statistics, you must: getter,especially if your audience knows or likes you.
 cite the source; 7. Audio or visual aid. Sometimes an audio or visual aid can be
 indicate the date the statistic was developed; and useful as an attention getter.
 include the sample size if research was involved 8. Humor. We urge caution with the use of humor. You should only
use it if it is relevant to the topic.
Definitions are an explanation of a word, phrase, or concept.
Definitions are important if the audience doesn’t know the  CONNECTION STEP
specialized vocabulary used in the speech. Have you ever found yourself listening to a speaker and saying to
yourself, “So what? What does this have to do with me?” That
Analogies are comparisons. They show how one thing is similar to speaker forgot the second part of the introduction, which is the
another thing. When we learn new information, we often try to connection step. In this section of the speech, you must connect
compare that information to something that we already know. with the audience to let them know why the topic is relevant to them.

Examples are phrases or stories used to describe, illustrate, or  CREDIBILITY

explain a concept. They can be real or hypothetical. You should use Once you have the audience’s attention, and you’ve convinced them
an example any time you make a statement that may need the information is important to them, you begin to present information
clarification. that allows the audience to assess your credibility. Credibility is
the believability factor of a speaker.
Step 9: Organizing
One of the biggest mistakes public speakers make is to use a “slapit-  PREVIEW
together” organizational structure. The final step of the introduction is the preview. This is the
navigational tool for the speech. When you read something, if you
We will cover five organizational patterns for informative become lost or confused, you can go back and reread the
speeches. paragraph.
1. Time - A time structure highlights steps in a process or a
sequence of events.  TRANSITION
2. Space - A space structure emphasizes parts and how they fit Transitions are bridging statements that tie the organizational
together to form a whole. elements of your speech together. You need transitions between the
3. Topical/Classification - The topical/classification structure is introduction and the body of the speech, between each main point,
used most frequently. This structure highlights keys such as the and between the body and the conclusion.
three types, aspects, characteristics, parts, or reasons.
4. Comparison - A comparison structure demonstrates the  BODY
similarities between two things. In the body section of the outline, list your main points and all your
5. Contrast - A contrast structure highlights the differences between supporting material. We recommend a keyword outline a list of the
two items. words and phrases you need to remember to remain organized.

Step 10: Outlining  CONCLUSION

Many students grimace when their instructor requires an outline. There are three parts to an effective conclusion: review,
Their attitude could change if they understood why outlines are restatement of connection, and a concluding statement. The
useful.Think of an outline as a planning phase. conclusion, like the introduction, is a short segment of your speech.
 The review is the same as the preview. This is your chance to tools, running shoes, horse gear, a newspaper, a hundred-
remind the audience what your three main points were. dollar bill, clothing, craft items, or sports equipment can attract
 The second step of the conclusion is to restate the attention.
connection.Remind the audience why this information is  Media Clips. If you use a media clip to reinforce a speaking
important or relevant to them. It reemphasizes why the point, keep it short. Generally, you need to limit media clips to
audience just spent their time listening to you. about 10–20 seconds depending on the length of the speech.
 A concluding statement is the last part of an effective  Visual technology refers to electronic equipment used to
conclusion. Unfortunately, many speakers do not plan their enhance a presentation, such as a PowerPoint presentation,
concluding statement,so they end up saying something like laser pointers, a website, YouTube, and DVD players.
“that’s it.” This does not leave the audience with a favorable
impression. A weak concluding statement destroys your Practice
credibility. It is essential that you practice out loud with a stopwatch. We do not
recommend practicing in front of a mirror or with a tape recorder.The
 Bibliography most important aspect of practice is to hear yourself say the words.
At the end of your outline, you should always include a bibliography.
We talked about keeping track of your sources in the section on Communication apprehension. Fear of public speaking is perfectly
research. normal. Most people, including ourselves, get butterflies in the
stomach or slight nausea or heart palpitations.

TOPIC 6: UNDERSTANDING THE PRINCIPLES OF PERSUASION

TOPIC 5: PRESENTINGTHE SPEECH
Step 11: Delivery Style, Visual Aids, and Practicing Persuasion is a process that involves a communicator who tries to
influence the attitudes, beliefs, values, or actions of another
Delivery individual through message design and delivery, both formally and
There are four delivery styles: informally.
1. Impromptu: speaking with no preparation at all
2. Manuscript: reading from a written paper This is basically the difference between indirect persuasion and
3. Memorized: written out and committed to memory direct persuasion. With indirect persuasion, you can be persuaded
4. Extemporaneous: using key words and phrases to promote a by facts.
conversational style.
Informing versus Persuading
Articulation, Pronunciation, and Grammar The goal of informative speaking is to get the audience to
remember specific, factual information. With persuasive speaking,
 Articulation is the proper formation and release of the sounds however, you add the personal element of drawing conclusions
that make up a spoken language. Using “proper” speech about the factual information you are sharing in order to get the
should be the goal of all speakers. audience to believe something or do something.
 Proper articulation relates to proper pronunciation as well.
Pronunciation is the accepted sound of a word according to Perceived Choice
the dictionary. There is a fundamental distinction between persuasion and coercion.
 Grammar is the set of rules that determine the correct use of a Persuasion, as defined above, is influence with a perceived choice,
specific language. Usually people think about grammatical whereas coercion is perceived force. Many people argue that we
errors when they write, but grammar also applies to oral have choices in every situation, and we agree.
communication.
 Rate refers to the speed at which you deliver a sequence of Contexts of Persuasion
words.You do not want to speak too quickly or too slowly, 4 separate contexts:
because either one makes it difficult for the audience to pay 1. Intrapersonal - Intrapersonal persuasion is the psychological
attention. analysis/discussion going on in your mind on a daily basis.
 Projection is important so that everyone in the room can hear 2. Interpersonal - Everyone uses interpersonal persuasion daily.
you comfortably. Audiences lose interest immediately if they You can be a persuasive sender of a message or the receiver
cannot hear you. of a persuasive message. In either case, it is helpful to
 Vocalized pauses are a repeated audible habit used by some recognize what you are asking someone else to do or what
speakers. They occur when you fill a natural pause with an they are asking you to do as the persuasion persists.
“um,” “uh,” “like,” or “you know” rather than a preferable, 3. Mass interpersonal - The phenomenon of mass interpersonal
thoughtful silence. persuasion “brings together the power of interpersonal
 Inflection is important in vocal delivery. Inflection refers to your persuasion with the reach of mass media . . . this new way to
vocal pitch going higher or lower. Most people can do this change attitudes and behavior is the mostsignificant advance
naturally to some extent. in persuasion since radio was invented in the 1890s” (Fogg,
 Visuals are an important part of good presentational speaking. p.B. J. Fogg lists six components of mass interpersonal
Use a visual aid whenever you wish to clarify a concept or persuasion:
enhance the understanding of audience members. 1) Persuasive Experience: An experience that is created
PowerPoints, DVDs, and streaming video are some of the to change attitudes, behaviors, or both.
many choices available to help engage listeners. 2) Automated Structure: Digital technology structures the
persuasive experience.
TRADITIONAL VISUALS 3) Social Distribution: The persuasive experience is
Poster boards, transparencies, or drawings on easels or chalkboards shared from one friend to another.
are now outdated and should not be used, perhaps because they 4) Rapid Cycle: The persuasive experience can be
appear far less professional than images prepared using computer distributed quickly from one person to another.
technology. Only a few traditional visuals are still used today, such 5) Huge Social Graph: The persuasive experience can
as objects and media clips. potentially reach millions of people connected through social
ties or structured interactions.
 Objects. Items such as sculptures, musical instruments, shop 6) Measured Impact: The effect of the persuasive
 experience is observable by users and creators.

4. Mass Persuasion - Mass persuasion involves messages

designed to reach thousands or millions of people. These
messages are usually developed by political groups,
governments, businesses, or religious groups.

Mass media persuasion takes

three primary overt forms: commercial advertising (of consumer
products and services), pro-social advertising [charities, advancing
health care goals] and political advertising ” (O’Keefe, n.d.). The
designed messages are usually visual, aural, or a combination of
both.

Types of Persuasive Messages

There are three types of persuasive messages.
1. A message to convince targets the audience’s attitudes,
beliefs, and values. With this message, your goal is change. In
a speech to convince, your audience disagrees with you or is
neutral about your topic.
2. A message to reinforce also targets the audience’s
attitudes, beliefs,values, and actions. What makes this speech
different is that the audience already agrees with you or is
performing the action.
3. their motivation to continue doing the action. A message to
actuate is for people who are not doing an action you want
them to do. A speech to actuate is best for listeners who are
not hostile to your topic.

TOPIC 7: Constructing the Persuasive Presentation

Reasonable Goals
Your best approach to a persuasive message is to have reasonable
goals. Think for a moment about things that you have a strong
opinion about: abortion, euthanasia, gun control, or capital
punishment.

To keep your goals reasonable for a persuasive speaking

assignment, follow these guidelines:

1. Choose a topic that is not a national debate.

2. Choose a topic that is not a national campaign.
3. . Choose a topic to which you have a personal connection.
4. Choose a topic that is easy for the audience to comprehend
and to do.
5. Choose a topic most people don’t do because they don’t
know about it.
6. Choose a topic that can be phrased as a positive.