Unit 5 Science Behind the Climate Change - 2

Session 1 Ocean changes

Dr Cheela Venkata Ravi Sankar, Associate Professor

Department of Civil Engineering, MVGR College of Engineering (Autonomous)

Ocean Circulation: The Engine of Climate Regulation
Understanding Thermohaline Circulation and Its Climate Implications
 Introduction to Ocean Circulation
• Ocean circulation refers to the large-scale movement of water masses
within the oceans, driven by a combination of wind, Earth's rotation
(Coriolis effect), and differences in water density (thermohaline
circulation).
• Components of Ocean Circulation:
• Surface Currents: Driven primarily by wind (e.g., Kuroshio Current).
• Deep Currents: Driven by density differences caused by variations in temperature
and salinity (thermohaline circulation).
 The Thermohaline Circulation (THC)
• Definition: Also known as the "global conveyor belt," THC describes the
ocean currents driven by differences in water density.
• Mechanism:
• Formation of Dense Water: At polar regions, cold temperatures and high salinity
increase water density, causing it to sink.
• Flow of Deep Water: Dense water flows along the ocean floor toward the equator.
• Upwelling and Mixing: Deep water eventually rises and warms, completing the cycle.
• Key Regions:
• North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) formation near Greenland.
• Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) formation in the Southern Ocean.
• Key Science Concepts:
• Density Drivers: Temperature (thermal) and salinity (haline) control water density.
• Residence Time: Water can remain in deep circulation for centuries, storing heat and
carbon.
A summary of the path of the thermohaline circulation. Blue paths represent
deep-water currents, while red paths represent surface currents.
Major surface and deep-water circulation components of the ocean
 Role of Ocean Circulation in Climate Regulation
• Heat Redistribution:
• Ocean currents transfer heat from equatorial regions to polar regions, regulating
global temperature gradients.
• Example: The Gulf Stream warms Western Europe, moderating its climate.
• Carbon Sequestration:
• Oceans absorb ~25% of anthropogenic CO₂, storing it in deep water through the
biological and solubility pumps.
• Moisture Transport:
• Currents influence precipitation patterns by transporting moisture-laden air to coastal
regions.
Global ocean circulation
 Impacts of Climate Change on Ocean Circulation
• Weakened Thermohaline Circulation:
• Melting ice caps reduce salinity, weakening NADW formation and slowing the
conveyor belt.
• Example: Observed weakening of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation
(AMOC).
• Disruption of Surface Currents:
• Intensified winds alter circular current systems and disrupt nutrient transport.
• Feedback Loops:
• Slower circulation reduces CO₂ absorption, amplifying atmospheric warming.
• Changes in circulation alter weather patterns, increasing frequency of extreme
events.
 Consequences for Global Climate
• Extreme Weather Patterns:
• Slowed heat transport intensifies hurricanes and cyclones in tropical regions.
• Altered jet streams lead to prolonged droughts and floods.
• Polar Amplification:
• Reduced heat transport to poles accelerates Arctic warming and ice melt.
• Impact on Marine Ecosystems:
• Nutrient cycling is disrupted, affecting fisheries and biodiversity hotspots.
• Example: Decline in productivity in the Indian Ocean due to weakened upwelling.
 Mitigation and Monitoring
• Mitigation Strategies:
• Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Limiting warming to preserve natural circulation
patterns.
• Protecting Polar Ice Caps: Reducing global warming slows ice melt, maintaining density
gradients.
• Monitoring Ocean Circulation:
• Use of ARGO floats and satellites to track temperature, salinity, and current speeds.
• Example: RAPID monitoring array in the Atlantic tracking AMOC variations.
 Rising Sea Temperatures:
A Catalyst for Oceanic and Ecosystem Change
Unveiling the Impacts on Marine Biodiversity and Global Climate
 Introduction to Rising Sea Temperatures
• Definition: Rising sea temperatures refer to the gradual increase in the average
temperature of the world’s oceans due to global warming and increased greenhouse gas
concentrations.
• Current Trends:
• Global ocean temperature has increased by ~0.13°C per decade since 1971.
• Surface ocean temperatures have warmed faster due to direct heat absorption.
• Causes:
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O trap heat in the atmosphere, increasing ocean heat
uptake.
• Reduced Albedo Effect: Melting polar ice reduces Earth's reflectivity, causing oceans to absorb more
solar radiation.
• Key Science Concepts:
• Thermal Expansion: As water heats, it expands, contributing to sea level rise.
• Heat Capacity: Oceans have a high heat capacity, absorbing 93% of excess heat from
greenhouse gas-induced warming.
 Mechanisms Behind Ocean Warming
• Greenhouse Effect:
• Trapping of heat in the atmosphere increases heat transfer to ocean surfaces.
• Positive feedback loops (e.g., increased water vapor amplifies warming).
• Heat Distribution:
• Ocean currents redistribute heat from the equator to poles.
• Surface waters heat faster than deeper layers, causing thermal stratification.
• Anthropogenic Drivers:
• Fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, and industrial activities increase atmospheric CO₂
concentrations.
• Key Science Concepts:
• Ocean Heat Content (OHC): A measure of heat stored in the ocean, crucial for
understanding long-term climate change.
• Ocean Stratification: Warmer, less dense water forms a layer above cooler, denser water,
reducing vertical mixing.
 Ecological Impacts of Rising Sea Temperatures
• Coral Bleaching:
• Corals expel symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) when stressed by high temperatures, leading to
bleaching and death.
• Example: 2016 Great Barrier Reef mass bleaching event.
• Marine Species Migration:
• Species shift toward poles or deeper waters to escape rising temperatures.
• Example: Decline in tropical fish populations in warming regions.
• Loss of Biodiversity:
• Sensitive species, such as Arctic marine organisms, face extinction risks due to habitat loss.
• Key Science Concepts:
• Thermal Tolerance: Each species has a temperature range within which it can survive and
reproduce.
• Keystone Species: Species like corals support entire ecosystems; their loss disrupts ecological
balance.
 Climate System Feedbacks
• Ice-Albedo Feedback:
• Melting ice exposes darker ocean surfaces, increasing heat absorption and
accelerating warming.
• Methane Release:
• Warmer oceans destabilize methane hydrates in seabeds, releasing CH₄, a potent
greenhouse gas.
• Weakened Thermohaline Circulation:
• Warming reduces density contrasts, slowing global conveyor belt currents like the
Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC).
• Key Science Concepts:
• Positive Feedback Loops: Processes that amplify initial warming, leading to
accelerated changes.
• Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction: Warmer oceans transfer heat to the atmosphere,
intensifying extreme weather events.
 Socioeconomic and Human Impacts
• Sea Level Rise:
• Warmer oceans expand (thermal expansion) and contribute to melting glaciers.
• Coastal cities like Jakarta and Miami face increased flooding risks.
• Fisheries and Livelihoods:
• Fish stocks decline in warming regions, threatening food security for millions.
• Example: Decline in cod fisheries in the North Atlantic.
• Extreme Weather:
• Warmer oceans fuel stronger storms and hurricanes, increasing damage to
infrastructure.
• Key Science Concepts:
• Thermal Expansion and Sea Level: Heat causes seawater molecules to occupy more
space.
• Storm Intensity: Higher ocean temperatures increase evaporation, fueling intense
cyclones.
 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies
• Reducing Emissions:
• Transition to renewable energy to decrease greenhouse gas emissions.
• Global agreements like the Paris Accord aim to limit temperature rise.
• Marine Protected Areas (MPAs):
• Safeguard vulnerable ecosystems to build resilience against warming.
• Geoengineering:
• Techniques like ocean fertilization or solar radiation management to reduce ocean warming.
• Key Science Concepts:
• Carbon Sequestration: Natural processes (e.g., mangroves, seagrass meadows) absorb CO₂
and mitigate warming.
• Climate Resilience: Strengthening ecosystems and infrastructure to withstand the effects of
warming.
• Visual Aid:
• Diagram showing interconnected mitigation strategies like renewable energy,
carbon capture, and ecosystem restoration.
Ocean Acidification: The Hidden Threat to Marine Life
Understanding the Chemistry and Consequences of a Changing Ocean pH
 Introduction to Ocean Acidification
• Definition: Ocean acidification refers to the ongoing decrease in ocean pH
levels due to the absorption of atmospheric CO₂. Since the Industrial
Revolution, ocean acidity has increased by approximately 30%, making it a
critical environmental concern.
• Global Significance: Oceans absorb about 25% of human-emitted CO₂
annually, acting as a vital carbon sink. However, this comes with ecological
costs that disrupt marine ecosystems and global carbon cycles.
• Key Science Concepts:
• pH Scale: The pH scale measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, with lower
values being more acidic. Seawater is naturally slightly alkaline (average pH ~8.1), but
acidification is reducing this value.
• Global Data: Over the past 200 years, the average ocean pH has dropped by ~0.1
units. Projections indicate a further decrease of 0.3–0.4 units by 2100 if CO₂ emissions
continue unchecked.
 Causes of Ocean Acidification
• Burning Fossil Fuels:
• Fossil fuel combustion (coal, oil, natural gas) emits vast quantities of CO₂. Around 9 gigatons
of CO₂ are released annually, with oceans absorbing ~2.3 gigatons.
• Deforestation:
• Reduced vegetation limits CO₂ uptake, increasing atmospheric concentrations.
• Agriculture:
• Methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions amplify greenhouse effects, indirectly
contributing to CO₂-driven acidification.
• Industrial Emissions:
• Cement production and industrial processes release CO₂, exacerbating the issue.
• Science Concepts:
• Atmospheric-Oceanic Equilibrium: CO₂ naturally exchanges between the atmosphere and
oceans. Increased atmospheric CO₂ shifts this equilibrium, causing higher absorption rates by
oceans.
 Chemical Reactions Involved
• Dissolution of CO₂:
• CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ (carbonic acid)
• Dissociation of Carbonic Acid:
• H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ions)
• Further Dissociation:
• HCO₃⁻ ⇌ H⁺ + CO₃²⁻ (carbonate ions)
• The increased H⁺ concentration causes ocean acidification by lowering pH and
reducing carbonate ion availability, which is critical for marine calcifiers.
• Key Science Concepts:
• Buffering Capacity: Oceans naturally buffer changes in pH, but excessive CO₂
overwhelms this system.
• Impact on Carbonate Saturation State: Reduced CO₃²⁻ impairs the formation of
calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), essential for corals, shellfish, and some plankton.
 Impacts on Marine Organisms
• Coral Reefs:
• Decline in calcification rates, leading to weaker coral skeletons and increased susceptibility to
erosion.
• Example: Great Barrier Reef has shown a ~14% decline in coral cover due to acidification.
• Shellfish:
• Difficulty in forming shells affects oysters, clams, and mussels. Some populations are
collapsing in acidified regions.
• Plankton:
• Reduced growth of planktonic calcifiers, disrupting the base of the marine food web.
• Science Concepts:
• Calcification Equation:
• Ca²⁺ + CO₃²⁻ ⇌ CaCO₃ (calcium carbonate)
• Lower CO₃²⁻ concentrations shift this equilibrium, making it harder for organisms to produce CaCO₃.
• Ecosystem Ripple Effect: Impacts on calcifiers propagate up the food chain, affecting fish,
marine mammals, and human fisheries.
End of Session 1
 Unit 5 Science Behind the Climate Change - 2

Session 2 Cryosphere

Dr Cheela Venkata Ravi Sankar, Associate Professor

Department of Civil Engineering, MVGR College of Engineering (Autonomous)

 Cryosphere Dynamics: A Cornerstone of Earth’s Climate System
Understanding the Frozen Realm’s Role in Climate Regulation and Global Sustainability
 Introduction to the Cryosphere
• Definition: The cryosphere encompasses all areas where water is in solid
form, either as ice or snow, and exists across various spatial scales and
geographic locations.
• Components:
• Glaciers: Formed by the compaction and recrystallization of snow over decades; act as
long-term freshwater storage.
• Ice Sheets: Contain over 99% of the freshwater ice on Earth; thickness can exceed 3
km.
• Sea Ice: Composed of frozen ocean water, it forms seasonally in polar regions,
impacting salinity and heat exchange.
• Snow Cover: Reflects a significant amount of solar radiation and acts as an insulator
for ground ecosystems.
• Permafrost: Contains organic matter that has been frozen for thousands of years,
storing significant amounts of carbon.
• Frozen Lakes and Rivers: Seasonal freezing affects local ecosystems and hydrology.
THE CRYOSPHERE
 Physical Properties of the Cryosphere
• High Albedo Effect:
• Ice and snow have albedo values of 0.6-0.9, meaning they reflect 60-90% of
incoming solar radiation.
• Darker surfaces, such as open water or exposed land, have an albedo of 0.1-0.3,
absorbing more heat.

• Thermal Insulation:
• Sea ice insulates polar oceans, maintaining cold atmospheric conditions and
stabilizing regional climates.
• Snow cover insulates ground ecosystems, reducing wintertime heat loss from soil.

• Freshwater Storage:
• The cryosphere holds approximately 24 million km³ of ice globally, essential for
hydrological cycles.
 Role of Cryosphere in Regulating Earth’s Climate
Understanding the Frozen Realm’s Role in Climate Regulation and Global Sustainability
 Interactions with the Climate System
• Regulation of Atmospheric Temperatures:
• Ice-albedo feedback slows global warming but is sensitive to temperature increases.
• Polar cooling impacts jet streams, altering weather patterns across the globe.

• Impact on Ocean Currents:

• Melting ice introduces freshwater into oceans, reducing salinity and density.
• Disruptions in thermohaline circulation (e.g., Gulf Stream weakening) can lead to extreme
climate conditions like colder winters in Europe and intensified hurricanes in the Atlantic.

• Role in the Water Cycle:

• Glaciers and snowpack act as natural reservoirs, slowly releasing water during warmer
months.
• Seasonal meltwater supports agriculture and hydroelectric power in regions like South Asia.
 Interaction with Ocean Circulation
• Thermohaline Circulation (Global Conveyor Belt):
• Melting ice introduces freshwater into oceans, reducing salinity and density.
• Disruptions in density gradients can weaken thermohaline circulation, affecting
global heat transport.

• Example: North Atlantic:

• Melting from Greenland ice sheet contributes to reduced Atlantic Meridional
Overturning Circulation (AMOC).
• Weakening AMOC leads to colder European winters and intensified tropical storms.

• Key Insight: Cryospheric changes influence long-term climate patterns by

redistributing oceanic heat.
 Importance of the Cryosphere
• Stabilizing Earth’s Climate:
• The cryosphere reflects heat and buffers temperature fluctuations by storing large
volumes of ice.
• Acts as a global "thermostat" by balancing energy budgets.

• Support for Biodiversity:

• Polar species like polar bears and krill depend on ice for habitat and food cycles.
• Glacial ecosystems supply nutrients to downstream aquatic and terrestrial systems.

• Freshwater Reservoir:
• Glaciers provide drinking water for 1.9 billion people worldwide, especially in densely
populated regions like the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
• Loss of cryospheric stability can lead to cascading impacts on ecosystems and
human systems, such as reduced river flows and food insecurity.
 Regulation of Atmospheric Systems
• Jet Streams:
• Arctic warming reduces the temperature gradient between the poles and mid-latitudes.
• Weakened jet streams cause erratic weather patterns, such as prolonged droughts or
floods.

• Polar Vortex:
• Thawing Arctic ice destabilizes the polar vortex, leading to extreme winter events in mid-
latitudes.

• Moisture Dynamics:
• Reduced snow cover alters evaporation and precipitation patterns globally.

• Case Example: Persistent heatwaves in Europe have been linked to a weakened

polar jet stream due to Arctic ice loss.
 Role in the Carbon Cycle
• Permafrost and Carbon Release:
• Permafrost stores ~1,500 gigatons of organic carbon, double the atmospheric amount.
• Thawing releases CO₂ and CH₄, enhancing greenhouse effects.

• Cryospheric Influence on Vegetation:

• Melting glaciers and ice provide water to ecosystems, supporting carbon sequestration.
• Loss of ice alters ecosystem dynamics, potentially reducing carbon sinks.

• Feedback Loops:
• Cryospheric melting contributes to warming, which further accelerates
greenhouse gas emissions.

• Key Insight: The cryosphere serves as a climate regulator by mitigating rapid

CO₂ and CH₄ emissions.
 Summary and Global Implications
• Cryosphere's Key Roles
• Reflecting solar energy and regulating Earth's energy budget.
• Driving oceanic and atmospheric circulation patterns.
• Acting as a buffer in the carbon cycle by sequestering greenhouse gases.

• Global Implications
• Cryosphere loss leads to sea-level rise, altered climate patterns, and increased
extreme weather events.
• Weakening of Earth’s natural climate stabilizers has profound ecological and
socio-economic consequences.
Melting Ice, Rising Seas: The Cryosphere’s Impact
on Global Sea Levels

Understanding the Science Behind Glacial Retreat and Its Global Implications
 Current Threats to the Cryosphere
• Melting Ice and Snow:
• Arctic sea ice has decreased significantly in extent and thickness over the last three
decades.
• Greenland's ice sheet is losing ~280 billion tons of ice annually, contributing to sea-level
rise.
• Permafrost Thawing:
• Estimated to release up to 120 gigatons of carbon dioxide and methane by 2100, amplifying
global warming.
• Reduced Snow Cover:
• Earlier melting impacts downstream hydrology, leading to water scarcity in arid regions.
• Positive Feedback Mechanisms:
• Increased melting → reduced albedo → amplified warming → accelerated permafrost thaw.
• A 1.5°C rise in global temperatures could result in the near-complete loss of
Arctic summer sea ice by the mid-21st century.
 Introduction to Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Sea Levels
• Glaciers and Ice Sheets:
• Glaciers are large ice masses that flow slowly under their weight, found in
mountainous regions.
• Ice sheets are continental-sized ice covers, like those in Greenland and Antarctica.

• Sea Level Dynamics:

• Global sea levels are influenced by the cryosphere through ice melt, thermal
expansion of seawater, and regional factors like subsidence and uplift.

• Cryospheric Contribution:
• The cryosphere holds ~70% of Earth’s freshwater, primarily in ice form. If fully
melted, it could raise sea levels significantly (e.g., Greenland: ~7.4 meters;
Antarctica: ~58 meters).
 Mechanisms of Ice Melting and Sea-Level Rise
• Melting Glaciers:
• Glaciers melt due to warming air temperatures and increased heat absorption from
reduced albedo.
• Calving events (chunks of ice breaking into the ocean) also contribute.

• Ice Sheet Dynamics:

• Ice sheet melting occurs at the surface and basal levels (due to geothermal and oceanic
heat).
• Marine ice sheet instability can accelerate melting by allowing warmer ocean water to
penetrate beneath the ice.

• Thermal Expansion:
• Melting increases water volume, and warmer oceans expand further due to reduced
density.

• Key Insight: Ice mass loss is the largest single contributor to sea-level rise in the
21st century.
 Current Trends and Global Sea-Level Changes
• Observations:
• From 1901–2018, global sea levels rose by ~15-25 cm, with an accelerating trend of ~3.7
mm/year in recent decades.
• Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are losing mass at increasing rates (~200-400
gigatons/year).

• Regional Variations:
• Sea-level changes are not uniform; regions like the Pacific Islands experience greater
impacts due to thermal expansion and subsidence.

• Satellite Data:
• Observations from missions like GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) provide
precise data on ice mass changes.

• Case Study: Rapid ice mass loss in West Antarctica, contributing significantly to
sea-level rise.
 Impacts of Sea-Level Rise
• Coastal Impacts:
• Increased flooding, erosion, and salinization of freshwater systems.
• Threats to coastal ecosystems such as mangroves and coral reefs.

• Economic and Social Impacts:

• Displacement of coastal communities; UN estimates ~1 billion people could be at
risk by 2050.
• Infrastructure damage costing trillions in adaptation measures (e.g., seawalls,
flood defenses).

• Ecosystem Disruption:
• Loss of biodiversity as habitats (e.g., polar bear and seal habitats) vanish.
• Reduced carbon sequestration as coastal vegetation degrades.
 Feedback Mechanisms and Long-Term Effects
• Ice Loss Feedbacks:
• Accelerated ice melting due to reduced albedo and increased absorption of solar
radiation.
• Release of freshwater disrupts ocean currents, weakening thermohaline
circulation and further warming oceans.

• Tipping Points:
• Crossing thresholds (e.g., complete Greenland ice sheet melting) could lock in
irreversible sea-level rise for millennia.

• Global Implications:
• Altered weather patterns, increased storm intensities, and changes in
precipitation cycles.
 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies
• Mitigation:
• Reduce greenhouse gas emissions to limit global temperature rise below 1.5°C.
• Enhance natural carbon sinks (e.g., reforestation, marine algae cultivation).
• Adaptation:
• Coastal planning with sea walls, elevated infrastructure, and managed retreat.
• International collaboration for funding and technology transfer to vulnerable
regions.
• Scientific Research:
• Investment in cryospheric monitoring and climate models to predict future
impacts.
• Policy Example: Paris Agreement emphasizes limiting temperature rise to
reduce cryospheric loss.
 Summary
• Key Takeaways:
• The cryosphere is essential for reflecting solar energy, regulating temperatures, and
supporting global ecosystems.
• It interacts with ocean currents, atmospheric systems, and hydrological cycles to
stabilize climate patterns.
• Global warming poses existential threats, accelerating ice loss, disrupting
ecosystems, and exacerbating climate impacts.

• Future Concerns:
• Rising sea levels from cryospheric melt could inundate coastal regions, affecting 680
million people by 2100.
• Alterations in ocean and atmospheric circulation patterns could trigger more
frequent and severe weather events.
End of Session 2
 Unit 5 Science Behind the Climate Change - 2

Session 3 Volcanoes

Dr Cheela Venkata Ravi Sankar, Associate Professor

Department of Civil Engineering, MVGR College of Engineering (Autonomous)

Volcanic Eruptions and Climate
Objective: Introduce the scope of volcanic eruptions'
impact on atmospheric and climatic systems.
 Components of a Volcanic Eruption
• Gases Released:
• Water Vapor (H₂O): Major component; acts as a carrier for
other gases.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Contributes to long-term
greenhouse warming.
• Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂): Key player in short-term climate
cooling due to sulfate aerosol formation.
• Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) and Hydrogen Fluoride (HF): Can
deplete ozone and contribute to acid rain.
• Particulates Released:
• Volcanic Ash (Tephra): Solidified magma particles that can
block sunlight.
• Pumice and Rock Fragments: Impact regional deposition
and ecosystems.
• Eruption Dynamics:
• Explosivity influenced by magma viscosity, gas content, and
vent pressure.
 Key Climatic Influencers
• Sulfate Aerosol Formation:
• SO₂ reacts with water vapor in the
stratosphere, forming sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)
aerosols.
• Aerosols scatter sunlight, reducing direct
solar radiation and causing global cooling.
• Volcanic Ash Effects:
• Large particles fall rapidly, affecting local air
quality and ecosystems.
• Fine particles can remain suspended for
months, influencing atmospheric circulation.
• Greenhouse Gas Contributions:
• CO₂ from eruptions contributes to long-term
warming but is minor compared to
anthropogenic emissions.
 Types of Volcanic Eruptions
• Explosive Eruptions:
• High gas content and viscosity (e.g., Mount Pinatubo, 1991).
• Reach the stratosphere, with significant global climatic effects.
• Effusive Eruptions:
• Low gas content and viscosity (e.g., Hawaiian volcanoes).
• Limited climatic impact; localized CO₂ emissions dominate.
• Technical Insights:
• Eruptions classified by Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), with higher VEI values
correlating to greater climate impact.
Link Between Volcanic Eruptions and Climate
• Immediate Effects:
• Aerosols and ash reflect sunlight, causing surface cooling (volcanic winter).
• Disruption of atmospheric circulation (e.g., jet stream shifts).
• Long-Term Effects:
• CO₂ and other greenhouse gases cause incremental warming over centuries.
• Possible impacts on El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and monsoon
systems.
 Short-term and Long-term Climatic Effects of Volcanic Activity
Objective: Introduce the distinction between short-term and long-term climatic effects triggered by
volcanic eruptions.
 Short-term Climatic Effects (Immediate to 1–2 Years)
• Solar Radiation Reduction:
• Volcanic Aerosols (e.g., sulfuric acid aerosols) reflect incoming solar radiation, causing global
cooling.
• Aerosols can remain in the stratosphere for 6 months to 3 years after major eruptions.
• Cooling can reach 0.5–1°C globally, with regional effects often more pronounced.
• Disruption of Global Atmospheric Circulation:
• Changes in the jet stream can lead to anomalous weather patterns such as:
• Lower temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, especially during summers.
• Changes in rainfall patterns (e.g., droughts or increased precipitation).
• Stratospheric ozone depletion can occur from reactions involving volcanic gases like
chlorine, which contribute to further climatic shifts.
• Volcanic Winter Phenomenon:
• A sudden and intense cooling period lasting up to 1–2 years post-eruption.
• Examples: The eruption of Mount Tambora (1815) caused the Year Without a Summer
(1816), a global event of severe cooling.
• Cooling is especially noted in temperate and tropical regions.
 Example of Short-term Climatic Impact – Mount Pinatubo
• Eruption and Aerosol Distribution:
• The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 injected approximately 20 million tons of
SO₂ into the stratosphere.
• Formation of sulfuric acid aerosols led to a reduction in global temperatures by
around 0.5°C for 1–2 years.
• The eruption is one of the largest volcanic eruptions of the 20th century with the
most studied climatic effects.
• Regional Cooling and Weather Shifts:
• Northern Hemisphere experienced cooling due to reduced sunlight, with significant
weather disruptions.
• Some regions, including the Indian Ocean and parts of North America, saw changes
in precipitation patterns and temperature extremes.
 Long-term Climatic Effects (Decades to Centuries)
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
• CO₂ and other greenhouse gases emitted from volcanoes over long periods contribute to
global warming.
• Although volcanic CO₂ emissions are small compared to human activities, their effect on
atmospheric CO₂ concentrations contributes to climate shifts over centuries.
• In addition to CO₂, methane (CH₄) and other trace gases also have warming effects.
• Changes in Ocean Circulation Patterns:
• Volcanic cooling can influence long-term oceanic circulation patterns, including:
• Thermohaline circulation (ocean currents driven by temperature and salinity differences).
• Possible impacts on El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), influencing global weather patterns over
multiple decades.
• Slow Recovery of Atmospheric Conditions:
• After major eruptions, the Earth's climate system can take decades to recover fully.
• Ozone layer recovery: The effects of volcanic aerosols on the ozone layer can persist for
decades, leading to continued climate disruptions.
 Example of Long-term Climatic Impact – The Laki Eruption
• Sulfate Aerosol Effects:
• The eruption of Laki in Iceland released massive amounts of sulfur dioxide into the
atmosphere, forming sulfate aerosols.
• Global cooling occurred for about 2 years, significantly impacting weather patterns in the
Northern Hemisphere.
• Famine and crop failures were observed in parts of Europe due to colder temperatures.
• Continued Warming from CO₂ Emissions:
• Long-term CO₂ emissions from Laki contributed to incremental global warming.
• The eruption also released fluorine gases, contributing to acid rain that impacted regional
ecosystems.
• Cultural and Historical Impact:
• The cooling and crop failures following the eruption are believed to have contributed to
severe famines in Europe.
• This event highlights the complex relationship between volcanic eruptions and societal
impacts over long timescales.
Role of Volcanic Activity in Historical Climate Change Events
 Volcanic Activity and Climate Shifts in the
Holocene Epoch
• Volcanic Eruptions and the Little Ice Age (1300–1850):
• The Little Ice Age was a period of cooler global temperatures lasting from the 14th to the
mid-19th century.
• Multiple large volcanic eruptions, particularly in the Tropical Regions, contributed
significantly to the cooling observed during this period.
• Volcanic events such as the eruption of Mount Tambora (1815), Krakatoa (1883), and Mount
Pinatubo (1991) injected large volumes of aerosols into the stratosphere, which caused
global temperature declines that lasted for several years.
• The Role of Volcanic Aerosols in Cooling:
• The volcanic aerosols, primarily composed of sulfate aerosols, act as reflectors of solar
radiation, leading to reduced solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface.
• The aerosols can remain in the stratosphere for extended periods, influencing temperature
for up to 1–2 years after an eruption.
• In the Little Ice Age, eruptions played a pivotal role in cooling regions like Europe, with colder
winters, glacial expansion, and altered precipitation patterns.
 Case Study 1: The 1815 Eruption of Mount
Tambora and the Year Without a Summer
• The 1815 Eruption of Mount Tambora (Indonesia):
• The eruption of Mount Tambora, one of the most powerful in recorded history, released massive
amounts of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) into the stratosphere.
• The ash plume reached as high as 40 km, and the eruption is estimated to have ejected up to 100 km³
of material.
• The eruption led to a massive injection of aerosols into the atmosphere, causing the Year Without a
Summer in 1816.
• Impact on Global and Regional Climate:
• The cooling effect from the eruption caused a global temperature decrease of 0.5–1°C.
• The year following the eruption, 1816, saw failed crops in North America, Europe, and Asia, severe
frosts, and a drop in agricultural yields.
• This cooling also led to famines and contributed to mass migrations in certain regions, highlighting the
far-reaching impacts of volcanic eruptions on human societies.
• Mechanism Behind the Cooling:
• Sulfate aerosols formed from the SO₂ emissions from the eruption reflected solar radiation back into
space, blocking sunlight and cooling the Earth's surface.
• These aerosols remained suspended in the stratosphere for several years, leading to continued cooling
effects beyond 1816.
 Case Study 2: The 1883 Eruption of Krakatoa
and Global Cooling
• The 1883 Eruption of Krakatoa (Indonesia):
• The Krakatoa eruption released approximately 20 million tons of SO₂ into the stratosphere, resulting in
a dramatic global cooling effect.
• The eruption was accompanied by massive tsunamis and atmospheric disturbances, causing dark skies
and a significant decline in temperatures worldwide.
• Global Temperature Response and Atmospheric Impact:
• Following the eruption, global temperatures dropped by 0.5°C to 1°C, and the cooling effects were
observed for several years (1884–1886).
• The eruption also produced vivid red sunsets due to the scattering of sunlight by volcanic aerosols in
the atmosphere, contributing to the phenomenon known as the Krakatoa sunsets.
• The eruption caused disturbances in weather patterns, including unusually cool summers in Europe
and North America.
• The Science Behind the Cooling:
• Krakatoa's eruption introduced large quantities of aerosols into the stratosphere, where they persisted
for up to 3 years, continuing to reflect sunlight and leading to the global cooling observed in the
subsequent years.
• The eruption also contributed to shifting weather systems, disrupting regional climates and leading to
harsh winters and crop failures.
 The 1991 Mount Pinatubo Eruption and Its
Lasting Climate Impact
• The Mount Pinatubo Eruption (Philippines, 1991):
• Mount Pinatubo's eruption released an estimated 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) into
the stratosphere, significantly impacting global climate.
• The eruption resulted in global cooling of 0.5°C for 1–2 years and had lasting effects on
regional climate patterns.
• Impact on Temperature and Weather Patterns:
• The eruption led to a short-term cooling of about 0.5°C in the first year, followed by a slow
recovery.
• Global temperature anomalies dropped for the 2–3 years following the eruption,
particularly in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Pinatubo's eruption caused droughts in some regions and unusually cool summers in others.
It also contributed to changes in the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
• Stratospheric Aerosols and Climate Feedbacks:
• The sulfate aerosols injected into the stratosphere by Pinatubo’s eruption were observed to
remain in the atmosphere for 1–3 years, leading to sustained cooling.
• The eruption’s influence also helped modulate tropical ocean temperatures and had
implications for monsoon patterns in South Asia and North America.
 Summary and Key Takeaways from Historical
Volcanic Events
• Volcanic Eruptions and Historical Climate Shifts:
• Large volcanic eruptions can cause significant cooling due to the release of sulfate
aerosols, which reflect solar radiation.
• Historical events like the Mount Tambora and Krakatoa eruptions contributed to
major climate shifts, including the Little Ice Age and the Year Without a Summer.
• Impact on Agriculture and Human Societies:
• The cooling effects of volcanic eruptions can lead to crop failures, famines, and
disruptions to weather systems, influencing human societies.
• Volcanic Activity and Long-Term Climate Variability:
• Volcanic eruptions have long-lasting effects on the Earth's climate system, and their
impact on global temperature can last for several years to decades, depending on
the eruption's intensity.
End of Session 3
 Unit 5 Science Behind the Climate Change - 2

Session 4 Biosphere and Climate Regulation

Dr Cheela Venkata Ravi Sankar, Associate Professor

Department of Civil Engineering, MVGR College of Engineering (Autonomous)

Introduction to the Biosphere and Climate Regulation
 What is the Biosphere?
• The biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings
and their relationships with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
• It spans from deep ocean trenches to the upper atmosphere, where life
exists.
• Technical Details:
• Spatial Extent: Ranges approximately 10 km above and below Earth's surface.
• Subsystems: Includes terrestrial ecosystems, aquatic ecosystems, and the
microorganisms within soil, water, and air.
• Scientific Concepts:
• The biosphere acts as a dynamic system where energy flows (via sunlight) and
matter cycles (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus) maintain life.
• Interdependent interactions between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors
form ecosystems.
 Role of the Biosphere in Climate Regulation
• Photosynthesis:
• Plants convert atmospheric CO₂ into glucose, reducing CO₂ levels.
• Equation: 6CO2+6H2O→C6H12O6+6O26CO₂ + 6H₂O
• Respiration:
• Plants, animals, and microbes release CO₂ during metabolism.
• Technical Details:
• Forests and terrestrial ecosystems absorb ~30% of annual human CO₂ emissions.
• Oceans (via phytoplankton) absorb ~25% of global CO₂ emissions.
• Scientific Concepts:
• Carbon Sinks: Forests, soil, and oceans are natural carbon reservoirs.
• GHG Regulation: By controlling CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O, the biosphere moderates Earth's
greenhouse effect.
 Interaction with the Atmosphere
• Atmospheric Balance:
• Biosphere contributes to maintaining levels of:
• Oxygen (O₂): Essential for respiration.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Required for photosynthesis but a greenhouse gas when excessive.
• Methane (CH₄): Produced by anaerobic decomposition in wetlands.
• Technical Details:
• Forests release volatile organic compounds (VOCs), influencing cloud formation and
atmospheric chemistry.
• Seasonal changes in vegetation affect CO₂ levels:
• Lower CO₂ during the Northern Hemisphere summer due to increased photosynthesis.
• Scientific Concepts:
• Dynamic Equilibrium: The biosphere continually exchanges gases with the atmosphere,
maintaining climate stability.
• Role in the Water Cycle: Vegetation impacts humidity and rainfall through
transpiration.
 Energy and Water Cycles
• Biosphere’s Role in Energy Balance:
• Vegetation reduces solar heating through albedo (reflectivity).
• Absorbed solar energy drives photosynthesis, converting light into chemical
energy.
• Water Cycle:
• Evapotranspiration:
• Plants release water vapor during photosynthesis and transpiration, accounting for ~62% of
terrestrial precipitation recycling.
• Runoff Regulation: Forests and grasslands slow water runoff, preventing floods.
• Scientific Concepts:
• Surface Energy Flux: Vegetation alters the energy balance at Earth's surface,
cooling local climates.
• Feedback Mechanisms:
• Positive: Deforestation reduces evapotranspiration, causing regional droughts.
• Negative: Reforestation enhances cooling via transpiration.
 Resilience and Feedback Mechanisms
• Negative Feedback Loops:
• CO₂ Fertilization Effect: Increased atmospheric CO₂ can enhance plant growth,
partially offsetting emissions.
• Example: Arctic tundra shows increased shrub growth due to higher CO₂.
• Positive Feedback Loops:
• Deforestation and Warming: Fewer trees reduce carbon uptake, accelerating
climate change.
• Permafrost Melting: Releases CH₄ and CO₂, amplifying global warming.
• Scientific Concepts:
• Tipping Points: Critical thresholds in ecosystems where feedback loops can lead to
irreversible changes.
• Example: Amazon rainforest could transition from a carbon sink to a carbon source.
Impacts of Deforestation on the Carbon Cycle and Climate Change
 Deforestation Overview
• What is Deforestation?
• Removal or thinning of forested areas, reducing tree cover and ecosystem
functions.
• Types:
• Clear-cutting: Complete removal of trees.
• Selective Logging: Targeted removal of specific species.
• Slash-and-Burn Agriculture: Clearing land for agriculture using fire.
• Global Trends:
• Global tree cover loss: Over 420 million hectares lost since 1990 (FAO, 2020).
• Hotspots: Amazon basin, Congo basin, and Southeast Asia.
• Scientific Concepts:
• Forests are carbon reservoirs and biological diversity hotspots.
• Deforestation disrupts ecological balance, leading to ecosystem degradation.
 Deforestation and the Carbon Cycle
• Carbon Cycle Basics:
• Forests absorb CO₂ via photosynthesis and store it as biomass.
• Decomposition and respiration naturally release stored carbon.
• Impacts of Deforestation on the Carbon Cycle:
• Loss of Carbon Sequestration:
• Reduced tree cover decreases the capacity of ecosystems to absorb atmospheric CO₂.
• Annual CO₂ sequestration potential of tropical forests is estimated at 1.1–2.0 Gt CO₂.
• Release of Stored Carbon:
• Biomass burning or decay releases large quantities of carbon rapidly.
• Soil Carbon Emissions:
• Soil disturbance during deforestation leads to oxidation of soil organic carbon, releasing CO₂.
• Scientific Concepts:
• Carbon stored in tropical forests constitutes 45% of terrestrial carbon stocks.
• When deforestation occurs, this carbon is released, exacerbating climate change.
 Emission Sources
• Direct Emissions from Deforestation:
• Biomass Burning: Releases CO₂, CH₄, and particulate matter (e.g., black carbon).
• Black Carbon: A short-lived climate pollutant with a global warming potential (GWP)
thousands of times higher than CO₂.
• Decomposition: Microbial activity in cleared lands releases stored carbon as CO₂
and CH₄.
• Indirect Emissions:
• Loss of forest ecosystems alters regional albedo, reducing sunlight reflectivity.
• Soil degradation leads to the loss of microbial communities that regulate nutrient
cycles.
• Technical Details:
• Contribution to global emissions: Deforestation accounts for approximately 5.5 Gt
CO₂/year (IPCC).
 Feedback Loops
• Temperature-Deforestation Feedback:
• Rising temperatures increase forest vulnerability to drought and fires, further reducing tree
cover.
• Albedo Feedback:
• Forest clearing increases albedo (reflectivity), reducing local evapotranspiration and rainfall,
further degrading forests.
• Permafrost Linkages:
• Deforestation near permafrost regions accelerates warming and permafrost thaw, releasing
CH₄ and CO₂.
• Negative Feedbacks (Limited):
• Forest regrowth can sequester carbon if deforested areas are reforested.
• Scientific Concepts:
• Tipping Points: Large-scale deforestation in the Amazon could reach a tipping point where it
transitions from a carbon sink to a carbon source, impacting global climate patterns
irreversibly.
 Wider Environmental Impacts
• Ecosystem Services Loss:
• Pollination, water regulation, and soil fertility are disrupted.
• Reduced biodiversity impacts resilience against environmental stress.
• Hydrological Impacts:
• Rainfall Reduction:
• Forests generate ~50% of rainfall in tropical regions through evapotranspiration.
• Deforestation reduces moisture recycling, causing prolonged dry seasons.
• Flooding and Erosion:
• Tree roots stabilize soil; loss increases runoff and erosion rates.
• Climate Impacts:
• Regional Climate Alteration:
• Forest loss in the tropics has been linked to the weakening of the South American and West African
monsoons.
• Global Temperature Rise:
• Increased GHG emissions amplify global warming, exacerbating extreme weather events.
Changes in the Biosphere and Global Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles
 Carbon Cycle Overview
• The carbon cycle describes the flow of carbon between Earth's spheres: the
atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere.
• Reservoirs of Carbon:
• Atmosphere: Carbon exists as CO₂ (~415 ppm in 2024) and methane (CH₄).
• Biosphere: Carbon is stored in vegetation, animals, and soil organic matter.
• Oceans: Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) forms carbonic acid, bicarbonates, and
carbonates.
• Lithosphere: Fossil fuels, carbonates (e.g., limestone), and sediments are long-term
carbon stores.
• Scientific Concepts:
• Fluxes in the Carbon Cycle:
• Photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, ocean absorption, and volcanic emissions are key
pathways.
• Carbon Budget:
• Balance of carbon sources and sinks determines atmospheric CO₂ levels.
 Nitrogen Cycle Overview
• The nitrogen cycle outlines nitrogen’s movement through the atmosphere, soil, water,
and living organisms.
• Most nitrogen (~78% of the atmosphere) exists as inert nitrogen, which must be
converted into bioavailable forms.
• Processes in the Nitrogen Cycle:
• Nitrogen Fixation:
• Atmospheric nitrogen converted into ammonia by:
• Biological fixation: Performed by symbiotic bacteria (e.g., Rhizobium, Azotobacter).
• Industrial fixation: Haber-Bosch process creates ammonium fertilizers.
• Nitrification:
• Ammonia oxidized into nitrites and nitrates by nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter).
• Assimilation:
• Plants absorb nitrates to synthesize proteins and nucleic acids.
• Denitrification:
• Nitrates converted back to nitrogen by denitrifying bacteria, returning nitrogen to the atmosphere.
 Biosphere Changes and Carbon Cycle Impact
• Deforestation:
• Reduces terrestrial carbon sinks, increasing atmospheric CO₂ levels.
• Ocean Acidification:
• Excess CO₂ absorption by oceans lowers pH, threatening calcifying organisms (e.g., corals, shellfish).
• Urbanization:
• Land-use changes reduce vegetative cover, lowering carbon uptake.
• Scientific Concepts:
• Ocean-Atmosphere Exchange:
• CO₂ dissolves in seawater, forming carbonic acid.
• This dissociates into bicarbonate (HCO3−HCO₃^-HCO3−​) and hydrogen ions (H+H^+H+), reducing pH.
• Feedback Mechanisms:
• Positive: Increased CO₂ reduces ocean absorption capacity (solubility decreases with warming).
• Negative: Forest regrowth and soil restoration can offset emissions.
 Biosphere Changes and Nitrogen Cycle Impact
• Key Changes in the Biosphere:
• Fertilizer Overuse:
• Leads to nitrogen leaching into waterways, causing eutrophication and dead zones (e.g., Gulf of
Mexico).
• Deforestation:
• Reduces nitrogen-fixing tree species, impacting soil nitrogen replenishment.
• Intensive Agriculture:
• Disrupts nitrogen cycling, leading to higher nitrous oxide emissions (a potent greenhouse gas).
• Scientific Concepts:
• Eutrophication:
• Excess nutrients lead to algal blooms, depleting oxygen as algae decompose.
• Hypoxic zones form, killing marine organisms.
• Nitrous Oxide Emissions:
• Denitrification under anaerobic conditions releases nitrous oxide, with a global warming potential
298 times greater than CO₂.
 Human Activities and Alterations
• Anthropogenic Influences on the Carbon Cycle:
• Fossil Fuel Combustion:
• Releases carbon stored over millions of years into the atmosphere, disrupting the
carbon budget.
• Annual emissions: ~35 Gt CO₂/year (2024 estimates).
• Land-Use Changes:
• Conversion of forests to agricultural land reduces carbon sinks.
• Anthropogenic Influences on the Nitrogen Cycle:
• Industrial Fixation:
• The Haber-Bosch process adds ~120 Tg ammonia​ annually to the biosphere.
• Wastewater:
• Sewage adds nitrogen and phosphates to water bodies, amplifying eutrophication.
 Mitigation Strategies
• Carbon Cycle Solutions:
• Carbon Sequestration:
• Reforestation, soil carbon storage, and biochar applications.
• Example: Soils can store ~2-3 Gt CO₂/year with sustainable practices.
• Renewable Energy:
• Transitioning to solar, wind, and hydro reduces fossil fuel dependency.
• Nitrogen Cycle Solutions:
• Precision Agriculture:
• Reduces fertilizer use by optimizing application timing and amount.
• Example: Controlled-release fertilizers can cut nitrogen runoff by 20-30%.
• Restoration of Wetlands:
• Wetlands act as natural nitrogen filters, denitrifying excess nitrates.
 Mitigation Strategies
• Policy Initiatives:
• Paris Agreement: Focuses on reducing GHG emissions.

• Nitrogen Action Plans: Countries are targeting reductions in nitrogen pollution

through improved farming practices and wastewater treatment.

• Scientific Concepts:

• Ecosystem Restoration: Re-establishing natural cycles improves carbon and nitrogen

balance.

• Technological Innovation: Precision farming tools and carbon capture technologies

can address human impacts.
End of Session 4
 Unit 5 Science Behind the Climate Change - 2

Session 5 Mitigation Stratagies

Dr Cheela Venkata Ravi Sankar, Associate Professor

Department of Civil Engineering, MVGR College of Engineering (Autonomous)

Introduction to Climate Change Mitigation Strategies
 What is Climate Change Mitigation?
• Definition:
• Mitigation refers to strategic actions to limit global temperature rise by reducing
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions or enhancing carbon sinks.
• Essential for achieving long-term climate goals like those set by the Paris
Agreement (keeping global warming below 1.5–2°C).
• Necessity of Mitigation:
• Minimizing Climate Risks:
• Reduces the severity of extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and ecosystem disruption.
• Stabilizing Socioeconomic Systems:
• Prevents loss of livelihoods, displacement, and economic shocks caused by climate change.
• Protecting Biodiversity:
• Prevents habitat loss due to changing climatic conditions.
 Key Objectives of Mitigation Strategies
• Reduce GHG Emissions:
• Transition to low-carbon energy sources like wind, solar, and nuclear power.
• Adopt sustainable agriculture and forestry practices.
• Enhance Carbon Sinks:
• Restoration of forests, wetlands, and soil to absorb atmospheric CO₂.
• Improve Energy Efficiency:
• Designing energy-efficient buildings, appliances, and vehicles.
• Reducing energy losses in electricity transmission and distribution.
• Stabilize Climate Systems:
• Prevent tipping points such as:
• Arctic ice melt leading to albedo feedback (lower reflectivity).
• Amazon rainforest dieback reducing carbon storage capacity.
 Categories of Mitigation Strategies
• Technology-based Solutions:
• Renewable energy, energy storage, and carbon capture and storage (CCS).
• Examples: Offshore wind farms, direct air capture systems.
• Nature-based Solutions:
• Reforestation, mangrove restoration, and soil carbon sequestration.
• Example: Mangroves sequester up to 10 times more carbon per hectare than
terrestrial forests.
• Behavioral Changes:
• Reducing energy use through conservation.
• Shifting dietary patterns to low-carbon foods (e.g., plant-based diets).
• Key Insight:
• A combination of all three categories is required to achieve sustainable outcomes.
 Importance of Global Cooperation
• Shared Responsibility:
• GHGs like CO₂ and CH₄ are global pollutants that require joint international efforts.
• Global Agreements:
• Paris Agreement (2015):
• Goal: Limit global warming to below 2°C with efforts for 1.5°C.
• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Commitments by countries to reduce emissions.
• Kyoto Protocol (1997):
• First global framework for reducing emissions.
• Financing Mitigation:
• Green Climate Fund (GCF): Supports developing nations with renewable energy projects.
• Technology Transfer: Sharing low-carbon technologies between developed and
developing countries.
 Challenges in Climate Change Mitigation
• Technical Challenges:
• Cost: Renewable energy installations and CCS technologies are capital-intensive.
• Scalability: Adapting technologies like hydrogen fuel cells to global demand.
• Political and Social Challenges:
• Policy resistance due to economic concerns.
• Balancing mitigation with economic growth.
• Economic Inequality:
• Developing nations often lack resources to implement advanced mitigation
strategies.
• Scientific Uncertainty:
• Predicting feedback loops (e.g., permafrost thaw releasing methane).
Effectiveness of Renewable Energy
 Role of Renewable Energy in Mitigation
• Energy derived from natural processes that are replenished at a faster rate than
they are consumed. Examples include solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, and
biomass energy.
• Role in Climate Change Mitigation:
• Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
• Renewable energy sources do not emit CO₂ during operation, unlike fossil fuels.
• Replacing coal-fired power plants with renewables can reduce CO₂ emissions by 80–90% per
kWh.
• Sustainable Energy Production:
• Unlimited resource availability ensures long-term energy security.
• Scientific Context:
• Energy Payback Ratio (EPR): Measures the amount of energy generated
compared to the energy required to build, operate, and decommission a
renewable energy system.
 Solar Energy
• How It Works:
• Solar panels (photovoltaic cells) convert sunlight into electricity using the photoelectric
effect.
• Photons from sunlight excite electrons in a semiconductor material (e.g., silicon),
generating an electric current.
• Effectiveness:
• Carbon Footprint:
• Lifetime emissions of ~20–50 g CO₂/kWh, compared to coal (~820 g CO₂/kWh).
• Scalability:
• Ideal for decentralized energy generation (e.g., rooftop solar installations).
• Challenges:
• Intermittency:
• Solar energy production depends on sunlight availability, requiring storage systems like batteries.
• Resource Use:
• Manufacture of solar panels requires rare metals like cadmium, tellurium, and silicon.
 Wind Energy
• SHow It Works:
• Wind turbines convert kinetic energy from wind into mechanical energy and then into
electricity via a generator.
• Betz's Law: Maximum efficiency of wind turbines is ~59.3% due to energy loss in wind
deflection.
• Effectiveness:
• Low Carbon Emissions:
• Lifecycle emissions are ~11 g CO₂/kWh, making it one of the cleanest energy sources.
• Global Potential:
• Offshore wind capacity could generate 23 times current global energy demand.
• Challenges:
• Environmental Impact:
• Turbines can affect local wildlife (e.g., bird and bat populations).
• Energy Storage:
• Wind is intermittent and requires grid modernization for integration.
 Hydropower
• How It Works:
• Water flow drives turbines, converting potential energy into mechanical energy, and
then into electricity.
• Effectiveness:
• Stable and Reliable Energy Source:
• Can provide base-load power, unlike intermittent renewables.
• Low Emissions:
• After initial construction, emissions are minimal (4–18 g CO₂/kWh).
• Challenges:
• Ecological Disruptions:
• Dam construction alters river ecosystems and affects fish migration.
• Social Issues:
• Displacement of communities during dam construction (e.g., Three Gorges Dam in China displaced
~1.3 million people).
 Renewable Energy Deployment Challenges
• Energy Storage:
• Renewable sources like solar and wind are intermittent.
• Solutions:
• Development of advanced batteries (e.g., lithium-ion, flow batteries).
• Pumped hydro storage systems.
• Grid Integration:
• Modernizing energy grids to handle variable power generation.
• Smart Grids: Digital systems that optimize power distribution based on demand and
supply.
• Initial Investment Costs:
• While operational costs for renewables are low, installation costs can be prohibitive for
developing nations.
• Resource Intensity:
• Production of renewable energy systems (e.g., wind turbines, solar panels) requires rare
materials and generates initial emissions.
Major Mitigation Strategy
 Overview of a Major Mitigation Strategy – Energy
• Definition:
Efficiency
• Energy efficiency refers to using less energy to perform the same task or produce the same
output, reducing energy waste and greenhouse gas emissions.
• Why Focus on Energy Efficiency?
• High Impact:
• Reducing energy consumption directly lowers emissions from fossil fuel use.
• Cost-Effective:
• Often cheaper than deploying new renewable energy systems.
• Wide Applicability:
• Can be implemented across industries, buildings, transportation, and energy production.
• Key Insight:
• Improving energy efficiency can account for ~40% of the emissions reductions needed by 2040
to meet global climate goals.
• Examples:
• Retrofitting buildings with insulation.
• Using high-efficiency motors in industries.
 Energy Efficiency in Buildings
• Current Scenario:
• Buildings account for ~30% of global energy use and ~28% of global GHG emissions.
• Mitigation Strategies:
• Building Design:
• Passive solar designs use natural lighting and heating to reduce energy needs.
• Green roofs improve insulation and reduce cooling requirements.
• Appliance Efficiency:
• Adoption of Energy Star-rated appliances that use less electricity.
• Lighting:
• Transition from incandescent to LED lighting, which uses ~75% less energy.
• Heating and Cooling:
• High-efficiency HVAC systems and geothermal heat pumps.
• Scientific Concept:
• Thermal Conductivity (k): Insulation materials with low thermal conductivity reduce heat transfer, leading
to lower heating/cooling energy requirements.
• Real-World Example:
• Retrofitting buildings in the EU saved 20–30% in energy costs per building.
 Energy Efficiency in Industry
• Current Scenario:
• Industries account for ~19% of global GHG emissions, mainly from manufacturing and
production processes.
• Mitigation Strategies:
• High-Efficiency Equipment:
• Upgrading to variable speed drives in motors reduces electricity consumption by ~30–50%.
• Waste Heat Recovery:
• Capturing and reusing heat from industrial processes to generate electricity or heat water.
• Process Optimization:
• Example: Dry process kilns in cement production save up to 40% energy compared to wet processes.
• Scientific Concept:
• Cogeneration (Combined Heat and Power - CHP):
• Simultaneous production of electricity and heat from the same energy source improves overall
system efficiency to 70–90%.
 Global Energy Efficiency Policies and Programs
• International Initiatives:
• Energy Efficiency Directive (EU):
• Targets a 32.5% improvement in energy efficiency by 2030.
• Includes mandatory energy audits for large enterprises.
• U.S. Energy Star Program:
• Encourages adoption of energy-efficient appliances and building designs.
• India’s PAT Scheme (Perform, Achieve, Trade):
• Industries set specific energy efficiency targets and trade energy-saving certificates.
• National Building Codes:
• Mandating use of energy-efficient technologies in new constructions.
• Example: LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)
certification promotes green building standards.
 Challenges in Implementing Energy Efficiency
• Financial Barriers:
• High upfront costs for retrofits or new technologies deter investments.
• Technical Barriers:
• Limited availability of skilled workers to implement and maintain energy-efficient
systems.
• Behavioral Challenges:
• Lack of awareness or motivation to adopt energy-saving practices.
• Example: Consumers often prioritize cheaper appliances over energy-efficient ones.
• Policy and Regulatory Barriers:
• Inconsistent policies across regions limit large-scale adoption.
End of Session 5