Chemistry 🧪

Chapter: 3
METALS & NON-METALS

On the basis of their properties, all

the elements into two main groups:
metals and non-metals

A) METALS
Metals are the elements that conduct heat
and electricity, and are malleable and ductile

The valency of a metal can be 1,2,3

Eg of METALS--
IRON[Fe];COPPER[Cu];SODIUM[Na]

metals are known as electropositive elements because

they can form positive ions by losing electrons.
Metals are the elements (except hydrogen) which
form positive ions by losing electrons (or donating
electrons)
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Malleability: Metals can be beaten into sheets.

2. Ductility: Metals can be drawn into wires.
3. Luster: Metals have a shiny surface that can be
polished.
4. Conductivity: Metals are good conductors of heat
and electricity.
5. Solid state: Metals are solids at room temperature.
6. Strength: Metals are tough and strong.
7. Melting and boiling points: Metals have high melting
and boiling points, and can vaporize at high
temperatures.
8. Density: Metals have high density
 EXCEPTION IN CASE OF METALS

Sodium and potassium are Metals which are

1. generally soft and can be cutted with knife very
easily.

2. Metals are solids at room temperature except

mercury which is a liquid metal.

Metals have high densities except Na and K

3. which have lower densities.

Metals usually have a silver or grey colour

4. except copper and gold.
 NON METALS
Non-metals are the elements that do not conduct
heat and electricity, and are neither malleable nor
ductile. They are brittle.

The Non-Metals have valency of 5,6,7

Eg of Non-Metals are:-
Carbon[C],Sulphur[S],Silicon[Si]

non-metals are known as electronegative

elements because they can form negative
ions by gaining electrons

Hydrogen (H) is the only non-metal element

which loses electrons to form positive ions,
hydrogen ions (H+)
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Brittleness: Non-metals are brittle and break easily

when pressure is applied.
2. Poor conductors: Non-metals are poor conductors of
heat and electricity,
3. Non-lustrous: Non-metals are not shiny and cannot be
polished
4. State at room temperature: Non-metals can be solids,
liquids, or gases at room temperature.
5. Low tensile strength: Non-metals have low tensile
strength.
6. Not sonorous: Non-metals do not produce a deep
ringing sound when struck.
7. Soft: Non-metals are soft.
8. Melting points: Non-metals usually have lower melting
points than metals

GRAPHITE
EXCEPTION IN CASE OF NON-METAL

Graphite and gas carbon are good conductors of

electricity and heat, while non-metals are generally
poor conductors.
Non-metals generally have low melting points, but
carbon and diamond have high melting points.
Non-metals are generally non-lustrous, but iodine and
graphite have a metallic luster.
Non-metals are generally solids or gases at room
temperature, but bromine is a liquid.
Diamond is the hardest substance known, while non-
metals are generally soft.
Iodine is a non-metal with a high density of 4.9, while
alkali metals have low density.
Carbon fiber is as tensile as steel, while non-metals
generally do not have tensile strength.

IODINE
BROMIDE
 LET US LEARN
1. A metal and a non-metal that exists in liquid
state at the room temperature are respectively

(a) bromine and mercury

(b) mercury and lodine
(c) mercury and bromine
(d) iodine and mercury.
ANSWER:-C
2. Which one of the following metals is malleable
and a poor conductor of electricity?

(a) Copper
(b) Zinc
(c) Lead
(d) Silver ANSWER:-C
3. Assertion (A): Hydrogen gas is not evolved when zinc reacts with
nitric acid.
Reason (R): Nitric acid oxidises the hydrogen gas produced to water
and itself gets reduced.

(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is the
correct explanation of the Assertion (A).
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not
the correct explanation of the Assertion (A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

c): Some metal oxides, such as aluminium oxide and zinc oxide show
amphoteric behaviour and react with both acids as well as alkalies to
form salt and water. These are called amphoteric oxides. Al2O3(s) +
2NaOH(aq) → 2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O(1) Sodium aluminate Al2O3(s) +
6HCl(aq) → 2AICI3(aq) + 3H2O(1) Aluminium chloride
 4.

Study the diagram given below and identify the gas formed in
the reaction.

(a) Carbon dioxide which extinguishes the burning candle.

(b) Oxygen due to which the candle burns more brightly.
(c) Sulphur dioxide which produces a suffocating smell.
(d) Hydrogen which while burning produces a popping sound.
ANSWER:-a

QUESTIONS:-ANSWER YOUR SELF

Give reason for the following:
1. i)Hydrogen gas is not evolved when most of the metals
react with nitric acid.
(ii) Zinc oxide is considered as an amphoteric oxide.
iii) Metals conduct electricity.
(iv)gold and silver are used for making jewellery.
(v)a few metals are used for making cooking utensils.
(vj)why is potassium kept immersed in kerosene?

2. Name a metal which :

(a) is the best conductor of heat.
(b) has a very low melting point.
(c) does not react with oxygen even at high
temperature.
(d) is most ductile
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
REACTION OF METALS WITH OXYGEN [of Air]

Metal+Oxygen METAL OXIDE

(Basic Oxide)

metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides. Metal oxides are
basic in nature. Some of the metal oxides react with water to
form alkalis. Metal oxides, being basic, turn red litmus solution
blue

Sodium metal reacts with the oxygen of air at

room temperature to form a basic oxide called
sodium oxide:

4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)

(sodium) (oxygen) (Sodium oxide)
[Basic Oxide]
{Imp Note}

potassium metal and sodium metal are stored

under kerosene oil to prevent their reaction
with the oxygen, moisture and carbon dioxide
of air (so as to protect them).
 ANODISING
Anodising is a process of forming a thick oxide layer of aluminium Aluminium develops
a thin oxide layer when exposed to air. This aluminium oxide coat makes it resistant to
further corrosion. The resistance can be improved further by making the oxide layer
thicker. During anodising, a clean aluminium article is made the anode and is
electrolysed with dilute sulphuric acid. The oxygen gas evolved at the anode reacts
with aluminium to make a thicker protective oxide layer. This oxide layer can be dyed
easily to give aluminium articles an attractive finish.

Most of the metal oxides are insoluble in water. But

some of the metal oxides dissolve in water to form
alkalis. Sodium oxide and potassium oxide are the two
metal oxides which are soluble in water. They dissolve
in water to form alkalis. Sodium oxide and potassium
oxide dissolve in water to form alkalis as follows:

[METAL OXIDE+WATER-->METAL HYDROXIDE]

Na2O+H20--> 2NaOH
K20+H2O-->2KOH
{Imp Note}
Calcium starts floating because the bubbles of hydrogen gas
formed stick to the surface of the metal.

Magnesium does not react with cold water. It reacts with hot
water to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen. It also starts
floating due to the bubbles of hydrogen gas sticking to its
surface.

Metals like aluminium, iron and zinc do not react either with
cold or hot water. But they react with steam to form the metal
oxide and hydrogen

Metals such as lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with
water at all.
 METALS REACTION WITH ACIDS

METAL+ DILUTE ACID--> SALT + HYDROGEN

Sodium metal reacts violently with dilute hydrochloric

acid to form sodium chloride and hydrogen:

2Na+2HCl--> 2NaCl+H2

Magnesium reacts quite rapidly with dilute

hydrochloric acid forming magnesium chloride and
hydrogen gas

Mg+2HCl-->MgCl2+H2
[Note:-The reaction of magnesium with dilute hydrochloric acid is less
vigorous than that of sodium, so magnesium is less reactive than sodium.]

Aluminium metal reacts rapidly with dilute

hydrochloric acid to form aluminium chloride and
hydrogen gas

2Al+6HCl--> 2AlCl3+3H2
Zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to give zinc
chloride and hydrogen gas (but the reaction is less
rapid than that of aluminium) :

Zn+2HCL-->ZnCl2+H2
Iron reacts slowly with cold dilute hydrochloric
acid to give iron (II) chloride and hydrogen gas :

Fe+2HCl-->FeCl2+H2
 Copper does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid
(or dilute sulphuric acid) at all. This shows that copper is
even less reactive than iron :

Cu+HCl-->No Rxn

Some Imp Rxn's of Metals With Sulphuric acid

2Na(s) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq)
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq)

Reactivity Series
 Aqua-Regia

Aqua-regia is a freshly prepared mixture of 1 part

of concentrated nitric acid and 3 parts of
concentrated hydrochloric acid. Thus, the ratio
of conc. HNO3 and conc. HCl in aqua-regia is 1 : 3.
Aqua-regia is a highly corrosive, fuming liquid
(Corrosive means which can cause corrosion).
Aqua-regia can dissolve all metals. For example,
aqua-regia can dissolve even gold and platinum
metals

Answer Yourself [Case Based Question]

Aqua regia is a highly corrosive and fuming liquid made by mixing
concentrated nitric acid (HNO₃) and concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) in
a molar ratio of 1:3. It is one of the few reagents capable of dissolving noble
metals like gold and platinum, which are resistant to other acids. This
reaction occurs due to the formation of chloroauric acid and nascent
chlorine, which breaks the metal bonds. Aqua regia is commonly used in
laboratories for cleaning glassware and dissolving metal residues.

1. Why is aqua regia called "royal water"?

2. Explain the role of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid in the functioning of
aqua regia.
3. Write the chemical reaction showing the dissolution of gold (Au) in aqua
regia.
4. List two safety precautions that should be taken while handling aqua
regia.
5. Can silver (Ag) dissolve in aqua regia? Justify your answer.
HOW DO METALS AND NON-METALS REACT?

Metals and non-metals react by transferring electrons

from the metal to the non-metal, forming ions and
ionic compounds:
Explanation->
Metals have a few electrons in their outer shell, while
non-metals have many. Metals are electropositive and
lose electrons to attain a noble gas configuration.
Non-metals are electronegative and have a high
electron affinity, so they need to complete their octet
by sharing electrons with a metal.
Examples
Some examples of reactions between metals and non-
metals include:
Sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride
Magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
Calcium + chlorine → calcium chloride
 IONIC COMPOUNDS
The compounds containing ionic bonds are known as
ionic compounds. They are formed by the transfer of
electrons from one atom to another. The ionic
compounds are made up of positively charged ions
(cations) and negatively charged ions (anions). That is,
the ionic compounds consist of ions and not molecules.
Some of the common ionic compounds and the ions of
which they are made, are given below. Please note that
ionic compounds are also known as electrovalent
compounds.

Name Formula
1. Sodium chloride NaCl

2. Potassium chloride KCI

3. Ammonium chloride NH4Cl

4. Magnesium chloride MgCl2

5. Calcium chloride CaCl2

6. Sodium oxide Na2O

7. Magnesium oxide MgO

8. Calcium oxide CaO

9. Aluminium oxide Al2O3

10. Sodium hydroxide NaOH

11. Copper sulphate CuSO4

12. Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
Structure: Ionic compounds form crystals
with a stiff, strong structure.
Melting and boiling points: Ionic compounds
have high melting and boiling points
because of the strength of their ionic bonds.
Electrical conductivity: Ionic compounds are
poor conductors of electricity in solid form,
but conduct electricity well when dissolved
in water or melted.
Hardness and brittleness: Ionic compounds
are hard and brittle, and break easily into
small pieces.
Solubility: Ionic compounds are typically
soluble in water, but insoluble in solvents
like oil, petrol, and kerosene.
Enthalpies of fusion and vaporization: Ionic
compounds have higher enthalpies of fusion
and vaporization than molecular compounds
 Occurrence and Extraction of Metals: Minerals,
ores, extraction of metals of least reactivity,
extraction of metals of middle reactivity, extraction
of metals of high reactivity, refining or purification of
metals and corrosion

Occurrence and Extraction of Metals:Source of

metal: Metals occur in Earth's crust and in seawater;
in the form of ores. Earth's crust is the major source
of metal. Seawater contains many salts such as
sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, etc.

Mineral: Minerals are naturally occurring

substances which have a uniform
composition.

Ores: The minerals from which a metal can be

profitably extracted are called Ores.Metals found at
the bottom of reactivity series are least reactive and
they are often found in nature in free-state; such as
gold, silver, copper, etc. Copper and silver are also
found in the form of sulphide and oxide ores.
Concentration of Ores: Removal of impurities, such
as soil, sand, stone, silicates, etc. from mines ore is
known as Concentration of Ores.Ores which are
mined often contain many impurities. These
impurities are called gangue. First of all,
concentration is done to remove impurities from
ores. The concentration of ores is also known as
enrichment of ores. Process of concentration
depends upon physical and chemical properties of
ores. Gravity separation, electromagnetic
separation, froth flotation process, etc. are some
examples of the processes which are applied for
concentration of ores.
Conversion of Concentrated Ore into Crude
MetalConversion of metals ores into oxides:
It is easy to obtain metals from their oxides.
So, ores found in the form of sulphide and
carbonates are first converted to their
oxides by the process of roasting and
calcination. Oxides of metals so obtained
are converted into metals by the process of
reduction.

Roasting: Heating of sulphide ores in

the presence of excess air to convert
them into oxides is known as Roasting

Calcination: Heating of carbonate ores in the

limited supply of air to convert them into
oxides is known as Calcination
Reduction: Heating of oxides of metals to turn
them into metal is known as Reduction.
(i) Extraction of Metals of Least Reactivity:
Mercury and copper, which belong to the least
reactivity series, are often found in the form of
their sulphide ores. Cinnabar (HgS) is the ore of
mercury. Copper glance (Cu2S) is the ore of
copper.
Extraction of Mercury Metal: Cinnabar (HgS) is
first heated in air. This turns HgS (mercury
sulphide or cinnabar) into HgO (mercury oxide)
by liberation of sulphur dioxide. Mercury oxide
so obtained is again heated strongly. This
reduces mercury oxide to mercury metal.

Extraction of Copper Metal: Copper glance (Cu2S) is

roasted in the presence of air. Roasting turns copper
glance (ore of copper) into copper (l) oxide. Copper
oxide is then heated in the absence of air. This reduces
copper (l) oxide into copper metal
Extraction of Metals of Middle Reactivity: Iron,
zinc, lead, etc. are found in the form of
carbonate or sulphide ores. Carbonate or
sulphide ores of metals are first converted into
respective oxides and then oxides are reduced
to respective metals.

Extraction of Zinc: Zinc blende (ZnS: zinc sulphide)

and smithsonite or zinc spar or calamine (ZnCO3:
zinc carbonate) are ores of zinc. Zinc blende is
roasted to be converted into zinc oxide. Zinc spar is
put under calcination to be converted into zinc
oxide

Zinc oxide so obtained is reduced to zinc metal

by heating with carbon (a reducing agent).
Extraction of Iron from Haematite (Fe2O3):
Haematite ore is heated with carbon to be
reduced to iron metal

Extraction of Lead from Lead oxide:

Lead oxide is heated with carbon to be
reduced to lead metal

Reduction of Metal oxide by Heating with Aluminium:

Metal oxides are heated with aluminium (a reducing
agent) to be reduced to metal. Following is an example:
Manganese dioxide and copper oxide are reduced to
respective metals when heated with aluminium

Extraction of Metals of High Reactivity: Metals of

high reactivity; such as sodium, calcium,
magnesium, aluminium, etc. are extracted from
their ores by electrolytic reduction. These metals
cannot be reduced using carbon because carbon
is less reactive than
Thermite Reaction: Ferric oxide; when heated with
aluminium; is reduced to iron metal. In this reaction, a
lot of heat is produced. The thermite reaction is used
in the welding of electric conductors, iron joints, etc.
such as joints in railway tracks. This is also known as
Thermite Welding (TW)

Electrolytic Reduction: Electric current is passed

through the molten state of metal ores. Metal being
positively charged is deposited over the cathode.
Example: When an electric current is passed through
molten state or solution of sodium chloride, sodium
metal gets deposited over the cathode
Refining or purification of metals: Metals extracted from
various methods contains some impurities, thus, they are
required to be refined. Most of the metals are refined
using electrolytic refining.

Electrolytic Refining: In the process of electrolytic

refining, a lump of impure metal and a thin strip of
pure metal are dipped in the salt solution of metal to
be refined. When an electric current is passed
through the solution, pure metal is deposited over a
thin strip of pure metal from a lump of impure metal.
In this, impure metal is used as anode and pure metal
is used as a cathode.

Electrolytic Refining of Copper: A lump of

impurecopper metal and a thin strip of pure copper are
dipped in the solution of copper sulphate. Impure lump
of metal is connected with the positive pole and thin
strip of pure metal is connected with negative pole.
When electric current is passed through the solution,
pure metal from anode moves towards cathode and is
deposited over it. Impurities present in metal are
settled near the bottom of anode in the solution.
Settled impurities in the solution are called Anode
Mud.
 Corrosion: Most of the metals keep on
reacting with the atmospheric air. This leads to the
formation of a layer over the metal. In the long run, the
underlying layer of metal keeps on getting lost due to
conversion into oxides or sulphides or carbonate, etc. As
a result, the metal gets eaten up. The process is called
Corrosion.
Rusting of Iron: Rusting of iron is the most common form
of corrosion. When iron articles like the gate, grill,
fencing, etc. come in contact with moisture present in
the air, the upper layer of iron turns into iron oxide. Iron
oxide is brown-red in colour and is known as Rust. The
phenomenon is called Rusting of Iron.
If rusting is not prevented in time, the whole iron article
would turn into iron oxide. This is also known as
Corrosion of Iron. Rusting of iron gives a huge loss every
year.

Prevention of Rusting: For rusting, iron must

come in contact with oxygen and water. Rusting is
prevented by preventing the reaction between
atmospheric moisture and the iron article. This can be
done by:
• Painting
• Greasing
• Galvanization
• Electroplating
• Alloying

Rusted Material
Alloys: The homogeneous mixture of two or more
metals, or a metal and a non-metal is called Alloy.

Types of alloys:

• Ferrous alloys: An alloy in which iron (Fe) is present.

For example: manganese steel (Fe = 86%; Mn = 13% ;
C = 1% ) and Nickle steel Ni = 2% ) ( Fe = 98%

• Non-ferrous alloys: An alloy does not contain iron.

For example: Brass ( Cu = 80% ; Zn = 20% ) and
Bronze ( Cu = 90% Sn = 10%).

• Amalgams: An alloy in which mercury (Hg) is

present. For example Sodium amalgams [Na(Hg)] and
Zinc amalgams [Zn(Hg)].

BRONZE [AN ALLOY MADE OF

COPPER AND TIN]

PROPERTIES OF AN ALLOY
• Alloys are stronger than the metal from which they are obtained.

• It is harder than the constituent metals.

• More resistance to corrosion.

• The melting point of alloys is lower than the constituent metals.

Example: Solder [Sn(80%) + Pb(50%)] has lower m. p. than Pb and Sn.

• The electrical conductivity of alloys is lower than the constituent metals.

Examples of Alloys
• Brass: [80% Cu + 20% Zn]

• Bronze: [90% Cu + 20% Sn]

• Solder: [50% Pb + 50% Sn]

• Duralumin: [95% Al + 4% Cu + 0.5% Mg + 0.5 Mn]

• Steel: [99.95% Fe + 0.05% C]

• Stainless steel: [74% Fe + 18% Cr + 8% Ni]

• Magnesium: [95% Al + 5% Mg]

• German Silver: [60% Cu + 20% Zn + 20% Ni]

• Alloys of Gold: Pure gold is said to be of 24 carats. Gold is alloyed

with a small amount of silver or copper to make it hard.
 CAN YOU ANSWER
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION
Metals are lustrous and shiny especially when they freshly cut surfaces are exposed.
Salma cut pieces and compared the lustre of the freshly cut surfaces of the following
metals :Aluminium, Sodium, Copper, Iron. The freshly cut surface of which of these
metals is likely to lose its lustre first on exposure to air?

(a) Aluminium
(b) Sodium
(c) Copper
(d) Iron (2023-24) APQ

During purification of a metal by electrolysis, what happens at the

negative electrode?
(a) Metal ions lose electrons to become neutral atoms.
(b) Neutral metal atoms gain electrons to become ions.
(c) Neutral metal atoms lose electrons to become ions.
(d) Metal ions gain electrons to become neutral metal atoms.
On adding dilute sulphuric acid to a test tube containing a metal 'X', a
colourless gas is produced when a burning match stick is brought near it.
Which of the following correctly represents metal 'X'?

(a) Sodium
(b) Sulphur
(c) Copper
(d) Silver

An element with atomic number_______ will form a basic oxide.

(a) 7 (2,5)
(b) 17 (2,8,7)
(c) 14 (2,8,4)
(d) 11 (2,8,1)

What is likely to happen to the concentration of copper sulphate in the

solution on passing electric current through the solution in the set-up with
the silver plate?

(a) It will increase.

(b) It will decrease.
(c) It will remain the same.
(d) Cannot say without knowing the amount of current passed.
 ASSERTION/REASONING
(A) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct
explanation of A.
(B) Both A and R are true, and R is not the correct
explanation of A.
(C) A is true but R is false.
(D) A is false but R is true

Assertion: Rusting of iron is endothermic in nature.

Reason: As the reaction is slow, the release of heat is
barely evident.

Assertion:The metals and alloys are good conductors of

electricity
Reason: Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and it is not a
good conductor of electricity.

Assertion : Hydrogen gas is not evolved when zinc

reacts with nitric acid.
Reason : Nitric acid oxidises the hydrogen gas produced
to water and itself gets reduced

Assertion (A) : The colour of aqueous solution of copper

sulphate turns colourless when a piece of lead is added to it.
Reason (R): Lead is more reactive than copper, and hence
displaces copper from its salt solution.

Assertion (A): The extraction of metals from their sulphide

ores cannot take place without roasting of the ore.
Reason (R): Roasting converts sulphide ores directly into
metals.
Assertion (A): Metals are good conductors of electricity.
Reason (R): Metals have free electrons that allow the flow of
electric current.
 QUESTION/ANSWERS
1. Why do some metals, like sodium and potassium, have low melting points despit
being solid at room temperature?
2. Explain the role of electronic configuration in determining the metallic and non-
metallic nature of elements.
3. Why do transition metals exhibit variable oxidation states, and how does this
impact their chemical behavior?
4. Discuss the reasons why ionic compounds formed by metals and non-metals
have high melting and boiling points.
5. How does the electronegativity difference between elements determine whethe
the bond formed is metallic, ionic, or covalent?
6. Why are interstitial alloys stronger than pure metals, and what role do non-
metals play in their formation?
7. Describe the chemistry behind the galvanization of iron and its effectiveness in
preventing corrosion.
8. Explain why non-metals like nitrogen and oxygen can form multiple bonds,
whereas metals generally cannot.
9. How does the band theory of solids explain the electrical conductivity of metals
and the insulating nature of non-metals?
10. Why are some non-metals, like sulfur and phosphorus, more reactive in their
atomic form than in their molecular form?
11. Discuss the role of d-orbitals in transition metals and how they influence
properties such as magnetism and color.
12. Why do metals like aluminum and magnesium burn in oxygen to form oxides,
whereas noble metals like gold do not?
13. How does the nature of the oxide (acidic, basic, or amphoteric) help in
classifying an element as a metal, non-metal, or metalloid?
14. Explain the role of non-metals in the Haber process and their significance in
industrial chemistry.
15. How does the density of metals correlate with their atomic structure and
packing efficiency?
16. Discuss the differences in the thermodynamic stability of oxides formed by
metals and non-metals.
17. Why do metals tend to lose electrons during chemical reactions, and how does
this relate to ionization energy trends in the periodic table?
18. Explain why some non-metals, such as graphite and iodine, exhibit metallic
properties despite being classified as non-metals.
19. How does the concept of lattice energy explain the formation and stability of
metal-nonmetal ionic compounds?
20. Discuss the chemical principles behind the use of metal-nonmetal combinations
in semiconductors, focusing on elements like silicon and germanium.