1. Explains correlation between diseases and health.

2. Identify and elaborate various types and effects of Addications.

3. Elaborate the role of microbes in food production.
4. Describes, compare, review different techniques developed for betterment of
life.
Unit 4 : 5. Understand applications of technology used to overcome problems in daily
Applied life.
Biology 6. Suggest remedial measures for improvement of social health.
7. Describe and suggest career opportunities in the fields of dairy, poultry and
other field.
8. Explain role of microbes in upcoming fields as Biocontrol agents, Sewage
treatment, Nanotechnology.
9. Elaborate the need of bio technology.
1. Explains the correlation, interaction and effect of environment on organisms.
Unit 5 : 2. Understand and explain the relationship in ecosystem, role of energy flow.
3. Analyze, understand and explain environmental issues and their impact.
Ecology and
4. Contribute, plan and implement programs about conservation of environment.
Environment 5. Use information gathered to save biodiversity, find remedies to solve
environmental issues.

Contents
Sr. No. Name of the lesson Page No.
1. Reproduction in Lower and Higher Plants 1-17
2. Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals 18-48
3. Inheritance and Variation 49-69
4. Molecular Basis of Inheritance 70-93
5. Origin and Evolution of Life 94-118
6. Plant Water Relation 119-133
7. Plant Growth and Mineral Nutrition 134-152
8. Respiration and Circulation 153-181
9. Control and Co-ordination 182-220
10. Human Health and Diseases 221-245
11. Enhancement of Food Production 246-271
12. Biotechnology 272-292
13. Organisms and Populations 293-307
14. Ecosystems and Energy Flow 308-320
Biodiversity, Conservation and
15. 321-342
Environmental Issues

DISCLAIMER Note : All attempts have been made to contact copy right/s (©) but we have not heard from them. We
will be pleased to acknowledge the copy right holder (s) in our next edition if we learn from them.
 2 Reproduction in Lower and Higher Animals

Gemmule Formation:
Can you recall? Gemmule is an internal bud formed only
in sponges. It has asexually produced mass or
1. Enlist the various life processes. Name
aggregation of dormant cells, the archaeocytes
the life process which is responsible for
capable of developing into a new organism.
continuation of the human race.
The archaeocytes get coated by a thick resistant
2. What are the common methods of
reproduction in the unicellular organisms layer of secretion by amoebocytes. The
like Euglena, Amoeba and Paramoecium? gemmule is formed to overcome unfavourable
3. What type of asexual reproduction conditions. On return of favourable conditions
occurs in Hydra? of water and temperature, the gemmules
4. What are the different methods of hatch and develop into a new individual. e.g.
reproduction in animals? Spongilla.

We know that reproduction is one of the Micropyle

major life processes of any living organism.
Monaxon spicules
It helps in maintaining the continuity of the
species. Reproduction is defined as the Inner membrane
biological process of formation of new life Archaeocytes
forms from pre-existing similar life. It thus
Outer membrane
becomes a vital process which enables the
species to survive over a long period, even Fig. 2.1 : Gemmule
though the individuals or organisms live
naturally for a limited period of time i.e. their Budding:
life span. In this chapter, we will learn about It is a simple method of asexual
the various methods of reproduction in animals reproduction normally occuring in favourable
the human reproductive system, gametogenesis conditions. It is seen in a variety of animals
and fertilization, early embryology, parturition like coelenterates (Hydra and corals) and in
and reproductive health. some colonial ascidians. In Hydra, a small
Reproduction in animals occurs mainly by outgrowth is produced towards the basal end
two methods i.e. asexual and sexual. of the body.
2.1 Asexual Reproduction in animals :
It is a common method among lower
animals. It does not involve meiosis nor the
gamete formation and fusion. The formation of
progeny is by a single parent only and does not
involve both the sexes, so it is called asexual
reproduction. The progeny or daughter cells
are genetically identical to the single parent Fully Young
Bud Developing mature
bud Hydra
and are also referred to as clones. The lower bud separates
animals reproduce asexually by gemmule Fig. 2.2 : Budding in Hydra
formation and budding.
18
 It develops as a bud which grows and The sexually reproducing animals show
forms tentacles and develops (get transformed) two main phases in their life time. The earlier
into a new individual. This process is called juvenile phase mainly represents physical
budding. The young Hydra gets detached from growth phase starting from birth. The animals
the parent and becomes an independent new can not reproduce sexually in this phase.
organism. The later Reproductive maturity phase
is attained usually after physical growth is
Do you know ? almost over. It involves growth and activity
of the sex organs. The animal can reproduce
Regeneration: sexually in this phase. Both these periods
A word which in biology refers to the (phases) are of variable duration in different
process observed in all living organisms animals. After attaining sexual maturity,
from the unicellular bacteria upto the most the animal exhibits various events, namely
complex multicellular forms e.g. humans. By pre-fertilization (gametogenesis and gamete
this process, the organism can fundamentally transfer), fertilization (fusion of male and
repair or regrow or restore its lost or damaged female gametes) and post fertilization events
part. Though it involves asexual processes, (formation of zygote and embryogenesis).
it differs distinctly from reproduction e.g.
The sexually reproducing animals show
a damaged Hydra can regenerate its lost
various breeding patterns. Some like the goat,
part. Similarly Planaria if wounded, its cells
sheep, and donkey are seasonal breeders while
become active and regenerate lost part or
humans and apes are continuous breeders.
organ back to its original state. They can also
They can breed throughout the year.
reproduce asexually by fragmentation. Also,
it is seen in planarians that the anterior end Human Reproduction :
exerts a pull on the posterior end resulting in Humans are sexually reproducing animals.
a constriction in the middle part and splitting The process of reproduction involves various
into two pieces. Each piece grows into a new sequential steps such as gametogenesis,
Planaria. i.e. two clones of the original have insemination, internal fertilization (i.e. fusion
been formed. of male and female gametes), zygote formation
and embryogenesis, gestation and parturition.
The gametes, sperms and eggs are produced
by the primary sex organs, testis in male and
ovary in female. Organs other than testis and
ovary, are called secondary sex organs of the
male and female. As male and female can be
externally differentiated by certain specific
features called secondary sexual characters,
2.2 Sexual reproduction in animals : they are called sexual dimorphic characters.
It is the process which involves the In males, presence of beard, moustache,
production of offspring by the formation and hair on the chest, muscular body, enlarged
fusion of gametes. It is also called amphimixis. larynx (Adam’s apple) are secondary sexual
In animals, gamete formation primarily characters while in females these characters
involves meiosis. are the developed breast, broader pelvis and
high pitched voice.
19
A. Male Reproductive System : Histology of Testis:
It consists of the primary male organ The testis is externally covered by a
(gonad) called testes, the accessory ducts collagenous connective tissue layer called
and glands which form internal and external tunica albuginea. Outer to it is an incomplete
genitalia. peritoneal covering called tunica vaginalis,
and inner to it is tunica vasculosa, a thin
Can you recall? membranous and vascular layer. Fibers from
tunica albuginea divide each testis into about
200-300 testicular lobules (refer dig. 2.3
Label the given male reproductive
L. S. of testis). Each with 1-4 highly coiled
system you have studied.
seminiferous tubules. Each seminiferous
7 tubule is internally lined by cuboidal germinal
epithelial cells (spermatogonia) and few large
1
pyramidal cells called Sertoli or sustentacular
2 8 cells.
3 9
4 Seminiferous
Interstitial cells
5 Tunica tubule
(Leydig cells)
6 albuginea

10 Sertoli
cell Germinal
a. Testes: epithelium
A pair of testes, mesodermal in origin, are Sperm
formed in the lower abdominal cavity. They bundle

are located in a pouch called scrotum. During Basement

early foetal life, the testes develop in abdominal Connective tissue membrane
cavity and later they descend into the scrotal Fig. 2.4 : T. S. of Testis
sac through a passage called inguinal canal.
Each testis is oval in shape, 4 to 5cm long, 2 to The germinal epithelial cells undergo
3cm wide and 3cm thick. gametogenesis to form the spermatozoa.
Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the developing
Spermatic cord sperms. Various stages of spermatogenesis
can be seen in the seminiferous tubules. The
Blood vessels
and nerves Vas deferens
inner most spermatogonial cell (2n), primary
Head of spermatocyte (2n), secondary spermatocyte
Vasa efferentia
epididymis (n), spermatids (n) and sperms (n). The
Rete testis
Interstitial or Leydig’s cells lie in between the
Body of Tunica vaginalis
epididymis
seminiferous tubules. They secrete the male
Tunica albuginea
hormone androgen or testosterone.
Tail of Lobules
epididymis Septum
Seminiferous tubule

Fig. 2.3 : L. S. of testis

20
 c. Glands:
Do you know ? The male accessory glands are as follows:
• Seminal vesicles: It is a pair of glands lying
1. Presence of the peritoneal covering on the posterior side of urinary bladder.
around the testis is an indication of its
It secretes an alkaline seminal fluid
abdominal origin.
which contains fructose, fibrinogen and
2. The testis are suspended in the scrotum
prostaglandins. It contributes about 60%
by the spermatic cord.
3. Testosterone hormone stimulates the of the total volume of the semen. Fructose
descent of testis and the fibro-muscular provides energy for sperm movement while
band called gubernaculum in the fibrinogen coagulates the semen into a
scrotum. bolus for quick propulsion in the vagina.
4. In some males a loop of the intestine The prostaglandins stimulate reverse
may pass through the inguinal canal into peristalsis in vagina and uterus aiding
the scrotum and cause a condition called faster movement of sperms towards the egg
inguinal hernia. in the female body.
• Prostate gland: It is a large and single
b. Accessory ducts:
gland made up of 20-30 lobes and is
The accessory ducts include rete testis,
located underneath the urinary bladder. It
vasa efferentia, epididymis, vas deferens,
surrounds the urethra and releases a milky
ejaculatory duct and urethra. All the
white and slightly acidic prostatic fluid into
seminiferous tubules of the testis at the
the urethra. It forms about 30% of volume
posterior surface form a network of tubules
of semen. It contains citric acid, acid
called rete testis. 12-20 fine tubules arising
phosphatase and various other enzymes.
from rete testis are vasa efferentia. They carry
The acid phosphatase protects the sperms
the sperms from the testis and open into the
from the acidic environment of vagina.
epididymis. It is a long and highly coiled tube
which is differentiated into an upper caput-,
middle corpus- and lower cauda epididymis. Activity :
The sperms undergo maturation in epididymis.
Find the symptoms of prostate cancer.
Posteriorly it leads into the vas deferens which
travels upto the abdominal cavity and loops
over the ureter to open into the urethra. Before Always Remember
doing so, it joins the duct of seminal vesicle
Prostate cancer is cancer of the prostate
to form the ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory
gland. Men who are over 50 years of age
duct passes through the prostate gland and
and have a daily high consumption of fat,
opens into the urethra. The urethra provides have an increased risk of prostate cancer.
a common passage for the urine and semen
and hence is also called urinogenital duct. In
males the urethra is long and extends through Internet my friend
the penis. It opens to the outside by an opening What is the role of prostaglandin?
called the urethral meatus or urethral orifice.
All the accessory ducts except urethra are • Cowper’s gland / Bulbourethral gland
present in pairs. : It is a small, pea sized and paired gland
situated on either side of urethra. These

21
 glands secrete an alkaline, viscous, mucous 1. A pair of ovaries
like fluid which acts as a lubricant during 2. A pair of oviducts
copulation. 3. Uterus
Semen : 4. Vagina
It is the viscous, alkaline and milky 5. External genitalia (vulva)
fluid (pH 7.2 to 7.7) ejaculated by the male 6. A pair of vestibular glands
reproductive system. Normally 2.5 to 4.0 ml of 7. A pair of mammary glands
semen is given out during a single ejaculation
and it contains about 400 million sperms. It Can you recall?
contains secretion of the epididymis and the
Give labels to given female reproductive
accessory glands for nourishing (fructose),
system:
neutralizing acidity (Ca++, bicarbonates),
activation for movement (prostaglandins).
d. External genitalia:
It includes the penis and the scrotum.
The penis is the male copulatory organ. It is
cylindrical and muscular with three bundles
of erectile tissue- a pair of postero-lateral
tissue called corpora cavernosa and a median
corpus spongiousm. The swollen tip of the
penis is called glans penis. It is covered by a
loose fold of skin called foreskin or prepuce.
Scrotum : 1. Ovary : It is the primary female sex organ.
It is a loose pouch of pigmented skin Its main function is production of egg or ovum
lying behind the penis and is divided into a and the female reproductive hormones. It is
right and left scrotal sac by a septum of tunica solid, oval or almond shaped organ. It is 3.0
dartos made of smooth muscle fibres. The cm in length, 1.5 cm in breadth and 1.0 cm
foetal testes are guided into and retained in the thick. It is located in the upper lateral part of
scrotum by a short fibro muscular band called the pelvis near the kidneys. Each ovary is held
gubernaculum. The testes remain suspended in position by ligaments by attaching it to the
in scrotum by a spermatic chord. Failure uterus and the abdominal wall. The largest of
of testis to descend into scrotum is called these is the broad ligament formed by a fold
cryptorchidism. The failure also results in the of peritoneum. It holds the ovary, oviduct and
sterility. The cremaster and dartos muscles of the uterus to the dorsal body wall. The ovarian
scrotum help in drawing testes close or away ligament attaches ovary to the uterus. The
from the body. This helps in maintaining the ovary produces five hormones viz, estrogen,
temperature of the testis 2-30C lower than progesteron, relaxin, activin and inhibin.
the normal body temperature, necessary for
spermatogenesis. Structure and development of the ovary :
Each ovary is a compact structure
B. Female Reproductive System: differentiated into a central part called medulla
The female reproductive system consist of and the outer part called cortex. The cortex
the following parts : is covered externally by a layer of germinal
22
epithelium. The stroma or loose connective The large scale destruction of the primordial
tissue of the medulla has blood vessels, lymph follicles during growth is called atresia.
vessels, and nerve fibres. The outer cortex is The development of the primordial follicles
more compact and granular. It shows large into mature or Graafian follicles restarts with
number of tiny masses of cells called ovarion the onset of puberty. During each menstrual
follicles. These are collectively formed from cycle only one of the primordial follicle starts
the immature ova originating from cells of growing to form the Graafian follicle.
the dorsal endoderm of the yolk sac. The cells In each cycle, alternately one of the two
migrate to the gonadal ridge during embryonic ovaries produces the Graafian follicle.
development and divide mitotically. Now The 1st menstrual cycle or menarche begins
these cells are called oogonia. As the oogonia normally at about 13 years and Menopause
continue to grow in size they are surrounded i.e. stopping of the cycles happens at age 45
by a layer of granulosa cells and form the to 55 years. The period in between menarche
rudiments of the ovarian follicles. The process and menopause is the reproductive age of the
of oogenesis starts much before the birth of the female and is approximately 32 years. In this
female baby and by the end of twelve weeks time the female will be producing a maximum
the ovary is fully formed. It has more than two of about 416 eggs (32 ×13 = 416 eggs).
million primordial follicles in it.
Ovarian histology of a mature female :
Blood vessels Day 1 Primary
Secondary Day 12 In the histology of ovary, we have
Primordial follicle follicle
follicle Tertiary discussed the primary structure of ovary. The
follicle following discussion includes the changes seen
Mature in a mature ovary, primarily in the cortex. The
follicle different stages of development of the oocyte
Cortex
Oocyte can be seen. These changes in the ovary are
Medulla cyclic, occuring during each menstrual cycle
Corpus Day 14
albicans Ovulated ovum and it involves maturation of the primordial
Corpus follicles into primary, secondary and Graafian
Day 20 Germinal epithelium
luteum
follicles. Each primary follicle has multilayered
Fig. 2.5 : T.S. of ovary
cuboidal follicular cells. The stroma cells
The cells of germinal epithelium give add theca over the follicle. It now changes
rise to groups of oogonia projecting into the into a secondary follicle. There is growth of
cortex in the form of cords called egg tubes of the oocyte and the granulosa cells increase
Pfluger. Each cord at its end has a round mass in number. They start producing the hormone
of oogonial cells called egg nests, from which estrogen. The secondary follicle grows into the
the primordial ovarian follicles develop. Each Graafian follicle by addition of more follicular
primordial follicle has, at its center a large cells. As this process of maturation of follicles
primary oocyte (2n) surrounded by a single takes place, they begin to move towards the
layer of flat follicular cells. The primary oocyte surface of ovary. The Graafian follicle presses
starts with its meiotic division but gets arrested against the thin wall of the ovary giving it a
it at meiosis I. Of the two million primordial blistered appearance. The egg is released from
follicles embedded in the foetal ovary only the Graafian follicle during ovulation and
about one million remain at birth and only the remaining part of the follicle changes into
about 40,000 remain at the time of puberty. a temporary endocrine gland called corpus

23
luteum. If fertilization does not take place the a. Infundibulum : The proximal funnel
corpus luteum degenerates into a white scar like part with an opening called ostium
called corpus albicans. surrounded by many finger like processes
called fimbriae (of these at least one is long
Use your brain power and connected to the ovary). The cilia and
the movement of fimbrae help in driving
In t. s. of ovary, can all the stages of the ovulated egg to the ostium.
follicles be seen simultaniously?
b. Ampulla : It is the middle, long and
straight part of the oviduct. Fertilization of
Structure of Graafian follicle :
the ovum takes place in this region.
Graafian follicle is a mature ovarian
c. Isthmus / Cornua : The distal narrow part
follicle. An eccentric secondary oocyte is
of the duct opening into the uterus.
surrounded by a non-cellular layer of zona
pellucida secreted by the vitelline membrane 3. Uterus : It is commonly also called the
of oocyte. The outermost protective and fibrous womb. It is a hollow, muscular, pear shaped
covering is called theca externa. Inner to it is organ, located above and behind the urinary
cellular theca interna. It produces the hormone bladder. It is about 7.5 cm long, 5 cm broad
estrogen. Inner to the theca interna, the follicular and 2.5 cm thick. The uterus can be divided
cells form the membrana granulosa. From the into three regions :
membrana granulosa the cells differentiate a. Fundus : It is the upper dome shaped part.
into discus proligerus and the corona radiata Normally implantation of the embryo
cells. Cumulus oophorus is the term used for occurs in the fundus.
the oocyte and surrounding granulosa cells . A b. Body : It is the broad part of the uterus
fluid filled cavity called antrum lies between which gradually tapers downwards.
the oocyte and the membrana granulosa. It is c. Cervix : It is the narrow nec about 2.5 cm
filled with a fluid called liquor folliculi. in length. It extends into the vagina. Its
passage has two openings : an internal
os towards the body, and an external os
Theca externa
Theca interna
towards the vagina.
Antrum Internally the uterine wall can be
Granulosa cells distinguished into three layers : Outermost
Corona radiata perimetrium, middle thick muscular
Oocyte myometrium, made up of thick layer of
smooth muscles. Vigorous contractions of these
Fig. 2.6 : Graafian Follicle muscles cause labour during the parturition
(child birth). The innermost layer called
2. Oviduct / Fallopian tube / Uterine tube: endometrium or mucosal membrane is made
These are a pair of muscular ducts lying up of stratified epithelium. The thickness of
horizontally over the peritoneal cavity. The this layer regularly undergoes changes in
proximal part of the tube lies close to the ovary, during the menstrual cycle. It is richly supplied
and distally it opens into the uterus. Each tube with blood vessels and uterine glands. These
is 10 to 12 cm in length. It is internally lined by provide nourishment to the developing foetus.
ciliated epithelium. It can be divided into three
regions :

24
 c. Clitoris - A small conical and sensitive
Do you know ? projection lying at the antirior end of labia
Uterus cancer: minora. It has a pair of erectile tissue - The
Most of the uterine cancers begin corpora cavernosa and is homologous to
in the layer of cells that form the lining of the penis.
endometrium of uterus. d. Labia majora - These are a pair a fleshy
Symptoms : Abnormal bleeding between folds of skin forming the boundary of vulva.
periods, vaginal bleeding after menopause, They are homologous to the scrotum. They
an abnormal watery, blood-tinged discharge surround and protect the other parts of
from vagina, pelvic pain. external genitalia and enclose the urethral
Detection : It is diagnosed with Pap smear and vaginal openings in the vestibule.
test, biopsy, Ultrasound. e. Mons pubis - It is a fleshy elevation above
Treatment : Chemotherapy, radiation, the labia majora. The Mons pubis and outer
surgical removal of uterus (hysterectomy).
part of labia majora show pubic hair.
4. Vagina : It is a tubular, female copulatory 6. Accessary glands / Vestibular glands /
organ, 7 to 9 cm in length. It lies between the Bartholin’s glands : It is a pair of glands
cervix and the vestibule. The vaginal wall has homologous to the Bulbourethral or Cowper’s
an inner mucosal lining, the middle muscular glands of the male. They open into the vestibule
layer and an outer adventitia layer. The mucosal and release a lubricating fluid.
epithelium is stratified and non-keratinised Mammary glands :
and stores glycogen. There are no glands but Accessory organs of female reproductive
the cervical secretion of mucus is recieved in system for production and release of milk after
the vagina. The opening of the vagina into parturition. Development of the mammary
the vestibule is called vaginal orifice. This gland occurs at puberty under the influence of
opening is covered partially by a fold of mucus estrogen and progesteron. Lactotropic hormone
membrane called hymen. The vagina acts as (LTH) or prolactin helps in development of
a passage for menstrual flow as well as birth lactiferous tubules during pregnancy.
canal during parturition.
Pectoralis major muscle
5. External genitalia : The external genital
Intercostal Suspensory ligaments
organs of female include parts external to the muscles
vagina and are collectively called ‘vulva’ Lactiferous
(covering or wrapping), or pudendum. They sinus
Ribs
include the following parts :
a. Vestibule - It is a median vertical depression Lactiferous
of vulva enclosing the urethral and vaginal Lung duct
opening. Gland lobules
b. Labia minora - These are another pair of Fat
thin folds inner to the labia majora with Fig. 2.7 : Section view of Mammary gland
which they merge posteriorly to form the
fore chette while towards anterior end they The mammary glands are a pair of rounded
converge into a hood-like covering around structures present in the subcutaneous tissue of
the clitoris. the anterior thorax in the pectoral region (from

25
2nd to 6th rib). These are modified sweat glands. Puberty / Sexual maturity in Females :
Each mammary gland contains fatty connective The reproductive system becomes
tissue and numerous lactiferous ducts. The functional at puberty. It is characterised
glandular tissue of each breast is divided into by onset of menstrual cycle also called
15-20 irregularly shaped mammary lobes, menarche, which usually occurs at age 10-
each with alveolar glands and lactiferous duct. 14 years. However, unlike in the males, the
Alveolar glands secrete milk which is stored mature females show cyclic changes in their
in the lumen of alveoli. The alveoli open into reproductive system- the menstrual cycles.
mammary tubules. The tubules of each lobe These cycles continue only upto menopause.
join to form a mammary duct. Many mammary This normally happens at age 45-50 years. The
ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla, period from menarche to menopause is thus the
which is connected to lactiferous duct. These reproductive age of the female. The female is
converge towards the nipple located near the unable to bear children (by natural method)
tip of the breast. It is surrounded by a dark after menopause. Menarche, menstrual cycles
brown coloured and circular area of the skin and menopause are controlled by gonadotropic
called areola. hormones.
2.3 Menstrual cycle (Ovarian cycle):
Do you know ?
Menstrual cycle is the characteristic
Breast cancer : feature of primates including human. It
Symptoms: First symptom of breast cancer involves a series of cyclic changes in the ovary
is a lump in breast or underarm. Lump is and the female reproductive tract, mainly in
painless. Swelling of all or part of breast. the uterus. These changes take place under
Skin irritation, Breast or nipple pain, nipple the effect of gonadotropins and the ovarian
retraction, Redness, scaliness or thickening hormones respectively. The cycles are repeated
of nipple or breast skin, discharge, etc. with a periodicity of approximately 28 days.
Detection: Mammogram (x-ray), The middle of each cycle is characterised by
ultrasound, MRI, Biopsy, Blood test. the release of an egg. This egg in every cycle
Treatment: Radiation therapy, comes alternately from one of the two ovaries.
chemotherapy lumpectomy, Mammoplasty The cycle is divided into four phases.
a. Menstrual phase:
Do you know ? The begining of each cycle is taken as
the first day where menses or loss of blood
Weaning : Mother’s milk is replaced
(45-100ml) takes place and it lasts for
gradually by solid food after some time.
approximately five days (average 3-7 days).
This process is called weaning.
Endometrium of uterus breaks down
under the effect of prostaglandins released
Puberty / Sexual maturity in Males :
due to decreased levels of progesteron and
Puberty is the age at which the reproductive
estrogen. Due to this blood, tissue fluid, mucus,
system becomes functional, sex organs begin
endometrial lining and the unfertilized oocyte
to produce gametes and sex hormones. In
is discharged through vagina. The endometrial
males the onset of puberty occurs at age 12-15
lining becomes very thin i.e. about 1 mm. The
years. Under the influence of testosterone, the
menstrual discharge continues for an average
secondary sexual characters appear. Thereafter
of 5 days, however this blood does not clot
it remains functional throughout the life.
26
due to presence of fibrinolysin. Menstrual of degeneration is called atresia. Developing
phase occurs when an ovulated egg does not secondary follicles secrete the hormone
get fertilized and it is thereby shed out along estrogen. The stimulation for proliferation of
with the menstrum. It is thus called ‘funeral of new follicles is influenced by GnRH which
unfertilized egg’. stimulates release of FSH.
During these five days, many primordial Endometrium begins to regenerate under
follicles develope into primary and few of them the effect of gradually increasing quantity
into secondary follicles under the effect of FSH. of estrogens. Regeneration also involves
formation of endothelial cells, endometrial or
Folicular phase Luteal phase
Gonadotropic
LH uterine glands and network of blood vessels.
hormone
FSH Thickness of endometrium reaches 3-5 mm.
levels
c. Ovulatary phase:
Ovarian It is the shortest phase of menstrual cycle.
cycle
Preovulatory phase Ovulation Postovulatory phase
It involves rupturing of the mature graafian
Ovarian
Progesteron follicle and release of ovum (secondary
hormone
Estrogens
oocyte) into the pelvic cavity; usually on 14th
levels
day of menstrual cycle. Rapid secretion of LH
by positive feedback mechanism causes the
Uterine
mature follicle to rupture. Ovulation may be
cycle accompanied by mild or severe pains in lower
abdomen.
Phases of the Menses Proliferative Secretory phase
uterine cycle phase d. Secretory phase / Luteal phase:
Days 0 5 14 21 28 Duration of this phase is between the
Fig. 2.8 : Hormones and the menstrual ovulation and beginning of the next menses.
cycle. This phase is the longest phase. It lasts for 14
days; from 15th to 28th day of the cycle.
Internet my friend After release of secondary oocyte,
remaining tissue of graafian follicle transforms
1. Enlist the examples of primates and non
primate animals. into corpus luteum under the effect of LH.
Corpus luteum begins to secrete progesteron
2. Collect information about female
reproductive cycles differentiating both and estrogens. The ovulated egg may get
primates and non-primates. fertilized within 24 hours. However, in the
absence of fertilization, corpus luteum can
b. Proliferative phase / Follicular phase / survive for only two weeks and then degenerate
Post menstrual phase: into a white scar called corpus albicans.
This phase is the duration between the end of The corpus luteum releases progesteron,
menstruation and release of ovum (ovulation). small amount of estrogens and inhibin.
Duration of this phase is more variable than Under the influence of these hormones, the
other phases. Generally, it extends from 5th to endometrial glands grow, become coiled and
13th day of menstrual cycle. start uterine secretions. Endometrium becomes
A few (6 to 12) secondary follicles proceed more vascularized and thickens up to 8-10 mm.
to develop but usually one of them develops into Inhibin stops secretion of FSH. These changes
a graafian follicle (mature follicle). The other are necessary for fertilization and subsequent
secondary follicles degenerate. This process implantation.
27
 However, if the ovulated egg gets fertilized spermatogenesis. At the onset of puberty, the
and the embryo is implanted, there is secretion hypothalamus begins secretion of gonadotropin
of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), releasing hormone (GnRH). It initiates the
which extends the life of corpus luteum and significant increase in the secretion of follicle
stimulates it’s secretory activity. Presence of stimulating hormone (FSH) which induces
hCG in maternal blood and urine is an indicator spermatogenesis. Each seminiferous tubules
of pregnancy. In absence of fertilization, next is lined by a single layer of cuboidal epithelial
menstrual cycle begins. cells called germinal epithelium.
The cells of germinal epithelium undergo
Always Remember spermatogenesis to produce sperms. Process of
Hygiene practices during menstruation : spermatogenesis involves three phases.
• Keep the pubic area clean.
Primordial cell
• Change the sanitary napkin every 4-5 (2n)
hours. Mitosis
• Maintaining personal hygiene during
I. Multiplication
menstruation is important to reduce the phase
Spermatogonia
risk of infection.
II. Growth (2n)
• Dispose used sanitary napkin properly.
phase
• Using damp and dirty clothes or using Primary spermatocytes
(2n)

Spermiogenesis Meiotic division

Meiosis I
a sanitary napkin for a longer time can
act as a perfect environment for growth Secondary spermatocytes
III. Maturation phase

(n)
and multiplication of harmful bacteria Meiosis II
and lead to infections. Spermatids
(n)

Use your brain power Spermatozoa

(n)
Why the menstruation is painful in some
women?

Can you tell?

Fig. 2.9 : Spermatogenesis
Can you tell the names of primates who
show the presence of menstrual cycle? I. Multiplication phase: The primordial
germ cells (2n) of seminiferous tubules
2.4 Gametogenesis:
undergo repeated mitotic divisions to produce
The gametogenesis is the process of
large number of spermatogonia (2n). Each
formation of gametes in sexually reproducing
spermatogonium is diploid and with 46
animals. The male gamete is sperm and the
chromsomes.
female gamete is ovum or egg. The gametes are
formed from primordial germ cells of gonads. II. Growth phase: Some of the spermatogonia
Spermatogenesis: stop dividing and grow in size to develop
The process of formation of the male into primary spermatocytes (2n) due to
gamete (sperm) or spermatozoa from the accumulation of food.
germinal epithelium of testis is called

28
III. Maturation phase: It involves meiotic or contains hydrolytic enzymes; hyaluronidase
reduction division. The spermatocyte undergoes and proteolytic enzymes like zona lysins and
the first phase of meiotic division (meiosis corona penetrating enzymes.
I) leading to formation of two haploid cells Neck: It is a very short region having two
called secondary spermatocytes (n), which are centrioles i.e. proximal centriole and distal
with 23 chromosomes each. The secondary centriole.
spermatocyte undergoes second phase of
Middle piece: It has an axial filament
meiotic division (meiosis II) to produce four
surrounded by 10-14 spiral turns of
haploid spermatids. The spermatid is non-
mitochondria (nebenkern). It produces energy
motile and non-functional. It gets transformed
necessary for the movement of sperm.
into a functional spermatozoa by the process
called spermiogenesis. During this process of Tail: It is a long, slender and tapering part
change, the spermatids remain held to each containing cytoplasm and fine thread- axial
other and to the sertoli cells by cytoplasmic filament. The axial filament arises from the
bridges. The sperm heads remain attached to the distal centriole and travels through out the
sertoli cells and their tails hanging in the lumen length of tail. It is partly surrounded by plasma
of seminiferous tubule. During spermiogenesis, membrane (main piece). The part without
length of spermatid increases. Centrioles are plasma membrane is called end piece.
rearranged as primary and distal centrioles. Oogenesis:
Mitochondria become spirally coiled and It is process of formation of the haploid
acrosome is formed from golgi complex. female gamete i.e. egg or ovum from the diploid
Structure of sperm: germinal epithelium. It involves the process of
Sperm is the male gamete. It is a motile, meiosis (and mitosis). Like spermatogenesis,
microscopic elongated cell. It is divisible into oogenesis process can be divided into three
three parts- head, middle piece and tail. stages :
I. Multiplication phase
Acrosome
II. Growth phase
Head Nucleus
III. Maturation phase
Neck Proximal centriole
Distal centriole
Middle P.G.C. (2n)
Mitochondria I
piece Multiplication
Phase
(Mitotic
Oogonia
divisions)
(2n)
Tail
Principal
II Growth
piece Phase Secondary Primary Oocyte (2n)

End piece Occyte (n) Meiosis I

I Polar body (n)
III Maturation
Fig. 2.10 : Structure of Sperm Meiosis II
Phase
Head: The sperm head is oval in shape and
contains haploid nucleus. Above the nucleus, II Polar bodies (n)
Ovum (n)
there is a cap like structure called acrosome.
It is formed from the golgi body. Acrosome Fig. 2.11 : Oogenesis

29
 and is ready for fertilization. (Completion of
Activity : meiosis II and completion of fertilization go
hand in hand. If the secondary oocyte does not
Prepare a chart of comparison between
receive the sperm / spermatozoa, it is shed off
spermatogenesis and oogensesis.
along with menstrum).
I. Multiplication phase: In this stage, the Structure of secondary oocyte:
primary germinal cells PGCs (2n) of ovary In human, unfertilized egg when ovulated
undergo repeated mitotic division to form i.e. released from the ovary is actually the
millions of gamete mother cells or oogonial secondary oocyte. It is non-cleidoic (without
cells (2n). This process is completed in the shell) and microlecithal (yolk is present in very
embryonic stage of human females. small quantity). It is approximately 0.1mm (100
II. Growth phase: Some of the oogonia stop microns) in size. It is rounded, nonmotile and
division and begin to increase in size and form haploid female gamete. The nucleus of the egg
the primary oocytes (2n). Cellular organelles appears large and is called germinal vesicle.
like ER, golgi appratus and mitochondria Typical nucleus or pronucleus is formed at the
increase in number. time of fertilization. The cytoplasm of egg is
III. Maturation phase: Oogenesis takes place also called ooplasm. It is devoid of centrioles.
in the ovaries. The process is initiated prior to The egg is surrounded by various coverings.
birth of the female baby. The primary oocytes
(2n) enter the maturation phase which includes Vitelline membrane
meiotic division (Meiosis I and Meiosis II).
Perivitelline
The diploid primary oocytes undergo meiosis I space
(reduction division) to form 2 haploid daughter Zona pellucida
cells. This division is peculiar in females
Corona radiata
as both the daughter cells are with haploid
Germinal
number of chromosomes i.e. 23 chromosomes.
vesicle
But due to unequal division of cytoplasm, of
First polar body
the 2 daughter cells produced, one is a large
cell called secondary oocyte (n) and another is Fig 2.12 : Unfertilized egg/ Ovum
a small cell called 1st polar body (n). Normally
The egg membrane is called vitelline
the 1st polar body does not enter meiosis II.
membrane. It secretes a non-cellular
The secondary oocyte (n) proceeds meiosis II,
glycoproteinous membrane, zona pellucida
only upto metaphase II. It’s division is further
on its outside. Adhering to the outer surface of
stopped or arrested at this stage. The secondary
zona pellucida are several radially elongated
oocyte is shed from the graafian follicle and
cells forming the corona radiata. These
ovary. The restart and completion of meiosis II
cells are derived from the innermost layer of
will happen only with entry of the sperm. This
granulosa cells. They are firmly held to the
last phase is usually completed in the ampulla
zona pellucida and to each other by hyaluronic
of the fallopian tube at the time of fertilization.
acid (mucopolysaccharide). Between the
In this division also, the two unequal daughter
vitelline membrane and the zona pellucida is
cells are formed- the large cell is ovum (n) and
a fluid filled perivitelline space. The first polar
the small cell is 2nd polar body (n). The ovum
body lies in this space.
(n) so formed functions as the female gamete
30
 The egg shows polarity. The side having becomes thin, Ca++ enters the sperm and their
germinal vesicle and first polar body is called tails begin to show rapid whiplash movements.
animal pole while the side opposite to it is
called vegetal pole.
Always Remember
2.5 Fertilization / Syngamy:
Sexual reproduction primarily involves Indian law under the Hindu marriage
formation and fusion of gametes. Fertilization Act has defined the marriageable age of a
is the later process which involves fusion of boy and girl. As per this act, minimum age
the haploid male and female gametes resulting for boy must be 21 and for a girl must be 18
in the formation of a diploid zygote (2n). Like years, at the time of marriage.
in other mammals, in humans the process of
As a result of capacitation, sperms become
fertilization is internal and it usually takes
extra active and begin to start moving upwards
place in the ampulla of the fallopian / uterine
from vagina to uterus and to the oviducts.
tube. The fertilized egg or zygote will develop
The prostaglandins activate the sperms.
into an embryo and this process occurs within
The vestibular secretions of the female also
the uterus.
enhance sperms motility. The sperms swim at
Extracellular space Sperm nucleus an average speed of 1.5 to 3.0 mm/min.
Corona radiata 1. After the sperm
Zona pellucida penetrates the secondary Sperms reach upto the ampulla as a result of
Second meiotic oocyte, the oocyte
division of oocyte completes meiosis II,
their own swimming and partly by contraction
Second meiotic forming the ovum and of uterus and fallopian tubes stimulated by
division of first second polar body.
Polar body oxytocin of female. After capacitation the
2. Sperm and ovum
Male pronucleus nuclei swell, forming sperms may reach ampulla within 5 minutes.
Female pro-nucleus pronuclei.
(swollen ovum nucleus) Sperms can remain viable for 24-48 hours
Polar bodies 3. Pronuclei approach
each other and mitotic (Ovum for about 24 hours).
Male pronucleus
spindle forms between
Mitotic spindle
them. b. Entry of sperm into the egg : Out of 200 to
Centriole
Female pronucleus 4. Chromosomes
of both pronuclei
400 million sperms, only few hundred manage
Zygote intermix. Fertilization is to reach the ampulla. Though many sperms
accomplished.
reach the ampulla but only a single sperm
Fig. 2.13 : Process of Fertilization fertilizes the ovum. A sperm after reaching
Mechanism of fertilization : the egg / ovum comes to lie against it. Its
Semen released during ejaculation has sperms acrosome releases lysins : hyaluronidase and
and some secretions. The coagulated semen corona penetrating enzymes. They separate
now undergoes liquification and sperms and dissolve the cells of corona radiata, so the
become active. The mechanism of fertilization sperm head passes through the zona pellucida
is as follows : of egg. The zona pellucida has fertilizin
receptor proteins (ZP3, ZP2). The fertilizin
a. Movement of sperm towards egg :
binds to specific acid protein- antifertilizin
It involves capacitation of sperms of sperm. It brings about attraction of sperms
reaching the vagina. Here as many as 50% are to the egg to enhance fertilization. Fertilizin-
demotilised / broken / destroyed. Remaining antifertilizin interaction is species specific.
sperms undergo capacitation. This process Thus, the fertilizin-antifertilizin reaction is also
requires 5-6 hours. Acrosome membrane called compatibility reaction.

31
Acrosome reaction : As the sperm head touches process called syngamy or karyogamy. The
the zona pellucida in the animal pole region, zygote is thus formed. The proximal centriole
its acrosome covering ruptures to release lytic recieved from the sperm helps in formation of
enzymes, acrosin or zona lysin. They act on the synkaryon spindle and cleavage of cell into
the zona pellucida at the point of contact. This two blastomeres.
causes egg reaction - A small fertilization
cone / cone of reception is formed on the egg Internet my friend
membrane. The sperm head comes in contact
with this cone. It results in production of a weak Find out about extraembryonic membranes.
wave of depolarisation. Plasma membrane of
the both cells dissolve at the point of contact. Significance of fertilization :
The sperm nucleus and the centrioles enter the • Secondary oocyte completes the process of
egg, while other parts remain outside. oogenesis and is transformed into a mature
ovum (n).
As soon as the sperm head touches the
vitelline membrane, a cortical reaction gets • The diploid chromosome number is restored
activated changing the vitelline membrane in the zygote by the process of syngamy.
into a fertilization membrane by deactivating • The ovum lacks the centrioles necessary
the sperm receptors of zona pellucida. A for further divisions, are received from the
distinct perivitelline space is created around sperm during fertilization.
the fertilization membrane. This prevents any • Fertilization involves fusion of male and
further entry of other sperms into the egg i.e. female gametes from the two parents. It
polyspermy is avoided. results in variations which are significant
to evolution.
Do you know ? • Sex of the offspring is determined.

1. What would happen if the sperm fuses

with the egg before it reaches the
Always Remember
fallopian tube?
2. What is ectopic pregnancy? Can ectopic • Secondary oocyte (egg) is ovulated after
pregnancy continue upto full term? LH surge at about the middle of menstual
cycle i.e. day 14.
c. Activation of ovum : The ovum before • Egg (arrested at metaphase II) reaches
fertilization was at metaphase II stage. With a the ampulla of uterine tube in 12-24
contact of sperm head to the vitelline membrane hours after ovulation. The cilia and the
of egg, it gets activated to resume and complete fimbriae of the fallopian tube help, direct
its meiosis II. With this it gives out the second the egg to ostium.
polar body. The germinal vesicle organises into • During coitus/ intercourse semen is
female pronucleus. At this stage, it is the true deposited into the vagina of the female.
ovum or egg. This process is called insemination.
• Human male during ejaculation gives out
Fusion of egg and sperm : The coverings
about 2-4ml of semen with an average
of male and female pronuclei degenerate
count of 200-400 million sperms.
allowing the chromosomal pairing. This
results in the formation of a synkaryon by the

32
2.6 Embryonic development : arranged. Till the formation of morula the
The zygote formed as a result of syngamy zona pellucida is retained around the embryo
is activated to divide. and thus, there is no change in the overall size
from zygote to morula. The morula reaches the
Cleavage :
isthmus and gains entry into the uterus by the
It is the process of early mitotic division of
end of day 4.
the zygote into a hollow multicellular blastula.
12-15 hours 24-30 hours
It does not involve the growth of the daughter
cells. The cells formed by cleavage are called Polar body

blastomeres.
Since, there is no growth phase between
Blastomere
the cleavages, the size of blastomeres will be A. 2- Cell stage B. 4- Cell stage
reduced with every successive cleavage. As
the size reduces, the metabolic rate increases.
Subsequent cleavages are thus faster than
earlier one. This requires rapid replication of
DNA and high consumption of oxygen. C. 8- Cell stage D. Morula
Process of cleavage : In human, cleavage is Inner cell mass
holoblastic i.e. the whole zygote gets divided. Blastocyst
The cleavage planes may be longitudinal or cavity
meridional and equatorial or horizontal. It
is radial and indeterminate i.e. fate of each
Trophoblast
blastomere is not predetermined. E. Early blastocyst F. Late blastocyst

Fig. 2.14 : Process of cleavage and

Internet my friend formation of Blastula
What is meroblastic cleavage? In which Blastulation :
organisms, is it observed? Blastulation is the process of formation
The 1st cleavage in the zygote is meridional of the hollow and multicellular blastocyst.
and occurs at about 30 hours after fertilization. It The embryo (blastocyst) that enters the uterus
divides longitudinaly into two blastomeres, one remains floating in uterine cavity for 2-4 days
slightly larger than the other. The 2nd cleavage after its entry. i.e. till the end of 7th day after
is also longitudinal but at the right angle to fertilization. The outer layer of cells seen in the
the 1st one and occurs after 30 hours of 1st morula now form the layer called trophoblast.
cleavage. The 3rd cleavage is horizontal. After Cells from the trophoblast begin to absorb
3rd cleavage the embryo is in 8-cell stage. As the glycogen rich uterine milk. The blastocyst
the cleavages are going on the young embryo is doubles in size from 0.15 mm to 0.30 mm. With
gradually being pushed towards the uterus. By more fluid entering inside the blastocyst cavity
the end of 4th day after fertilization, embryo is a is formed. These outer cells become flat and are
solid ball of 16-32 cells and externally looking called trophoblast cells (since they help only in
like mulberry. This stage is thus called morula. absorbing nutrition for the developing embryo).
The morula shows cells of two types : smaller, The inner larger cells form inner cell mass or
clearer cells towards the outer side and inner embryoblast (the embryo proper develops
cell mass of larger cells. Cells are compactly from the embryoblasts). These remain attached

33
to the trophoblasts on only one side. The The inner layer of cells is called
trophoblast cells in contact with the embryonal cytotrophoblast (cells with defined membrane)
knob are called cells of Rauber. At this stage, since, the cells retain their cell boundaries.
the blastocyst shows polarity. The side with
Gastrulation :
inner cell mass is called the embryonal end and
It is the process of formation of ‘gastrula’
the side opposite to it is the abembryonal end.
from the blastocyst. In the gastrula stage, there
By the end of the 7th day the blastocyst is fully
is slowing of the rate of cleavage or divisions
formed. It is now ready for implantation and
but there are two important events that take
gastrulation. The function of zona pellucida is
place actively :
to prevent the implantation of the embryo at an
abnormal site. It does not expose the sticky and a. Differentiation of blastomeres : This process
phagocytic trophoblast cells till it reaches the results in the formation of three germinal layers
implantation site i.e. within the uterus, hence i.e. ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm from
zona pellucida now ruptures. the cells of the embryoblast.
b. Morphogenetic movements : These are
Can you recall? different types of movements to reach their
definite place in the embryo.
What do you mean by Monozygotic
Dizygotic and Conjoined twins. Ectoderm Amniotic
cavity
Implantation :
Mesoderm
The blastocyst after its formation, gets Yolk sac
implanted or embedded into the endometrium
of the uterus. This process usually begins Endoderm
Coelom
on day 7 after fertilization and by end of
Chorion
10th day, the embryo is completely burried
inside the endometrium. The embryo usually
implants in the region of the fundus of uterus. Fig. 2.15 : V. S. of late Grastrula
In the process, the embryo attaches itself by
its embryonic pole, close to the endometrium. Gastrulation begins in the embryoblast
The trophoblast cells of the animal pole cells on about 8th day after fertilization. Cell on
have the power to stick to the uterine wall. the free end of inner cell mass called hypoblasts
Rapid division of the trophoblast cells lying (primitive endoderm) become flatend, start
against the embryonal knob takes place. It dividing and grows downward towards the
results in the formation of two distinct layers- blastocoel, cavity of blastocyst. This layer
syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast. The called endoderm is first to differentiate. It grows
outer layer, syncytiotrophoblast is syncytium within the blastocoel and forms a sac called
i.e. a layer of protoplasm with many nuclei. It Yolk sac. The remaining cell of the inner cell
gives out processes which extensively invade mass, in contact with cells of Rauber are called
the endometrium. The lytic enzymes secreted epiblasts (primary ectoderm). Both layers form
by the trophoblasts, rupture the endometrial a flat, bilaminar embryonal disc.
cells thereby making a burrow, into which After formation of endoderm the second
the embryo begins to get implanted. By the layer to be differentiated is the ectoderm. Cells
end of the 10th day the whole embryo is deeply of epiblast divide and redivide and move in
embedded into the endometrium, completing such a way that they enclose the amiotic cavity.
the process of implantation.
34
 Table 2.16 : Fate of germinal layers:
Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm
Ectoderm gives rise to epidermis Mesoderm forms all types of Endoderm develops into
of skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, muscles (except iris muscles epithelium of mid- gut, glands of
salivary glands, mammary glands, and ciliary muscles of eye which stomach and intestine, tongue,
lacrimal glands, sebaceous glands, originate from ectoderm), tonsils, lungs, trachea, bronchi,
cornea, lens, retina, conjunctiva, connective tissues, dermis of larynx, urinary bladder, vagina,
nasal epithelium, enamel of teeth, skin, adrenal cortex, heart, liver, pancreas, thyroid gland,
internal and external ear, foregut, blood, blood vessels, lymphatic parathyroid gland, thymus
hindgut, adrenal medulla, anterior vessels, middle ear, dentine of gland, Eustachian tube,
and posterior pituitary, pineal teeth, urinary and reproductive epithelium of urethra, lining of
gland, entire nervous system. ducts, gonads, kidneys, sclera middle ear.
and choroid of eye.

The floor of this cavity has the embryonal

disc. The pyramidal cells of the disc towards Do you know ?
the amniotic cavity form the embryonal
Stem cells: These are undifferentiated somatic
ectoderm. The roof of amniotic cavity is lined
cells of a multicellular organism. They are
by amniogenic cells. Later, these cells divide
capable of giving rise to many more cells of the
and redivide to form the amnion. Amnion is
same type or they can also differentiate into other
an extra embryonic membrane that surrounds
type of cells. Bone marrow cells, blood stem cells
and protects the embryo. As a result of all
cord cells or umbilical cord cells are examples
these changes, the bilaminar embryonic disc
of stem cells. They can be used in the treatment
is positioned in between amniotic cavity and
of Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease,
Yolk sac.
Diabetes, Leukemia, Arthritis, etc.
Actual gastrulation occurs about 15 days
after fertilization, in which the bilaminar
embryonic disc is transformed into trilaminar
embryonic disc. This transformation occurs by
division, rearrangement and migration of cells
of epiblast. It begins with formation of primitive
streak and a shallow groove on the surface is
called primitive groove. This streak progresses
from posterior to anterior end of embryo. From 2.7 Pregnancy :
site of a primitive streak, a third layer of cells It is the condition of carrying one or more
called mesoderm extends between ectoderm embryos in the uterus. It is also called gestation.
and endoderm. Anterior end of primitive groove It refers to the period between fertilization
communicates with yolk sac by an aperture of the egg, upto parturition. The average
called blastopore (future anus). The embryonal period of pregnancy in human lasts for 266
disc now has differentiated into three layers- days from fertilization or 280 days (266+14)
ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. The counted from LMC- Last Mensturation Cycle.
further process after gastrulation is called This pregnancy peroid of approximately nine
organogenesis. months is divided into three trimesters of three
months each.

35
First Trimester : felt by the mother. Head has hair, eyebrows and
(from fertilization to 12th week) eyelashes appear, pinnae are distinct. The baby
It is the time of most radical changes in reaches half the size of a newborn.
mother and embryo. The embryo receives Third (final) Trimester :
nutrients in the first 2-4 weeks directly from (from 27th week till the parturition)
the endomerium. It is the main period of The foetus grows to about 3-4 kg in weight
organogenesis and the development of body and 50 cms in length. Eyes are open. There
organs. By the end of eight weeks, the major is gain in body weight. As the foetus grows,
structures found in the adult are formed in the the uterus expands around it, the mother’s
embryo in a rudimentary form. The embryo is abdominal organs become compressed and
now called foetus. It is about 3cm long. Arms, displaced, leading to frequent urination,
hands, fingers, feet, toes are formed. Foetus can digestive blackages and strain in the back
open and close mouth and fists. CNS is fully muscles. At the end of third trimester the
formed, working of excretory and cirulatory foetus becomes fully developed and ready for
systems begins. Movements of foetus begin but parturition.
mother can not feel it. Heart beat can be heard
from 6th week. Progesterone level becomes high 2.8 Placenta:
and menstual cycle is suspended till the end of It is a flattened, discoidal organ in the
pregnancy. At the end of first trimester foetus is uterus of a pregnant woman. The placenta is a
about 7-10 cm long. temporary structural and functional connection
Meanwhile, the mother’s body also between foetal and maternal circulation.
undergoes rapid changes. High levels The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen
of progesterone initiate changes in her and nutrients and also for removal of carbon
reproductive system. The maternal part of dioxide and excretory wastes produced by the
placenta grows, the uterus becomes larger. In foetus. The placenta is attached to the wall of
this period, the mother experiences ‘morning the uterus and to the baby’s umbilical cord.
sickness’ (nausea, vomiting, mood swings, Placenta Uterine
etc). Villi wall
Intervillous space
Second Trimester :
(from 13th to 26th week) Umbilical
cord
It is the period of rapid growth of foetus.
The uterus grows enough for the pregnancy
to become abvious. The foetus is very active Amniotic
and grows to about 30 cms. Development sac
of brain begins. Hormone levels stabilize as Amniotic
hCG declines, the corpus luteum deteriorates fluid
Chorion Amnion
(regresses) and the placenta completely takes
Fig. 2.17 : Placenta
over the production of progesterone which
maintains the pregnancy.
Placenta is the only organ, which is formed
Ultrasound (sonography) at 18-20 weeks
of tissues from two different individuals- the
shows baby’s growth and position. From
mother and the foetus. Part of the placenta
this estimated due date of delivery can be
contributed by the foetus is called the foetal
established. Baby’s movements can be easily
placenta and it is the chorionic villi. The other
36
part which is rich in blood supply shared by
the mother. It is a part of uterine wall, termed Always Remember
as maternal placenta. So human placenta is
hCG, HPL (Human placental Lactogen),
called haemochorial.
relaxin are produced in women only during
The umbilical cord is formed of three blood pregnancy.
vessels. Of these three blood vessels, two are
small arteries which carry blood towards the 2.9 Parturition:
placenta and one is a large vein which returns Humans are viviparous, as they give birth
to their young ones. Parturition is the process of
blood to the foetus.
giving birth to a baby. The physical activities
The placenta also acts as an endocrine
involved in parturition like uterine and
tissue and produces hormones like hCG,
abdominal contractions, dilation of cervix and
progesterone, estrogen while relaxin is secreted
passage of baby are collectively called labour.
by the ovary in the later phase of pregnancy.
Labour is accompanied by localised sensation
Level of hCG increases upto the end of first
of discomfort or agony called labour pains.
trimester and then it declines. By the end of first
Parturition is controlled by a complex
trimester progesterone is produced by placenta. neuroendocrine mechanism. Signals arise from
These hormones are required for foetal growth the fully formed foetus and placenta cause
and maintenance of pregnancy. mild uterine contractions. It is acompanied by
rise in estrogen- progesterone ratio, increase in
Know The Institue : oxytocin receptors in uterine muscles, .
They cause vigorous contractions of
Cord blood bank, Kolkata
myometrium of uterus at the end of pregnancy.
India’s first
The fully developed foetus gives signals
Government-run
cord blood bank for the uterine contractions by secreting
at Kolkata was Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) from
established in 2001 pituitary and corticosteroids from adrenal
and is accredited gland. This triggers release of oxytocin from
by AABB (American Association of Blood mother’s pituitary gland, which acts on uterine
Bank). The cord blood bank functions muscles of mother and causes vigourous uterine
occording to the central and state government contractions. This leads to expulsion of the
policies, rules and guidelines. baby from the uterus. It involves the following
Cord blood (umbilical cord blood) is the three steps :
blood that remains in the umbilical cord and 1. Dilation stage : Uterine contractions begin
placenta, post delivery. Cord blood banking from top, forcing the baby towards the cervix.
is the process of collecting the cord blood, Contractions are accompanied by pain caused
extraction and cryogenically preserving for by compression of blood vessels. Oxytocin
its stem cells and other cells of the immune induced uterine contractions become stronger
system for future potential medical use. Cord and stronger due to stimulatory reflex. As the
blood is rich in stem cells that can transform baby is pushed down in the uterus, its head
into all sorts of blood cells. They can be comes to lie against cervix. Cervix gets dilated.
used to treat diseases that harm the blood The vagina also shows similar dilation.
and immune system e.g. leukemia, certain
This stage of labour can normally last upto
cancers, sickle cell anemia and some
few hours. It ends in rupturing of amniotic
metabolic disorders.
membrane of foetus.
37
 Stage 1
Initial (Latent) Phase Active Phase
Uterus Foetus
Uterus
Foetus Cervix Effaced Cervix

Vagina
Umbilical Cord Vagina
Umbilical Cord

Stage 2 Placenta Stage 3

Uterus
Foetus
Cervix
Umbilical Clamp

Crowning of the
Umbilical Cord Head Umbilical Cord
Vagina

Fig. 2.18 : Parturition

2. Expulsion stage : The uterine and abdominal
contractions become stronger. In normal Use your brain power
delivery, the foetus passes out through cervix
Why is it said that consumption of
and vagina with head in forward direction. It
mother milk is safest for the new born?
takes 20 to 60 min. The umbilical cord is tied
and cut off close to the baby’s navel.
2.11 Reproductive Health:
3. After birth : After the delivery of the baby According to World Health Organisation
the placenta separates from the uterus and (WHO), reproductive health means total
is expelled out as “after birth”, due to severe wellbeing in all aspects of reproduction- its
contractions of the uterus. This process happens emotional, behavioural and social aspects
within 10 to 45 minutes of delivery. along with the physical ones. Therefore, a
2.10 Lactation: society with people having physically and
The mammary glands of the female start functionally normal reproductive organs and
producing milk at the end of pregnancy by the normal emotional and behavioural interactions
process of lactation. Prolactin is the hormone amongst them in all sex-related aspects might
which is responsible for production of milk. be called reproductively healthy society.
Lactation helps the mother in feeding the new Of all the social goals of India, an
born baby. The fluid secreted by the mammary important one is to attain total reproductive
glands soon after child birth is called colostrum. health. India was amongst the first few
Colostrum: It is the sticky and yellow fluid countries in the world to initiate action plans
secreted by the mammary glands soon after and programmes at a national level to improve
child birth. It contains proteins, lactose and reproductive health. All these improved
mother’s antibodies e.g. IgA. The fat content programmes cover wider areas related to
in colostrum is low. The antibodies present in it reproduction. These programs are currently in
helps in developing resistance for the new born operation under the Reproductive and Child
baby at a time when its own immune response Health Care (RCH) programmes.
is not fully developed.
38
Goals of RCH Programmes: 7. By educating couples to reduce mortality
1. To create awareness among people about rate of new borns and maternal mortality
various aspects related to reproduction. rate.
2. To provide the facilities to people to The population in India which was
understand and build up reproductive approximately 350 millions at the time of
health. independence, reached close to a billion mark
3. To provide support for building up a by 2000 and crossed 1.2 billion in May 2011.
reproductively healthy society. Now in 2020 population of India has crossed
4. To bring about a change mainly in three 1.35 billions. The government is taking serious
critical health indicators i.e. reducing measures to check this population growth. The
total infertility rate, infant mortality rate most important step to overcome this problem,
and maternal mortality rate. is to motivate society to have smaller families
by using various birth control methods.
The goals of RCH can be achieved by the
following ways: 2.12 Birth control :
1. By introduction of sex education in The birth control measures which
schools. Schools should be encouraged deliberately prevent fertilization are referred to
to provide correct information to the as contraceptives. The contraceptive methods
young so as to discourage children help to prevent unwanted pregnancies. An
from believing in myths and clear the ideal contraceptive should be easily available,
misconceptions about sex related aspects. user friendly, effective and with no or least side
Proper information about safe and hygenic effects.
sexual practices, sexually transmitted Contraceptive methods are of two main
diseases (STD, AIDS), problems related types i.e. temporary and permanent.
to adolescence and proper information a. Temporary methods:
about reproductive organs. These are of following types :
2. With the help of audio- visual and the print 1. Natural method/ Safe period / Rhythm
media, government and non- government method : In the natural method, the principle
organisations should take various steps to of avoiding chances of fertilization is used.
create awareness about various aspects A week before and a week after menstrual
related to reproduction. bleeding is considered the safe period for sexual
3. By educating the younger generation intercourse. This idea is based on the fact that
about birth control measures, pre-natal ovulation occurs on the 14th day of menstrual
care of pregnant woman and post-natal cycle. Its drawback lies in having a high rate
care of the mother and child, importance of failure.
of breast feeding.
2. Coitus Interruptus or withdrawal : In this
4. By developing awareness about problems
method, the male partner withdraws his penis
arising due to uncontrolled population
from the vagina just before ejaculation, so as to
growth, social evils like sex abuse and
avoid insemination. This method also has some
sex related crimes and take up necessary
drawbacks, as the pre-ejaculation fluid may
steps to prevent them.
contain sperms and this can cause fertilization.
5. By creating awareness about statutory ban
on amniocentesis for sex determination. 3. Lactational amenorrhea (absence of
6. By creating awareness about child menstruation) : This method is based on the fact
immunization programmes. that ovulation does not occur during the period

39
of intense lactation following parturition.
Therefore, as long as the mother breastfeeds the
child fully, chances of conception are almost
Diaphragm
negligible. However, this method also has high
chances of failure.
4. Chemical means (spermicides): In this
method, chemicals like foam, tablets, jellies,
and creams are used by the female partner.
Before sexual intercourse, if these chemicals
are introduced into the vagina, they adhere to
the mucous membrane, immobilize and kill the
sperms. It may cause allergic reaction. This
method also has chances of failure.
5. Mechanical means / Barrier methods: Lippes loop
In this method, with the help of barriers the
ovum and sperm are prevented from physically Fig. 2.19 : Mechanical means
meeting. These mechanical barriers are of three
types.
i) Condom: It is a thin rubber sheath that
is used to cover the penis of the male Hormone Copper
during coputation. It prevents the entry
of ejaculated semen into the female
reproductive tract. This can prevent
conception. It is a simple and effective
method and has no side effects. “Nirodh”
Uterus
is the most widely used contraceptive by IUD
males. It is easily available and is given free Cevix
Strings
by the government. It should be properly Vagina
discarded after every use. Condom is also
a safeguard against STDs and AIDS. Fig. 2.20 : Copper - T
ii) Diaphragm, cervical caps and vaults:
Lippes loop is a plastic double “s” loop. It
These devices used by the female are made
attracts the macrophages stimulating them to
up of rubber. They prevent conception
accumulate in the uterine cavity. Macrophages
by blocking the entry of sperms through
increase phagocytosis of sperms within the
the cervix. The device is inserted into the
uterus and acts as a contraceptive. Copper
female reproductive tract to cover the
releasing IUDs suppress sperm motility and the
cervix during copulation.
fertilising capacity of sperms.
iii) Intra-uterine devices (IUDs) : These The hormone releasing IUDs make the
clinical devices are plastic or metal objects. uterus unsuitable for implantation and cervix
A doctor or trained nurse places the IUDs hostile to the sperms. It delays pregnancy for
into the uterus. These devices include longer period. The spontaneous expulsion,
Lippes loop, copper releasing IUDs ( Cu-T, occasional haemorrhage and chances of
Cu7, multiload 375) and hormone releasing infection are the drawbacks of IUDs.
IUDs (LNG-20, progestasert).

40
6. Physiological (Oral) Devices : Physiological b. Permanent Method:
devices are used in the form of tablets and The permanent birth control method in
hence are popularly called pills. It is an oral men is called vasectomy and in women it is
contraceptive, used by the female. The pill called tubectomy.
contains progesteron and estrogen. They inhibit These are surgical methods, also called
ovulation, hence no eggs are released from the sterilization. In vasectomy a small part of
ovary of the female using this pill and thus the vas deferens is tied and cut where as in
conception cannot occur. They also alter the tubectomy, a small part of the fallopian tube is
quality of cervical mucus to prevent the entry tied and cut. This blocks, gamete transport and
of sperms. prevent pregnancy.
The pills have side effects such as nausea,
weight gain, tenderness of breast and slight
blood loss between menstrual periods. The pill Vas deferens
tied and cut
“Saheli” is an oral contraceptive for females
which is nonsteroidal. Saheli is to be taken
once in a week. These pills are sponsored by
the Government.

Always Remember A

Saheli is Fallopian tubes

now a part of the tied and cut
National Family
Programme as an
oral contraceptive
pill in India.

7. Other contraceptives : The birth control

implant is a contraceptive used by the female. It
is a tiny, thin rod about the size of a matchstick.
B
It is implanted under the skin of the upper arm.
They contain progesterone and estrogen. Fig. 2.22 : Permanent method
Their mode of action is similar to that of pills.
They prevent pregnancy for 3-4 years.
Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) :
An intentional or voluntary termination
of pregnancy before full term is called Medical
termination of Pregnancy (MTP) or induced
abortion. MTP is essential in cases of unwanted
pregnancies or in defective development of
foetus. It is safe during the first trimester of
pregnancy. The defective development of
foetus is examined by amniocentesis.
Fig. 2.21 : Implanon/ Nexplanon

41
 Amniocentesis is a process in which Medical Termination of Pregnancy
amniotic fluid containing foetal cells is collected (Amendment) Act 2017 under section 3 of the
using a hollow needle inserted into the uterus MTP Act 1971 was enacted by Government
under ultrasound guidance. The chromosomes of India. The intention of MTP Act is to
are studied to see the abnormalities in the reduce the incidence of illegal abortion and
developing foetus. But the dangerous trend consequent maternal mortality. As per the
is the misuse of amniocentesis to determine provisions of the MTP Act, only the consent of
the sex of the unborn child. Frequently, if the woman whose pregnancy is being terminated
foetus is found to be female, it is aborted which is required. According to MTP Act pregnancy
is totally illegal. So the Government of India may be terminated : 1. Within first 12 weeks
has legalised MTP Act in 1971, with strict 2. More than 12 weeks but lesser than 20
conditions to avoid its misuse. weeks. The registered medical practitioner’s
opinion is mandatory stating the continuation
Amniocentesis : Used to extract foetal cells for genetic analysis.
of the pregnancy would involve a risk to the
1. Ultrasound used to determine the
position of the foetus in the uterus life of the pregnant woman or grave abnormal
2. Needle inserted through the physical or mental health or is substantial risk
Placenta
abdominal and uterine wall to the child.
3. Amnionic fluid containing
foetal cells extracted
4. Centrifuge of Internet my friend
extracted fluid
5. Cells used in karyotype
and foetal cells
What are the effects of alcohol drinking
Amnionic
fluid Karyotype and smoking on foetus in pregnant women?
Risks associated with
amniocentesis
1. Miscarriage 2.13 Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) :
2. Needle injury to foetus Diseases or infections which are
3. Leaking amniotic fluid
4. Infection transmitted through sexual intercourse are
collectively called Sexually Transmitted
Fig. 2.23 : Amniocentesis process
Diseases (STDs) or Venereal Diseases (VDs) or
Reproductive Tract Infections (RTI). The major
Always Remember venereal diseases are syphilis and gonorrhoea.
Act of MTP : The Medical Termination
of Pregnancy (MTP) Act 1971 provides the Internet my friend
legal framework for MTP Act 2017.
Collect information about other sexually
transmitted diseases.
Activity :
In a sonography clinic, we observe a
board saying ‘Sex selection and detection is
NOT done in this centre and is punishable
under PC-PNDT Act;
Find out what is PC-PNDT Act. Why
do you think such a mandate is essential?

42
 Table 2.24 : Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
Name of Disease Syphilis Gonorrhoea
Causative agent Treponema pallidum (Bacteria) Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Bacteria)
Incubation 3-4 weeks Male – 2 to 14 days
period Female – 7 to 21 days
Infection site Mucous membrane in genital, Mucous membrane of urino-genital tract,
rectal and oral region. rectum, throat and eye.
Symptoms Primary lesion called chancre at In male, partial blockage of urethra and
the site of infection. Chancre is reproductive ducts, pus from penis, pain
formed on external genitalia, skin and burning sensation during urination,
rashes and mild fever, inflamed arthritis, etc.
joints, loss of hair. Paralysis, In female, pelvic inflammation of urinary
Degenerative changes occur in the tract, sterility, arthritis, the children born
heart and brain. to affected mother suffer from gonococcal
opthalmia and gonococcal vulvovaginitis
of girls before puberty.
Preventive Education about sex practices, Sex hygiene, using condom during coitus,
measures sex hygiene, avoiding sex with avoiding sex with unknown partner or
unknown partner or multipartners, multipartners.
using condom during coitus.
Treatment Antibiotic-Penicillin Antibiotic-Cefixime

IVF (In Vitro Fertization) :

2.14 Infertility : It is a process of fertization where an
Infertility is defined as the inability egg is combined with sperm outside the body
to conceive naturally after (one year of) in a test tube or glass plate to form a zygote
regular unprotected intercourse. The causes under simulated conditions in the laboratory.
of infertility could be physical, congenital, The zygote or early embryos (with up to 8
diseases, immunological or even psychological. blastomeres) could be then transferred into the
The common physical causes in females are fallopian tube for further development.
polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), hormonal
imbalance, endometriosis while in male, it is ZIFT (Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer) :
less sperm count and small size of penis. ZIFT is an infertility treatment used
when there is a blockage in the fallopian tubes
Prior to 1978, infertile couple had two which prevents the fertilization of egg by the
options, adopt or be childless. Today infertile sperm.
couples have many options to have a child such
In this method, egg is removed from
as fertility drugs, test tube babies, artificial
woman’s ovary. Fertilization of the egg with
insemination, IUI, surrogate motherhood, etc.
sperms is brought about outside the body under
The couple could be assisted to have child /
sterile conditions to form zygote by the process
children through certain special techniques
called in vitro fertilization (IVF). The zygote
commonly known as Assisted Reproductive
is then transferred to fallopian tube for further
Technologies (ART).
development.

43
 Sperm bank / Semen bank:
Try This A sperm bank or semen bank is a place
IVF centres : Make a list of IVF centres which collects, stores and provides human
in Maharashtra. sperms / semen. The semen is provided by
healthy males called sperm donors. The sperms
GIFT (Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer) : are stored in sperm bank by cryopreservation
Transfer of an ovum collected from a method (at low temperature).
donor into the fallopian tube of another female
who can provide suitable environment for its
Can you recall?
fertilization and development.
This technique called gamete intrafallopian Surrogate mother :
transfer (GIFT) has been developed for the Some women have problem in
cases in which only the entrance to the oviducts implantation of embryo in uterus. Such
or the upper segment of the oviducts in blocked. woman can take help of the modern remedial
In this procedure ova and sperms are directly technique called surrogacy. In this, embryo
injected into regions of the oviduct, where is implanted in surrogate mother, who is not
fertilization produces a blastocyst, which the biological mother.
enters the uterus via the normal route. GIFT
has a success rate of about 30 percent. Adoption :
Adoption is a legal process by which
ICSI (Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection) :
a couple or a single parent gets legal
ICSI is an in vitro fertilization procedure
rights, privileges and responsibilities that
in which a single sperm cell is injected directly
are associated to a biological child for the
into cytoplasm of an ovum in the laboratory.
upbringing of the adopted child.
Here the sperm has to naturally penetrate the
An adoptive parent should be medically fit
egg.
and financially able to take care of the adopted
Artificial Insemination (AI) : child. A person wishing to adopt a child must
In some infertility cases, the male partner be at least 21 years old but there is no legal
is unable to inseminate the female due to a very upper age limit for adoption.
low sperm count. This problem can be solved
by artificial insemination. In this technique,
the sperms are collected from the male and Always Remember
artificially introduced into the cervix of female, Tobacco, marijuana and other drugs
for the purpose of achieving a pregnancy smoking may cause infertility in both men
through in vivo fertilization (inside the body). and women. Nicotine blocks the production
IUI (Intra Uterine Insemination) : of sperm and decreases the size of testicles.
In this technique the process is somewhat Alcoholism by men interferes with the
like that of artificial insemination, the only synthesis of testosterone and has an impact
difference is that the sperms are introduced into on sperm count. Use of cocaine or marijuana
the uterine cavity instead of cervix. may temporarily reduce the number and
quality of sperm.

44
 Always Remember Always Remember

• Jayesh a young, married man of 26 yrs is 1. Cells of trophoblast do not form any part
suffering from T. B. for the last 2 years. of the embryo proper.
He and his wife are desirous of a child 2. They form ectoderm of the chorion
but unable to have one, what could be (extra embryonic membrane).
the possible reason? Explain. 3. They play important role in formation of
• Neeta is 45 years old and the doctor placenta.
has advised her not to go for such a late
pregnancy. She however wants to be the
biological mother of a child, without
herself getting pregnant. is this possible
and how?

Activity :

1. Prepare concept map on information of male reproductive system.

2. Prepare concept map on information of female reproductive system.

45
 Activity :
3. Prepare concept map on information of menstrual cycle.

4. Prepare concept maps on information of gametogenesis.

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

5. Prepare concept map on information of fertilization.

46
 Exercise

Q. 1 Multiple choice questions. 8. Presence of beard in boys is a ............

1. The number of nuclei present in a zygote a. primary sex organ
is …… b. secondary sexual character
a. two b.one c. four c.eight c. secondary sex organ
2. Which of these is the male reproductive d. primary sexual character
organ in human? Q. 2 Answer in one sentence.
a. sperm b. seminal fluid 1. What is the difference between a foetus
c. testes d. ovary and an embryo?
3. Attachment of embryo to the wall of the 2. Outline the path of sperm upto the
uterus is known as…….. urethra.
a. fertilization b. gestation 3. Which glands contribute fluids to the
c. cleavage d. implantation semen?
4. Name the endocrine glands involved in
4. Rupturing of follicles and discharge of
maintaining the sex characteristics of
ova is known as ..............
males.
a. capacitation b. gestation
5. Where does fertilization and
c. ovulation d. copulation
implantation occur?
5. In human female, the fertilized egg gets 6. Enlist the external genital organs in
implanted in uterus ...................... female.
a. After about7 days of fertilization 7. Give two differences between blastula
b. After about 30 days of fertilization and gastrula.
c. After about two months of fertilization 8. What is the difference between embryo
d. After about 3 weeks of fertilization and zygote?
6. Test tube baby technique is called......... Q. 3 Fill in the blanks:
a. In vivo fertilization 1. The primary sex organ in human male
b. In situ fertilization is ……….
c. In vitro fertilization
2. The………. is also called the womb.
d. Artificial insemination
3. Sperm fertilizes ovum in the
7. The given figure shows a human sperm. ………….. of fallopian tube.
Various parts of it are labelled as A, B,
4. The disc like structure which helps in
C, and D .Which labelled part represents
the transfer of substances to and from
acrosome ?
A
the foetus’s body is called…………
B
C 5. Gonorrhoea is caused by ……………
D bacteria.
6. The hormone produced by the testis is
………………..

a. B b. C c. D d. A

47
Q. 4 Short answer questions. Q. 6 Long answer questions.
1. Write a note on budding in Hydra. 1. Explain the following parts of male
2. Explain the different methods of reproductive system along with
reproduction occuring in sponges. labelled diagram showing these parts-
3. Write a note on IVF Testis, vasa deferentia, epididymis,
4. Comment on any two mechanical seminal vesicle, proastate gland and
contraceptive methods. penis.
5. Write a note on tubectomy 2. Describe female reproductive system
6. Give the name of causal organism of of human.
syphilis and write on its symptoms.
3. Describe the process of fertilization.
7. What is colostrum?
4. Explain the process by which zygote
Q. 5 Answer the following questions. divides and redivides to form the
1. Describe the phases of menstrual cycle morula.
and their hormonal control.
2. Explain the steps of parturition. Project :
3. Explain the histological structure of testis. Prepare a chart showing information about
4. Describe the structure of blastula. other STDs, mentioning causal organisms,
5. Explain the histological structure of ovary symptoms and control measures.
in human.
6. Describe the various methods of birth
control to avoid pregnancy.
7. What are the goals of RCH programme.
8. Which hormones are involved in
parturition?
9. Which as the function of male accessory
glands?
10. What is capacitation? Give it’s importance.

48
 4 Molecular Basis of Inheritance

On the other hand DNA thought to be

Can you recall?
small, simple molecule whose composition
1. What is nucleic acid? varied little among species. Over the time,
2. What are the types of nucleic acid? these ideas about DNA were shown to be
3. What are the functions of nucleic acid? wrong. In fact DNA molecules are large and
4. What is the difference between DNA in vary tremendously within and among species.
prokaryotes and eukaryotes? Variations in the DNA molecules are different
4.1 The Discovery of DNA: than the variation in shape, electrical charge
Modern understanding of DNA has evolved and function shown by proteins so it is not
from the discovery of nucleic acid to the surprising that most researchers initially
development of the double-helix model. In 1869, favored proteins as the genetic material.
Friedrich Miescher began working with white Over a period of roughly 25 years (1928-
blood cells which are the major component of 1952), geneticists became convinced that DNA
pus from infections. He collected a lot of pus and not protein, was the genetic material. Let
from bandages at the local hospital. He used a us study three important contributions that
salt solution to wash the pus off the bandages. helped cause this shift of opinion.
When he added a weak alkaline solution to the
cells, the cells lysed and nuclei precipitated Griffith’s experiments :
out of the solution. From the cell nuclei, he In 1928, a British medical officer Frederick
isolated a unique chemical substance to Griffith performed an experiment on bacterium
which he called nuclein. Chemically, nuclein Streptococcus pneumoniae that causes
has high phosphorus content. Moreover it pneumonia in humans and other mammals.
showed acidic properties. Hence it was named Griffith used two strains or two genetic varieties
as nucleic acid. of Streptococcus to find a cure for pneumonia,
By the early 1900s, we knew that which was a common cause of death at that
Miescher's nuclein was a mix (mixture) of time. The two strains used were :
proteins and nucleic acids. There are two kinds i. Virulent, smooth, pathogenic and
of nucleic acids. DNA (deoxyribonucleic encapsulated S type.
acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). ii. Non-virulent, rough, non-pathogenic and
4.2 The Genetic Material is a DNA: non-capsulated R type.
By the early 1900s, geneticist knew that Griffith conducted four experiments on
genes control the inheritance of traits, that these bacteria. First, when he injected bacteria
genes are located on chromosome and that of strain R to mice, the mice survived because
chemically chromosomes are mainly composed it did not develop pneumonia. Second, when he
of DNA and proteins. Initially, most geneticists injected bacteria of strain S to mice, the mice
thought that protein are large, complex developed pneumonia and died. In the third
molecules and store information needed to experiment, he injected heat-killed strain S
govern cell metabolism. Hence it was assumed bacteria to mice, once again the mice survived.
that proteins caused the variations observed In fourth experiment, he mixed heat-killed
within species. S bacteria with live bacteria of strain R and
injected to mice. The mice died and Griffith
70
recovered large numbers of live strain S They also discovered that protein –digesting
bacteria from the blood of the dead mice. enzymes (proteases), RNA-digesting enzyme
In these four experiments, something had (RNAases) did not affect transformation, so the
caused harmless strain R bacterium to change transforming substance was neither a protein
into deadly S strain bacterium. Griffith showed nor RNA. DNA digested with DNAse did
that the change was genetic. He suggested inhibit the transformation, suggesting that DNA
that genetic material from heat-killed strain caused the transformation. These experiments
S bacterium had somehow changed the living proved that the transforming principle is DNA
strain R bacterium into strain S bacterium. but all biologists were not convinced.
Griffith concluded that the R-strain
Rough nonvirulent
bacterium must have taken up, to what he (strain R)
called a "transforming principle" from the heat- + Protease
killed S bacterium, which allowed R strain to
Mouse dead
get transformed into smooth-coated bacterium
and become virulent.
+ DNase
Rough strain
Rough strain Smooth Heat-killed and Heat-killed Heat-killed smooth
(II-R) Strain (III-S) Smooth Strain Smooth Strain virulent (strain S)
Mouse alive

Fig. 4.2 : DNA transforms bacteria

Finally, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
(1952) proved that DNA is the genetic material
and not proteins, by using bacteriophages.

Hershey - Chase Experiment:

Hershey and Chase worked with viruses
that infect bacteria i.e. bacteriophages, which
Mouse alive Mouse dead Mouse alive Mouse dead are composed of DNA and protein. They used
radioactive phosphorous 32P in the medium for
Fig. 4.1 : Griffith’s experiment
some viruses and radioactive sulphur 35S for
Avery, McCarty and MacLeod’s experiment: some others.
In 1944, after some 10 years of research They grew some viruses on a medium that
and experimentation, U. S. microbiologists contained radioactive phosphorus and some
Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. MacLeod and others on medium that contained radioactive
Maclyn McCarty (all at Rockefeller University sulphur. Viruses grown in the presence of
in New York) first evidenced to prove the DNA radioactive phosphorus contained radioactive
is a genetic material (transforming principle), DNA (labelled DNA), but not radioactive
through the experiments. They purified DNA, proteins because DNA contains phosphorus
RNA, Proteins (enzymes) and other materials (labelled DNA) but proteins do not. Similarly,
from cell free extract of S cells/ strain and mixed viruses grown on radioactive sulphur contained
with heat killed S strain and R cells seperately radioactive protein but not radioactive DNA
to confirm which one could transform living because DNA does not contain sulphur.
R cells into S cells. Only DNA was able Radioactive phages were allowed to
to transform harmless strain R into deadly infect E.coli bacteria grown on the medium
strain S. containing normal ‘P’ and ‘S’. Then, as
71
the infection proceeded, the viral coats
were removed with the help of centrifuge. Can you recall?
Bacteria which were infected by viruses with
1. What are the chemical components of
radioactive DNA, were radioactive, indicating DNA?
that DNA was the material that passed from 2. What is a chromosome?
the viruses to the bacteria. Bacteria which were
infected by viruses having radioactive sulphur 4.3 DNA packaging :
(protein) were not radioactive. This indicates Length of DNA double helix molecule, in
that proteins from the viruses, did not enter a typical mammalian cell is approximately
the bacteria. DNA is, therefore, the genetic 2.2 meters. (This can be worked out simply by
material that is passed from virus to bacteria multiplying the total number of base pairs with
(fig. 4.3). distance between the consecutive base pairs).
Approximate size of a typical nucleus is 10-6
In other words, sometime after infection,
m. How this long DNA molecule can be then
radioactivity for ‘P’ and ‘S’ was tested. Only
accommodated in such a small nucleus? It,
radioactive ‘P’ was found inside the bacterial
therefore, must be condensed, coiled and super
cell, indicating that DNA is the genetic material.
coiled to fit inside such small nucleus.
Bacteriophage Phosphorus Packaging in Prokaryotes:
Sulfur labeled
labeled DNA In prokaryotes like E. coli, cell size is almost
core
protein capsule 2-3m long. They do not have well organized
nucleus. It is without nuclear membrane and
1. Infection nucleolus. The nucleoid is small, circular,
highly folded, naked ring of DNA which is
1100m long in perimeter, containing about 4.6
million base pairs.
2. Blending
The 1100m long (approximately 1.1 mm, if
cut and stretched out) nucleoid is to be fitted
or packaged into a cell which is hardly 2-3m
3. Centrifugation long. Hence the negatively charged DNA
becomes circular, reducing the size to 350mm
in diameter. This is further reduced to 30mm
No sulfur detected in cells Phosphorus detected in cells
+
in diameter because of folding/ looping. 40-50
+
Sulfur detected in No phosphorus domains (loops) are formed. Formation of loops
supernatant detected in supernatant is assisted by RNA connectors. Each domain is
further coiled and supercoiled, thereby reducing
Fig. 4.3 : Hershey - Chase Experiment the size down to 2m in diameter. This coiling
(packaging) is assisted by positively charged
Do you know ? HU (Histone like DNA binding proteins)
proteins and enzymes like DNA gyrase and
1. Multiple forms of DNA and their DNA topoisomerase I, for maintaining super
differences.
coiled state.
2. Significance of different forms of DNA.

72
 RNA cleaved
e. Partially unfolded
chromosome

350 m 30 m 2m Partial
RNA Each loop is DNase
independently digestion
supercoiled
Partial
c. Supercoiled, Nicked DNA RNase
a. Circular, unfolded b. Folded chromosome
chromosome actually 40 to 50 loops folded digestion
chromosome

d. Partially uncoiled chromosome

Fig. 4.4 : DNA Packaging in Prokaryotes
Packaging in Eukaryotes: The negatively charged helical DNA
Eukaryotes show well organized nucleus is wrapped around the positively charged
containing nuclear membrane, nucleolus histone octamer, forming a structure known
and thread-like material in the form of as nucleosome. The nucleosome core is made
chromosomes. In the chromosomes, DNA is up of two molecules of each of four types of
associated with histone and non-histone proteins histone proteins viz. H2A, H2B, H3and H4. H1
as was reported by R. Kornberg in 1974. The protein binds the DNA thread where it enters
organization of DNA is much more complex in (arrives) and leaves the nucleosome.
eukaryotes. Depending upon the abundance of One nucleosome approximately contains
amino acid residues with charged side chains, 200 base pair long DNA helix wound around
a protein acquires its charge. Histones are the it (fig. 4.5). About 146 base pair long segment
proteins that are rich in lysine and arginine of DNA remains present in each nucleosome.
residues. Both these amino acid residues are Nucleosomes are the repeating units of
basic amino acids and carry positive charges chromatin, which are thread-like, stained
with them. So, histones are a set of positively (coloured) bodies present in nucleus. These look
charged, basic proteins (histones + protamine). like ‘beads-on-string’, when observed under
These histones organize themselves to make a an electron microscope. DNA helix of 200 bps
unit of 8 molecules known as histone octamer. wraps around the histone octamer by 1¾ turns.
Six such nucleosomes get coiled and then form
H2A H4 solenoid that looks like coiled telephone wire.
The chromatin is packed to form a solenoid
structure of 30 nm diameter (300A0) and further
H2B H3 H1 Histone
supercoiling tends to form a looped structure
called chromatin fiber, which further coils
DNA and condense at metaphase stage to form the
chromosomes. The packaging of chromatin at
Octamer of Histones higher levels, need additional set of proteins
that are called Non-Histone Chromosomal
Fig. 4.5 : Nucleosome proteins (NHC).

73
 Non-Histone Chromosomal Proteins
(NHC) : These are additional sets of proteins
Nucleosomes that contribute to the packaging of chromatin
at a higher level.
Heterochromatin and Euchromatin :
1. Heterochromatin: In eukaryotic cells, some
segments of chromonema/ chromosome
0.5 mm
during interphase and early prophase
Fig. 4.6 : Chromatin showing beads-on- remain in a condensed state. These region
string constitute heterochromatin. This term
was proposed by Heitz. These regions are
Nucleosome
localized near centromere, telomeres and
Linker DNA are also intercalated. It is genetically mostly
inactive. It stains strongly and appears
dark. Heterochromatin is 2 to 3 times more
rich in DNA than in the euchromatin.
2. Euchromatin: The regions of chromonema
DNA wound around histone proteins which are in non-condensed state, constitute
A : Beads-on-string magnified euchromatin. Euchromatic regions stain
111 Å light. Euchromatin is genetically very
Nucleosomes
60 Å much active and fast replicating.
Chromatin fibers “stretched” Euchromatin is transcriptionally active,
during preparation for electron while heterochromatin is transcriptionally
microscopy revealing linker
DNA between nucleosome cores almost inactive.

Can you recall?

Linker DNA, Nucleosome core, 1. What is the backbone of the DNA
varying in 146 nucleotide pairs
length from 8 to of DNA wrapped as structure?
114 nucleotide ¾ turns around an 2. Name the nitrogen bases of DNA.
pairs octamer of histones
3. What are Nucleoside and Nucleotide?
B : Chain of nucleosomes forming 4. Is the double helix right or left handed?
10 to 11 nm thick fibre

Find out
0 Å
30 What is the key difference between
DNA in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

300Å 4.4 DNA Replication :

metaphase The DNA molecule regulates and controls
110 Å fiber

fiber or
“solenoid”
all the activities of the cell. Because of its
unique structure, it is able to control the
110 Å synthesis of other molecules of the cell. At
the same time when the cell reproduces, the
C : Solenoid forming 30 nm thick fibre
Fig. 4.7 : DNA packaging DNA also should duplicate itself to distribute

74
equally to the daughter cells. As a carrier of At the point ‘O’, enzyme endonuclease
genetic information, DNA has to perform two nicks one of the strands of DNA, temporarily.
important functions : The nick occurs in the sugar-phosphate back
a. Heterocatalytic function : When DNA bone or the phosphodiester bond.
directs the synthesis of chemical molecules 3. Unwinding of DNA molecule:
other than itself, then such functions of Now enzyme DNA helicase operates by
DNA are called heterocatalytic functions. breaking weak hydrogen bonds in the vicinity of
Eg. Synthesis of RNA (transcription), ‘O. The strands of DNA separate and unwind.
synthesis of protein (Translation), etc. This unwinding is bidirectional and continues
b. Autocatalytic function : When DNA as ‘Y’ shaped replication fork. Each separated
directs the synthesis of DNA itself, then strand acts as template.
such function of DNA is called autocatalytic The two separated strands are prevented
function. Eg. Replication. from recoiling (rejoining) by SSBP (Single
The process by which DNA duplicates strand binding proteins). SSB proteins remain
itself is called replication. Through replication, attached to both the separated strands so as
it forms two copies that are identical to it. to facilate synthesis of new polynucleotide
In eukaryotic organisms, replication of strands.
Okazaki
DNA takes place only once in the cell cycle. Replication Lagging RNA primer fragments
It occurs in the S- phase of interphase in the fork template
5’
cell cycle. 3’
DNA replicates through Semiconservative 5’ nd
s t ra s)
3’ g ou
mode of replication. gin ntin
5’ g
The model for Semiconservative replication La isco
(d
was proposed by Watson and Crick, on the basis 3’ 3’

Le (co
of antiparallel and complementary nature of

ad nti
in no
DNA strands. The process of semicoservative

g us
str )
5’ Leading

an
replication is as below:

d
template
1. Activation of Nucleotides: 5’
The four types of nucleotides of DNA i.e. 3’
3’ 5’
A=T
dAMP, dGMP, dCMP and dTMP are present
in the nucleoplasm. They are activated by ATP T=A Parental strand
in presence of an enzyme phosphorylase. This C=G
results in the formation of deoxyribonucleotide A=T
triphosphates i.e. dATP, dGTP, dCTP and dTTP. G=C
The process is known as Phosphorylation. T=A
Lagging Leading
2. Point of Origin or Initiation point: 3’
template
A=

template
T
A=
T
T= G

It begins at specific point ‘O’ -origin and

A

5’
C=

T=
A

terminates at point ‘T’. Origin is flanked by

C=
A= C

RNA primer
T
G= =A

A=
T

‘T’ sites. The unit of DNA in which replication

T

Okazaki fragments 3’
G=

5’
A

occurs, is called replicon. In prokaryotes, there 5’ New

T=

is noly one replicon however in eukaryotes, 3’ strands 5’

there are several replicons in tandem. Fig. 4.8 : Semiconservative Replication of
DNA

75
4. Replicating fork: Okazaki). Okazaki fragments are joined by
The point formed due to unwinding and enzyme DNA ligase.
separation of two strands appear like a Y-shaped RNA primers are removed by DNA
fork, called replicating/ replication fork. The polymerase and replaced by DNA sequence with
unwinding of strands imposes strain which is the help of DNA polymerase-I in prokaryotes
relieved by super-helix relaxing enzyme. and DNA polymerase-α in eukaryotes.
5. Synthesis of new strands: Finally, DNA gyrase (topoisomerase)
Each separated strand acts as mould or enzyme forms double helix to form daughter
template for the synthesis of new complementary DNA molecules.
strand. It begins with the help of a small RNA 7. Formation of daughter DNA molecules:
molecule, called RNA primer. RNA primer get At the end of the replication, two daughter
associated with the 3’ end of template strand DNA molecules are formed. In each daughter
and attracts complementary nucleotides from DNA, one strand is parental and the other
surrounding nucleoplasm. These nucleotides one is totally newly synthesized. Thus, 50%
molecules bind to the complementary is contributed by mother DNA. Hence, it is
nucleotides on the template strand by forming described as semiconservative replication.
hydrogen bonds (i.e. A=T or T=A; G = C or Experimental confirmation :
C = G). The newly bound nucleotides get
Semiconservative Replication : In newly
interconnected by phosphodiester bonds,
formed DNA molecule, one strand is old
forming a polynucleotide strand. The synthesis
(i.e. conserved) and other strand is newly
of new complementary strand is catalyzed
synthesized. Thus, it is called Semiconservative
by enzyme DNA polymerase. The new
mode of replication.
complementary strand is always formed in 5’-
3’ direction. It is experimentally proved by Matthew
Meselson and Franklin Stahl (1958) by
6. Leading and Lagging strand:
using equilibrium - density - gradient -
The template strand with free 3’ end is called centrifugation technique.
leading template and with free 5’ end is called
1. Meselson and Stahl in 1958 performed
lagging template. The process of replication
an experiment to prove semiconservative
always starts at C-3 end of template strand and
nature (mode) of replication.
proceeds towards C-5 end. As both the strands
of the parental DNA are antiparallel, new 2. They cultured bacteria E.coli in the medium
strands are always formed in 5’ → 3’ direction. containing 14N (light nitrogen) and obtained
equilibrium density gradient band by using
One of the newly synthesized strand
6M CsCl2. The position of this band is
develops continously towards replicating
recorded.
fork is called leading strand. Another new
strand develop discontinuously away from the 3. E. coli cells were then tranferred to 15N
replicating fork is called lagging strand. medium (heavy isotopic nitrogen) and
allowed to replicate for several generations.
Maturation of Okazaki fragments :
At equilibrium point density gradient band
DNA synthesis on lagging template takes was obtained, by using 6M CsCl2. The
place in the form of small fragments, called position of this band is recorded.
Okazaki fragments (named after scientist

76
 Generation I Generation II
15
N-DNA 14
N-DNA 14
N-DNA
15
N-DNA
14
N15N-DNA

20 min 40 min 14
N15N-DNA

14
N-DNA

15
N 15N N 15N
14
N 14N
14
N 15N
14

Heavy Hybrid Light Hybrid

Fig. 4.9 : Interpretation of results of Meselson’s experiment on the separation of DNA by
equilibrium density gradient centrifugation
4. The heavy DNA (15N) molecule can 4.5 Protein synthesis :
be distinguished from normal DNA by Proteins are very important biomolecules.
centrifugation in a 6M Cesium chloride They serve as structural components, enzymes
(CsCl2) density gradient. The density and hormones. The cell needs to synsthesize
gradient value of 6M CsCl2 and 15N DNA is new protein molecules. The process of
protein synthesis includes transcription and
almost same. Therefore, at the equilibrium
translation. The process of copying of genetic
point 15N DNA will form a band. In this
information from one (template) strand of DNA
both the strands of DNA are labelled with
into a single stranded RNA transcript, is termed
15
N. as transcription. During this process, synthesis
5. Such E. coli cells were they transferred to of complementary strand of RNA takes place
another medium containing 14N i.e. normal (Except that the Adenine nitrogen base pairs
(light) nitrogen. After first generation, with the Uracil base instead of Thymine).
the density gradient band for 14N 15N was Central Dogma :
obtained and its position was recorded.
Double stranded DNA molecule gives
After second generation, two density rise to mRNA which acts as a messenger to
gradient bands were obtained - one at 14N programme the synthesis of a polypeptide
15
N position and other at 14N position. chain (protein). This type of unidirectional
6. The position of bands after two generations flow of information from DNA to RNA to
clearly proved that DNA replication is protein/ proteins is referred as central dogma
Semiconservative. of molecular biology. It was postulated by
F.H.C. Crick in 1958.
Use your brain power
Transcription Translation
1. List as many different enzyme activities DNA mRNA Polypeptide
required during DNA synthesis as you
can. The present concept of central dogma in
2. This type of replication is called semi- retroviruses or riboviruses is given by Temin
conservative replication. Considering (1970) and Baltimore (1970):
the meaning of these words, why DNA Transcription Translation
replication is called semiconservative DNA mRNA Polypeptide
replication? Reverse Transcription

77
 Accordingly enzyme RNA dependent DNA polymerase catalyses polymerisation in
polymerase, synthesizes DNA from RNA. 5’→3’ direction. So the DNA strand having
3’→5’ polarity acts as template strand. The
Can you recall? other strand of DNA having 5’→3’ polarity
is complementary to template strand. The
1. What is transcription? sequence of bases in this strand, is same
2. How many nucleotides are present in a as in RNA (where Thymine is replaced by
codon? Uracil). It is the actual coding strand. The
3. Name the molecule which carries information on this strand of DNA is copied
anticodon? on mRNA. This is called sense strand.
4. What is mutation? iii. The terminator is located at 3’ end of coding
A. Transcription: strand i.e. downstream. It defines the end of
During transcription, information of only the transcription process.
one strand of DNA is copied into RNA. This
Template strand
strand of DNA acts as template. Enzyme RNA 3’ 5’
polymerase catalyses the formation of RNA Structural gene
5’ 3’
transcript. Coding strand
Promoter Terminator
DNA is located in the nucleoid of Fig. 4.10 : Transcription unit
Prokaryotes and in nucleus of Eukaryotes.
After binding to promoter, RNA polymerase
DNA transcription takes place in nucleus
moves along the DNA and causes local
in eukaryotes whereas translation occurs
unwinding of DNA duplex into two chains in
in cytoplasm. DNA transfers information
the region of the gene. Exposed ATCG bases
to m-RNA which then moves to ribosomes.
project into nucleoplasm. Only one strand
Transcription occurs in the nucleus during
functions as template (antisense strand) and
G1 and G2 phases of cell cycle. DNA has
the other strand is complementary which is
promotor and terminator sites. Transcription
actiually a coding strand (sense strand). The
starts at promotor site and stops at terminator
ribonucleoside tri phosphates join to bases of
site. Actually the process of transcription, in
both Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, involves DNA template chain. As transcription proceeds,
three stages viz. Initiation, Elongation and the hybrid DNA-RNA molecule dissociates and
Termination. makes mRNA molecule free.
A 5′ 3′ T A 5′
Transcription Unit:
G C G
Each transcribed segment of DNA is called
U A T
transcription unit. It consists of i. Promotor, G
C C
ii. The structural gene, iii. A terminator. Two A T A
strands of DNA in the structural gene show G C G
following features : U A T
i. The promotor is located towards 5’ end of A T A
structural gene i.e. upstream. It is a DNA C G C
A T A
sequence that provides binding site for
U A T
enzyme RNA polymerase. RNA polymerase 3′ C 3′
G 5′ G
binds to specific Promotor. In prokaryotes, m-RNA Template strand Coding strand
the enzyme recognizes the promotor by its of DNA of DNA
sigma factor sub unit. (antisense strand) (sense strand)
ii. Structureal genes - two strands of DNA have Fig. 4.11 : Formation of Template and
opposite polarity. DNA dependent RNA Coding strand of DNA

78
 When RNA polymerase reaches the Transcription unit and the gene:
terminator signal on the DNA, it leaves DNA The DNA sequence coding for m-RNA/
and fully formed mRNA (primary transcript) is t-RNA or r- RNA is defined as a gene. Cistron
released. is a segment of DNA coding for a polypeptide.
As the mRNA grows, the transcribed region A single structural gene in transcription unit
of DNA molecule becomes spirally coiled and is said to be monocistronic where as a long
attains (regains) double helical form. segment of DNA having set of various structural
In bacteria, m-RNA does not require genes in one transcription unit is referred as
any processing because it has no introns. polycistronic. Structral genes in eukaryotes
Prokaryotes posses only one type of RNA have interrupted non-coding sequences
polymerase. In eukaryotes, there are three (introns). The coding sequences or express-
types RNA polymerases. RNA polymerase-I sequences are defined are exons. Only exons
transcribes r-RNA. RNA polymerase-II appear in procesed mRNA in Eukaryotes.
transcribes m-RNA (primary transcript) and Processing of hnRNA:
heterogeneous nuclear RNA (or hnRNA). RNA In eukaryotes, forms of RNA transcribed
polymerase-III is responsible for transcription from DNA are called primary transcripts.
of t-RNA and small nuclear RNA (snRNA). Such transcripts undergo changes called
processing or maturation before becoming
functional. Primary transcript is non functional
Do you know ?
and contains both exons and introns. During
processing only introns are removed by the
1. Many viruses contain RNA as genetic
process called splicing.
material and replicate by synthesizing
first the DNA and then form RNA. This 5’ 5’
process is called reverse transcription. 3’ 3’
Such viruses are known as Retroviruses.
2. e.g. Human immuno deficiency virus Capping 3’ mRNA
Intron
Cap
(HIV) is responsible for causing AIDS. m
GPPP Exon Polyadenylation
5’ RNA splicing
3. In some cases like E.coli, a chain
terminating protein, the rho factor stops
m
GPPP 3’
5’ Poly A tail
the synthesis of mRNA. m
GPPP
4. The process of transcription as well as 5’
3’
translation involves 3 stages - initiation, GPPP m

5’
elongation and termination. Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Fig. 4.12 : Transcription and Processing of

hnRNA to mRNA in Eukaryotes
Always Remember
Types of RNA and process of transcription:
In bacteria, there are three types of RNAs : m- RNA provides the encoded message, t- RNA
brings specific amino acid, to the site of translation. r- RNA plays role in providing binding site
to mRNA.
There is single DNA dependent RNA polymerase that catalyses transcription of all 3 types
of RNA in bacteria. RNA polymerase binds to promotor and initiates transcription (initiation).

79
 Exons are joined in a definite sequence there must be combination of three consecutive
(order) by DNA ligase enzyme. Heterogeneous nitrogen bases that will be sufficient to specify
nuclear RNA, undergoes the process of capping 20 different types of amino acids.
and tailing. In capping, methylated guanosine Thus, there would be 64 different codons
tri phosphate is added to 5’ end of hnRNA. In (code words) in the dictionary of genetic code
tailing, polyadenylation take place at 3’end. and that each code word has to be a triplet
It is the fully processed hnRNA, now called codon. Every three consecutive nucleotides in
m-RNA. For translation m-RNA is transported DNA will constitute a triplet codon. Genetic
out of the nucleus through nuclear pore. code is a triplet code, was evidenced first by
Genetic Code: Crick (1961) using “frame- shift mutation”.
It is already known that DNA is a master However, M. Nirenberg and Matthaei were
molecule of a cell that initiates, guides, regulates able to synthesize artificial m-RNA which
and controls the process of protein synthesis. contained only one type nitrogenous base
To perform this complicated function, it must i.e. Uracil (Homopolymer). This synthetic
carry the requisite information for the synthesis poly-U sequence was transferred to protein
of proteins. Obviously this information has to synthesizing enzymes. A small polypeptide
be verily located in the DNA itself. The site for molecule was produced/ formed by the linking
storing this information lies in the sequence of of phenylalanine molecules. This explains that
nucleotides (i.e. nitrogen bases), as evidenced UUU codes for phenyl alanine. Later different
by Yanofski and Sarabhai (1964). homopolymer codons were deciphered. Codons
formed by two or more bases were also tried.
About, 20 different types of amino acids are
involved in the process of synthesis of proteins. Dr. Har Gobind Khorana : He devised a
DNA molecule has 4 types of nitrogen bases to technique for artificially synthesizing m- RNA
identify these 20 different types of amino acids. with repeated sequences of known nucleotides.
Question arises then, how is it possible that 20 By using synthetic DNA, Dr. Khorana prepared
types of amino acids are encoded by 4 types of chains of polyribonucleotides with known
nitrogen bases? repeated sequences of two or three nucleotides.
According to F.H.C. Crick, this eg. CUC UCU CUC UCU.
information is stored in the form of coded This resulted in formation of polypeptide
language (cryptogram) called genetic code, chain having two different amino acids placed
that contains code words (codons) each one alternately (Leucine and Serine). Similarly
specifying (representing) specific amino acid. polynucleotide chain with three- nitrogen
Genetic code, therefore, is a collection of base base repeats gave polypeptide chain with only
sequences that correspond to each amino acid. one amino acids. Eg. CUA CUA CUA CUA
A single nitrogen base in a codon (singlet (leucine). Later, Severo Ochoa established that
codon) will encode for only four different types the enzyme (polynucleotide phosphorylase)
of amino acids. A combination of two nitrogen was also helpful in polymerising RNA with
bases (doublet codon) will specify only 16 defined sequences in a template- independent
different types of amino acids. A combination manner (i.e. enzymatic synthesis of RNA).
of three nitrogen bases (triplet codon) will Finally Nirenberg, Matthaei and Ochoa
specify 64 different types of amino acids. Hence deciphered all the 64 codons in the dictionary
G. Gamov (1954) suggested that in a codon, of genetic code.

80
 Second Letter
U C A G
UUU UCU UAU UGU U
Phe Tyr Cys
U UUC UCC UAC UGC C
Ser
UUA Leu UCA UAA Stop UGA Stop A
UUG UCG UAG Stop UGG Trp G
CUU CCU CAU CGU U
His
CUC CCC CAC CGC C
C Leu Pro Arg

Third Letter
First Letter

CUA CCA CAA Gln CGA A

CUG CCG CAG CGG G
AUU ACU AAU AGU U
Asn Ser
A AUC Ile ACC Thr AAC AGC C
AUA ACA AAA Lys AGA Arg A
AUG Met ACG AAG AGG G
GUU GCU GAU GGU U
Asp
G GUC GCC GAC GGC C
Val Ala Gly
GUA GCA GAA Glu GGA A
GUG GCG GAG GGG G
Fig. 4.13 : Dictionary of genetic code
During replication and transcription, a i. Genetic code is a triplet code: Sequence
nucleic acid is copied to form another nucleic of three consecutive bases constitute
acid. These two processes are based on codon, which specifies one particular
complementarity principle. During translation, amino acid. Base sequence in a codon
genetic information is transferred from a is always in 5’ 3’ direction. In every
polymer of nucleotides to a polymer of amino living organism genetic code is a triplet
acids. Here, complementarity principle does code.
not exist. ii. Genetic code has distinct polarity :
It is evident that change in nucleic acid Genetic code shows definite polarity i.e.
(genetic material) results in the change in direction. It, therefore, is always read in
amino acids of proteins. This clearly explains 5’ 3’ direction and not in 3’ 5’
that genetic code directs the sequence of amino direction. Otherwise message will change
acids during synthesis of proteins. e.g. 5’ AUG 3’.
iii. Genetic code is non-overlapping : Code
Find out is non overlapping i.e. each single base is
The
What is the amino acid sequence a part of only one codon. Adjacent codons
encoded by base sequence UCA UUU UCC do not overlap. If non-overlapping, then
GGG AGU of an m- RNA segment? with 6 consequtive bases only two amino
acid molecules will be in the chain. Had it
Characterestic of Genetic code:
been overlapping type, with 6 bases, there
Genetic code of DNA has certain would be 4 amino acid molecules in a
fundamental characteristics – chain. Experimental evidence is in favour
of non-overlapping nature.
81
iv. Genetic code is commaless : There is
no gap or punctuation mark between Activity :
successive/ consecutive codons.
5′ 3′
v. Genetic code has degeneracy : Usually
single amino acid is encoded by single A UG U C G A C G C C C U AA
codon. However, some amino acids are m-RNA
Consider given m-RNA strand which
encoded by more than one codons. e.g.
has undergone mutation and lost nucleotides
Cysteine has two codons, while isoleucin
A, C, and G sequentially. Resultant mRNA
has three codons. This is called degeneracy is represented by 1, 2 and 3. With the help of
of the code. Degeneracy of the code is checker board of amino acids, explain the
explained by Wobble hypothesis. Here, changes in amino acid sequence that will
the first two bases in different codons are occur due to such mutation.
identical but the third one, varies. 5′ 3′
vi. Genetic code is universal : By and 1.
A UG U C G C G C C C U AA
large in all living organisms the specific
5′ 3′
codon specifies same amino acid. e.g.
2.
codon AUG always specifies amino acid A UG U C G G C C C UA A
methionine in all organisms from bacteria 5′ 3′
up to humans. 3.
A UG U C G C C C U AA
vii. Genetic code is non-ambiguous : Specific
amino acid is encoded by a particular Mutations and Genetic Code:
codon. Alternatively, two different amino Mutation is a phenomenon in which
sudden change in the DNA sequence takes
acids will never be encoded by the same
place. It results in the change of genotype
codon.
(i.e. character). Along with recombination,
viii. Initiation codon and termination codon:
mutation is raw material for evolution as it
AUG is always an initiation codon in any also results in variations. During mutation,
and every mRNA. AUG codes for amino possibility of loss (deletion) or gain (insertion/
acid methionine. Out of 64 codons, three duplication) of a segment of DNA results in
codons viz. UAA, UAG and UGA are alteration in the chromosome. Mutation can
termination codons which terminate/ stop also occur due to change in a single base pair
the process of elongation of polypeptide of DNA. This is known as point mutation. Eg.
chain, as they do not code for any amino Sickle cell anaemia (Refer to earlier chapter).
acid. Deletion or insertion of base pairs of DNA
ix. Universal : Usually in all organisms the causes frame – shift mutations or deletion
specific codon specifies same amino acid. mutation. Insertion or deletion of one or two
bases changes the reading frame from the point
x. Codon and anticodon : Codon is a part of insertion or deletion. Insertion or deletion
of DNA e.g. AUG is codon. It is always of three or multiples of three bases (insert or
represented as 5’ AUG 3’. Anticodon is a delete) results in insertion or deletion of amino
part of tRNA. It is always represented as acids and reading frame remains unaltered
3’UAC 5’. from that point onwards.
• It is possible to predict sequence of codon t-RNA- the adapter molecule:
on mRNA by studying the sequence of Scientists considered that there has to
amino acids in a polypeptide chain. be a mechanism in which t-RNA will read the
82
codon and also simultaniously binds with the B. Translation - protein synthesis :
amino acid as amino acid does not have any Translation is the mechanism in which
special capacity to read the codon. So t-RNA is codons of mRNA are translated and specific
considered as an adapter molecule. This role of amino acids in a sequence form a polypeptide on
tRNA was understood much later. ribosomes. All types of proteins are synthesised
by the cell, within itself (i.e. intracellularly).
Glutamic acid
Process of translation requires amino
acids, mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes, ATP, Mg++
Amino acid
3’ attachment site 5’
ions, enzymes, elongation, translocation and
release factors.
tRNA 5’ 3’
i. Amino acids form raw material for
protein synthesis. About 20 different
types of amino acids are known to form
Anticodon Intramolecular
loop
proteins. These are available in the
base pairing
cytoplasm.
C UC Anticodon
GUC CAG GAG CUA UAG ii. DNA controls synthesis of proteins having
mRNA
amino acids in specific sequence. This
Fig. 4.14: t-RNA - the adapter molecule control is possible through transcription
Cloverleaf structure (2 dimentional) of of m-RNA. Genetic code is specific for
t-RNA possess an anticodon loop that has particular amino acid.
bases complementary to the codon. It is called iii. RNAs serve as intermediate molecules
anticodon. It shows amino acid acceptor end between DNA and protein.
(3’ end) having unpaired CCA bases (i.e. amino iv. Ribosomes serve as site for protein
acid binding site) to which amino acid binds. synthesis. Each ribosome consists of large
For every amino acid, there is specific t- RNA. and small subunits. These subunits occur
Initiator t-RNA is specific for methionine. separately in cytoplasm. Only during
There are no t-RNA’s for stop codons. In the protein synthesis, these two subunits get
actual structure, the t-RNA molecule looks like associated together due to Mg++ ions.
inverted L (3 dimentional structure). A ribosome has one binding site for m-RNA
and 3 binding sites for t-RNA. They are P
Can you tell? site (peptidy t-RNA site), A site (aminoacyl
– t-RNA site) and E site (exit site). Only first
Why t-RNA is called as adapter t- RNA- amino acid complex, directly enters P
molecule? site of ribosome.
In Eukaryotes, a groove is present between
Can you recall? two subunits of ribosomes. It protects the
Polypeptide chain from the action of cellular
1. Name different types of RNAs.
enzymes and also protects mRNA from the
2. Name the site of protein synthesis.
action of nucleases.
3. Which molecule carries information of
protein synthesis from gene? Mechanism of translation (i.e. synthesis of
4. Which molecule carries amino acid from polypeptide chain) :
cytoplasm to ribosome? It involves three steps :
i. Initiation, ii. Elongation, iii. Termination
83
1. Initiation of Polypeptide chain : tRNA carrying dipeptide now gets
a. Activation of amino acids is essential positioned at ‘P’ site of ribosome, making
before translation initiates for which ‘A’ site vacant. At this site, then next
ATP is essential. Small subunit of charged tRNA molecule carrying amino
ribosome binds (attaches) to the m-RNA acid will be received. During this process,
at 5’ end. Initiator codon, AUG is present first uncharged tRNA is discharged from
on m-RNA which initiates the process of E-site.
protein synthesis (translation). Initiator This process is repeated as amino acids
t- RNA binds with initiation codon are added to Polypeptide. It takes less than 0.1
(AUG) by its anticodon (UAC) through second for formation of peptide bond.
hydrogen bonds. It carries activated Third charged t-RNA with its amino acid,
amino acid methionine (in Eukaryotes) arrives at A-site of ribosome. Anticodon and
or formyl methionine (in prokaryotes). codon bind by hydrogen bond. Polypeptide
b. Now the large subunit of ribosome joins bond is formed. Second t-RNA is discharged
with the smaller subunit, that requires from P-site to E-site and leaves the ribosome.
Mg++ ions. So the events like arrival of t-RNA- amino acid
c. Initiator charged t-RNA (with activated complex, formation of peptide bond, ribosomal
amino acid methionine) occupies the P- translocation and removal of previous tRNA,
site of ribosome and A- site is vacant. are repeated. As ribosome move over the m-
2. Elongations of polypeptide chain : RNA, all the codons on mRNA are exposed
During this process, activated amino acids one by one for translation.
are added one by one to first amino acid Larger sub unit of
(methionine). Amino acid is activated by ribosome
Initiator tRNA
utilising energy form ATP molecule. This
amino acid binds with amino acid binding
site of t-RNA- This results in formation of mRNA

t-RNA- amino acid complex.

Addition of Amino acid occurs in 3 Step E site A site
Smaller sub unit a.
of ribosome P site
cycle -
a. Condon recognition- Amino acyl t- RNA
molecule enters the ribosome at A-site. Peptide
Anticodon binds with the codon by link
hydrogen bonds. E site
b. A site
b. Amino acid on the first initiator t-RNA A site
Polypeptide
at P-site and amino acid on t-RNA at chain
Last
A-site join by peptide bond. Here enzyme tRNA
Ribozyme acts as a catalyst. At this time
first tRNA at ‘P’ site is kicked off.
c. Translocation- The t- RNA at A-site
carrying a dipeptide at A-site moves c.
to the P-site. This process is called
Released mRNA
translocation. In translocation, both
the subunits of ribosome move along in Fig. 4.15 : Translation Protein synthesis
relation to tRNA and mRNA. Hence, a. Initiation, b. Elongation, c. Termination

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 3. Termination and release of polypeptide: Genes of a cell are expressed to perform
At the end of m-RNA, there is a stop different functions. For eg. An enzyme beta
codon (UAA/ UAG/ UGA). It is exposed at the galactosidase is synthesised by E-coli. It is
A-site. It is not read and joined by anticodon used for hydrolysis of lactose into galactose
of any t-RNA. The release factor binds to the and glucose.
stop codon, thereby terminating the translation (b – galactosidase)
Lactose Galactose + Glucose.
process. The Polypeptide is now released in the +H2O
cytoplasm. If E.coli bacteria do not have lactose
Two subunits of Ribosome dissociate and in the surrounding medium as a source of
last tRNA is set free in the cytoplasm. energy, then enzyme b-galactosidase is
m-RNA also has some additional sequences not synthesised. So, it is the metabolic or
that are not translated and are referred as physiological or environmental conditions that
untranslated regions (UTR). The UTRs are regulate expression of genes. The development
present at both 5’-end (before start codon) and and differentiation of embryo into an adult
at 3’-end (after stop codon). They are required organism, is also a result of the coordinated
for efficient translation process. regulation or expression, of several sets of
Finally mRNA is also released in the genes.
cytoplasm. It gets denatured by nucleases Now one has to understand and know the
immidiately. Hence mRNA is short -lived. mechanism by which the organisms regulate
gene expression in response to changes in the
Can you tell? environment. If so, whether single mechanism
1. Enlist different steps of protein synthesis. exists for regulation of the expression of
2. Name the initiator codon of protein different genes/ sets of genes or different genes
synthesis. are regulated by different mechanisms.
3. Explain in brief the process of initiation Certain bacteria like E.coli adapt to their
during protein synthesis. chemical environment by synthesizing certain
4. Name three binding sites of ribosome. enzymes depending upon the substrate present.
5. What is translocation? Such adaptive enzyme is called inducible
enzymes. A set of genes will be switched on
4.6 Regulation of gene expression: when there is necessity to metabolise a new
It is the multistep process by which a gene substrate. This phenomenon is called induction
is regulated and its product is synthesized. and small molecule responsible for this, is
Thus, gene expression results in the formation known as inducer. It is positive control.
of a Polypeptide. Gene expression process is
regulated at different levels.
Do you know ?
In eukaryotes, the regulation can be at
different levels like- Repressible regulation of gene is
1. Transcriptional level (formation of seen when the end product of a biosynthetic
primary transcript) pathway like amino acid, is provided in the
2. Processing level ( regulation of splicing) medium. At this time, internal biosynthesis
3. Transport of m-RNA from nucleus to the of amino acid stops. It is negative control so
the metabolite (amino acid) turns off a set of
cytoplasm.
genes involved in producing that metabolite.
4. Translational level.
This is called feedback repression.

85
4.7 Operon concept : Lac operon consists of following
It is a transcriptional control mechanism components :
of gene regulation. Francois Jacob and Jacques 1. Regulator gene (repressor gene)
Monod (1961) explained that metabolic 2. Promoter gene
pathways are regulated as a unit. 3. Operator gene
For example in E.coli, when lactose sugar 4. Structural genes
is provided to the culture medium, cell induces 5. Inducer - It is not a component of
production of three enzymes necessary for operon.
digestion of lactose. The enzymes are : 1. Regulator gene : This gene controls the
operator gene in cooperation with an
i. b-galactosidase : Digests lactose into
inducer present in the cytoplasm. Regulator
galactose and glucose.
gene preceeds the promoter gene. It may not
ii. b-galactoside permease : Permits be present immidiately adjacent to operator
lactose molecules to enter into the cell. gene. Regulator gene produces a protein
iii. Transacetylase (b-Galactoside called repressor protein. Repressor binds
acetyltransferease) : Transfers an with operator gene and represses (stops) its
acetyl group from acetyl CO-A to action. It is called regulator protein.
galactoside. 2. Promoter gene : This gene preceeds the
Synthesis of these three enzymes, is operator gene. It is present adjacent to
controlled by a long segment of DNA known operator gene. The promoter gene marks
as Operon. It consists of an operator site O and the site at which the RNA Polymerase
three structural genes Z, Y and A .The action enzyme binds. When the operator gene
of structural genes is regulated by operator is turned on, the enzyme moves over
site with the help of a repressor protein. the operator gene and transcription of
Repressor protein is produced by the action of structural genes starts. Promoter gene base
gene i (inhibitor) known as regulator gene. sequence determines which strand of DNA
The gene expression depends on whether acts a template.
operator is switched on or switched off. 3. Operator gene : It preceeds the structural
genes. This controls the functioning of
If the operator is switched on, the three genes
structural genes. It lies adjacent to the
z, y and a are transcribed by RNA Polymerase
Structural genes. When operator gene is
into a single m-RNA. Each structural gene is
turned on by an inducer, the Structural
generally known as cistron and the transcribed
genes produce m-RNA. Operator gene is
long m-RNA covering various cistrons is
turned off by a product of repressor gene.
known as Polycistronic.
4. Structural gene : When lactose is added
Switching on or switching off of the
to the E.coli culture, the structural genes
operator is achieved (acomplished) by a protein
catalyse (produce) m-RNA which in turn
called repressor. When this protein is attached produces polypeptides, on the ribosomes.
to the operator and blocks it, the switch is turned The polypeptides formed, act as enzymes
off and structural genes are not expressed. to caltalyse lactose in the cell. There are
Lac operon : 3 structural genes in the sequence lac-Z,
Lactose or lac operon of E.coli is inducible lac-Y and lac-A. Enzymes produced are
operon. The operon is switched on when a chemical b-galactosidase, b-galactoside permease
inducer- lactose is present in the medium. and transacetylase respectively.
86
 lac operon
Regulatory gene RNA polymerase Operator blocked
Promoter 1 2 3 Template
3’ 5’
Repressor DNA strand
Transcription Structural genes
mRNA
(a) 5’ 3’ no synthesis of mRNA
in active
Inducer absent Translation Movement
blocked Transcription
Repressor proceeds
Regulatory gene Operator
Promoter 1 2 3
3’ Template
5’
Repressor DNA strand
Transcription mRNA Transcription
5’ 3’ 5’ mRNA
Translation Translation

Proteins (enzymes to metabolize lactose)

(b)
Inducer present Repressor Inactivated
repressor
Inducer (allolactose)

Fig. 4.16 : Working of Lac Operon

5. Inducer : It is a chemical in the cytoplasm
(allolactose) which inactivates the Can you tell?
repressor. When lac operon is switched on,
1. What is the role of a repressor gene?
then inducer joins with repressor protein
2. Name the different structural genes in
preventing the binding of repressor to the
sequence of lac operon.
operator gene. So the Operator gene is free
3. Which molecule does act as inducer
and now enzyme RNA polymerase can
molecule in lac operon?
move from promoter to structural genes via
operator gene. 4. In which condition, lac operon is
switched off?
Role of lactose :
A few molecules of lactose enter into the
cell by an enzyme permease.A small amount Internet my friend
of this enzyme is present even when operon is
Find out information about Trp-operon, Ara-
switched off. A few molecules of lactose, act as operon, His-operon, Val-operon.
inducer and bind to repressor. This repressor –
inducer complex fails to join with the operator 4.8 Genomics:
gene, which is then turned on. Structural genes The term Genome (introduced by H.Winkler
produce all enzymes. Thus, lactose acts as in 1920) is the total genetic constitution of an
an inducer of its own break down. When the organism. Alternatively, it is a complete copy
inducer level falls, the operator is blocked again of genetic information (DNA) or one complete
by repressor. So structural genes are repressed/ set of chromosomes (monoploid or haploid) of
inactivated again. This is negative feedback. an organism.
The term Genomics (term coined by T.H.
Use your brain power Roderick in 1986) is the study of genomes
If operator gene is deleted due to through analysis, sequencing and mapping of
mutation, how will E.coli metabolise lactose? genes along with the study of their functions.

87
The sequencing of yeast, Drosophila and Human Genome Project formally began in
mouse genome was done in order to facilitate 1990 and was completed in 2003.The human
comparative studies between humans and other genome project is a multinational research
organisms commonly used for genetic studies, project to determine the genomic structure of
in laboratory. Several additional genomes are humans. The main aims of project are –
now either actively being sequenced or strongly I. Mapping the entire human genome at the
considered for sequencing. These include level of nucleotide sequences.
several microbes, bee, tomato and other crops. II. To store the information collected from the
Genomics study may be classified into two project in databases.
types: III. To develop tools and techniques for analysis
a. Structural genomics: It involves mapping, of the data.
sequencing and analysis of genome. IV. Transfer of the related technologies to the
b. Functional genomics: It deals with the private sectors, such as industries.
study of functions of all gene sequences V. Taking care of the legal, ethical and social
and their expression in organisms. issues which may arise from project.

Application of genomics: HGP (Human Genome Project) was closely

Structural and functional genomics is used associated with rapid development of a new
for different purposes in the improvement of area in biology, called Bioinformatics. The
crop plant, human health and livestock. The work of human genome project has allowed
knowledge and understanding acquired from researchers to begin to understand the blueprint
genomics research can be applied in a number in building and constructing the human genome.
of different sectors, including medicine, As researchers learn more about the functions
biotechnology and social sciences. It helps in of genes and proteins, this knowledge will have
the treatment of genetic disorders through gene a major impact in the fields like Medicine,
therapy. Biotechnology and the Life sciences. Therefore
• Genomics is used in agriculture to develop HGP is very important.
transgenic crops having more desirable Human Genome Project was to provide a
characters. complete and accurate sequence of the 3 billion
• Genetic markers developed in genomics, DNA base pairs that make up the human
have applications in forensic analysis. genome and to find out the estimated number
• Genomics can lead to introduce new gene in of human genes. Now about 33000 genes have
microbes to produce enzymes, therapeutic been estimated to be present in humans.
proteins and even biofuels. The project was also aimed to sequence
the genomes of several other organisms such
4.9 Human Genome Project :
as bacteia e.g. E.coli, Caenorhabditis elegans
The human genome project was initiated
(a free living non-pathogenic nematode),
in 1990 under the International administration
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast), Drosophila
of the Human Genome Organization (HUGO).
(fruit fly), plants (rice and Arabidopsis), Mus
This project was co-ordinated by the US
musculus (mouse), etc. Complete genome
department of Energy and National institute
sequences of these model organisms will be
of health. Additional contributors included
useful for comparative studies that will allow
universities across the United States and
researchers to study gene functions in these
international partners in the United Kingdom,
organisms.
France, Germany, Japan, India and China. The
88
 Table 4.17 : Comparative genome sizes of humans and other models organisms.
Organism Chromosome Estimated gene Estimated size
number number (base pairs)
Human (Homo sapiens) 46 33,000 3 billion
Mouse (Mus musculus) 40 25,000 2.9 billion
Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) 8 13,000 165 million
Plant (Arabidopsis thaliana) 10 25,000 157 million
Roundworm (Caenorhabditis elegans) 12 19,000 97 million
Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) 32 6000 12 million
Bacteria (Escherichia coli) 1 *
4400 4.6 million
The secret of our complexity may lie not DNA fingerprinting technique is based on
in the number of our genes but how we use identification of nucleotide sequence present
them. It will lead to the understanding of gene in this wonder molecule. About 99.9% of
structure and function in other species. Since nucleotide sequence in all persons, is same.
we possess many of the genes same as these Only some short sequences of nucleotides
of flies, round worms and mice, such studies differ from person to person. In the population,
will lead to a greater understanding of human every person shows unusual sequences of 20-
evolution. 100 base pairs, which are repeated several
times. They are termed as Variable Number of
Use your brain power Tandem Repeats (VNTRs).
The length of the regions having VNTRs
1. What have we learnt from the Human
Genome Project? is different in each individual and hence is the
2. Why is HGP important? key factor in DNA profiling. Steps involved in
DNA finger printing are as follows:
Can you tell? 1. Isolation of DNA: The DNA must be
recovered from the cells or tissues of the
Do different organisms have the same DNA?
body (host). Only small amount of tissue
like blood, hair roots, skin, etc. is required.
4.10 DNA Fingerprinting: 2. Restriction digestion: The isolated DNA
Genes present on chromosomes are
is treated with restriction enzymes. The
responsible for determining characters of
restriction enzymes cut the DNA into
the organism as well as for inheritance of
small fragments having variable lengths.
characters. Due to recombination of paternal
and maternal genes, we differ from our parents. This phenomenon is called Restriction
Differences also arise due to infrequent Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP).
mutations that occur during gamete formation 3. Gel electrophoresis: The DNA samples
(cell division). Due to all these factors, every are loaded for agarose gel electrophoresis
individual has its unique genetic make-up, under an electric influence. The DNA
which may be called its Fingerprint. The fragments, which are negatively charged
technique developed to identify a person with move to the positive pole. The movement
the help of DNA restriction analysis, is known of these fragments depends on length of
as DNA profiling or DNA fingerprinting. The the fragments. This results in formation of
technique of finger printing was first given by bands. dsDNA splits into ssDNA by alkali
British geneticist, Dr. Alec Jeffreys in 1984. treatment.
89
4. Southern blotting: The separated DNA the nitrocellulose filter paper. Remaining
fragments are transferred to a nylon single stranded DNA probe fragments are
membrane or a nitrocellulose filter paper washed off.
by placing it over the gel and soaking them 7. Photography: The nitrocellulose filter
with filter paper overnight. paper is photographed on an X-ray film by
5. Selection of DNA probe: A known sequence autoradiography. The film is analysed to
of single- stranded DNA is prepared. It is determine the presence of hybrid DNA.
called DNA Probe. DNA Probe is obtained Application of DNA fingerprinting
from organisms or prepared by cDNA 1. In forensic science, DNA finger printing is
preparation method. The DNA probe is used to solve problems of rape and some
labelled with radioactive isotopes. complicated murder cases.
6. Hybridization: Probe DNA is added to 2. DNA finger printing is used to find out the
the nitrocellulose filter paper containing biological father or mother or both, of the
host DNA. The single-stranded DNA child, in case of disputed parentage.
probe pairs with the complementary base
3. DNA finger printing is used in pedigree
sequence of the host DNA strand. As a
analysis in cats, dogs, horses and humans.
result DNA-DNA hybrids are formed on
Restriction
enzyme
Isolated purified
DNA

Sample

Restriction Electrophoresis
DNA extraction
digestion DNA fragments
Transfer of
DNA to Southern blotting
Selected single membrane
stranded DNA
probes

X-ray
Hybridization of DNA

Fig. 4.18 : DNA Fingerprinting

Know the scientists

Father of DNA Fingerprinting in India. He was instrumental in making DNA
fingerprinting mainstream in India, for research and its forensic applications. He
obtained DNA probe from Y chromosome of female banded krait snake (in this snake
female has XY and male has YY chromosome). The unique segment obtained from this
chromosome is, banded krait minor (BKM - DNA). It was used to developed probe for
the Indigenous DNA fingerprinting technique.
Dr. Lalji Singh Contributions of Dr. Lalji Singh: i. He installed several dedicated laboratories on aspects
( 1947 - 2017) of genetics such as population biology, structural biology and transgenic research. ii.
His work in the field of DNA fingerprinting technology, contributed for, wildlife conservation, forensics,
evolution and phylogeny. iii. Established Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics (CDFD) in
late 1990s- making it nodal centre for DNA fingerprinting and diagnostics for all species and several
diseases. iv. Founded Laboratory for Conservation of Endangered Species (LaCONES).

90
 Activity :

Prepare physical model of DNA molecule (Watson-Crick model)

Requirements :

Labelled Diagram :

Functions :

91
 Exercise
Q. 1 Multiple Choice Questions
1. Griffith worked on ............. 10. Place the following event of translation
a. Bacteriophage b. Drosophila in the correct sequence
c. Frog eggs c. Streptococci i. Binding of met-tRNA to the start
2. The molecular knives of DNA are codon.
………….. ii. Covalent bonding between two
a. Ligases b. Polymerases amino acids.
c. Endonucleases d. Transcriptase iii. Binding of second tRNA.
3. Translation occurs in the ............... iv. Joining of small and large ribosome
a. Nucleus b. Cytoplasm subunits.
c. Nucleolus d. Lysosomes A. iii, iv, i, ii B. i, iv, iii, ii
C. iv, iii, ii, i D. ii, iii, iv, i
4. The enzyme required for transcription is
.................. Q. 2 Very Short Answer Questions:
a. DNA polymerase 1. What is the function of an RNA primer
b. RNA polymerase during protein synthesis?
c. Restriction enzyme 2. Why the genetic code is considered as
d. RNAase commaless?
5. Transcription is the transfer of genetic 3. What is genome?
information from .............. 4. Which enzyme does remove supercoils
a. DNA to RNA from replicating DNA?
b. tRNA to mRNA 5. Why are Okazaki fragments formed
c. DNA to mRNA on lagging strand only?
d. mRNA to tRNA 6. When does DNA replication take
place?
6. Which of the following is NOT part of
7. Define term- codon and codogen.
protein synthesis?
8. What is degeneracy of genetic code?
a. Replication b. Translation
9. Which are the nucleosomal 'core'
c. Transcription d. All of these
histones?
7. In the RNA molecule, which nitrogen
base is found in place of thymine? Q. 3 Short Answer Questions:
a. Guanine b. Cytosine 1. Write short note on DNA packaging
c. Thymine d. Uracil in eukaryotic cell.
8. How many codons are needed to specify 2. Enlist the characteristics of genetic
three amino acid? code.
a. 3 b. 6 3. Write a note on applications of DNA
c. 9 d. 12 finger printing.
4. Explain the role of lactose in ‘Lac
9. Which out of the following is NOT an
Operon’.
example of inducible operon?
a. Lactose operon Q. 4 Short Answer Questions:
b. Histidine operon 1. Write a note on Human genome
c. Arabinose operon project (HGP).
d. Tryptophan operon
92
 2. Describe the structure of ‘Operon’. Q. 5 Long Answer Questions:
3. In the figure below A, B and C are three 1. Explain the process of DNA replication.
types of ____________________. 2. Describe the process of transcription in
protein synthesis.
Ribosome Amino acid
3. Describe the process of translation in
Uracil protein synthesis.
4. Describe the ‘Lac-operon’.
5. Justify the statements. If the answer is
A false, change the underlined word(s) to
B C
make the statement true.
4. Identify the labeled structures on the i. The DNA molecule is double
following diagram of translation. stranded and the RNA molecule is
C single stranded.
ii. The process of translation occurs at
CCG GCC ACU CCC the ribosome.
A GGG iii. The job of mRNA is to pick up
UG
A
amino acids and transport them to
the ribosomes.
iv. Transcription must occur before
B translation may occur.
6. Guess (i) the possible locations of DNA
Part A is the ________________________. on the collected evidence from a crime
Part B is the ________________________. scene and (ii) the possible sources of
Part C is the ________________________. DNA.
5. Match the entries in column I with
Evidence Possible Sources of
those of column II and choose the
location of DNA
correct answer.
DNA on the
Column I Column II evidence
A. Alkali treatment i. Separation of DNA e.g. Eyeglasses e.g. Ear e.g. Sweat,
fragments on gel slab pieces Skin
B. Southern blotting ii. Split DNA Bottle, Can, Sides, ------------
fragments into single Glass mouthpiece ----
strands ---------------- Handle Sweat,
C. Electrophoresis iii. DNA transferred to skin, blood
nitrocellulose sheet
Used cigarette Cigarette butt -------------
D. PCR iv. X-ray photography Bite mark ------------- saliva
E. Autoradiography v. Produce fragments
------------- Surface area Hair,
of different sizes
semen,
F. DNA treated with vi. DNA amplification sweat,
REN urine

Project : Collect information about B and Z forms of DNA. Sketch the diagrams and write
the differences between these two forms.

93