General Physics

Lecture Note

d
fte
College of Natural and Computational Sciences
Department of Physics
ra
By : Aliyyi Adem(MSc.)

E-mail:[email protected]

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 1 / 97

CHAPTER TWO: KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF
PARTICLES

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Mechanics is the study of the physics of motion and how it relates to
the physical factors that affect it, like force, mass, momentum, and

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energy.
Mechanics may be divided into two branches:
I Dynamics: deals with the motion of objects and its cause force.
I Kinematics: describes the possible motions of a body or system of
bodies without considering the cause.

Kinematics in One Dimensions

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Kinematics is concerned on analyzing kinematical quantities used to
describe motion such as velocity, acceleration, displacement, time,
and trajectory.

Distance and Displacement

Position:- The location of an object with respect to a chosen
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 2 / 97
cont...

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reference point.
Distance : The length of the path followed by the object.
Displacement: The shortest directed distance between two positions.

fte
Figure shows the motion of an
object at two different positions A
and B.
The distance is the total length of
the curved path from A to B. It is a
scalar quantity with no direction.
ra These positions are identified by the
vectors ~ri and ~rf , which are drawn
from an arbitrary coordinate origin
O.
Figure: Motion of an object at
The displacement ∆~r of the object
two positions A and B
is the vector drawn from the initial
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 3 / 97
cont...
position A to the final position B.

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Speed and Average Speed
Speed (v ): Refers to how fast an object is moving.

fte
It is the rate at which an object covers distance, irrespective of its
direction.
Speed is a scalar physical quantity.
Speed involves both distance and time.
Speed is typically expressed in units such as meters per second (m/s),
ra
kilometers per hour (km/h), etc.
Average Speed (vav ): The total distance traveled by the object
divided by the total elapsed time. Mathematically, this is expressed as:
Total Distance
vav =
Total Time

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 4 / 97

cont...
Velocity and Average Velocity

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Velocity: is the measure of displacement covered with the passage of
time. it is expressed in (m/s), (km/hr), etc.

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Average Velocity: is the slope of the straight line that connects two
particular points on the x(t) curve, as shown below:

∆x x(t2 ) − x(t1 )
vav = =
ra ∆t t2 − t1

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 5 / 97

cont...
Displacement versus time graph

d
fte The displacement
The displacement
ra
Time is passing and
The displacement
is increasing lin-
is decreasing
linearly with time.
is changing non-
linearly with time
no change in dis- early with time. The slope is
(spiking down).
placement. there is The slope is con- extending in the
The slope is chang-
no slope, the veloc- stant, therefore the negative direction,
ing, therefore the
ity is zero. It means object is moving the object not only
object is moving
the body is at rest. with uniform approached the
with variable
velocity. reference point but
velocity.
Aliyyi Adem
also moved past it.
Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 6 / 97
cont...

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Velocity versus time graph

fte
The velocity (vx ) in-
The velocity (vx ) in-
creases non-linearly
with time (t). The
Initially, the velocity
(vx ) increases lin-
early with time (t),
ra
creases linearly with
time (t). The slope
slope is changing,
becoming steeper
and after a certain
point, it remains
is constant, The ob- as time progresses. constant. In the first
ject is moving with This indicates that segment,uniform ve-
a uniform velocity the object is moving locity. In the second
in the positive direc- with a variable ve- segment, the slope
tion. locity, specifically an is zero, the object
accelerating motion has stopped moving
in the positive. (zero velocity).
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 7 / 97
cont...

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Instantaneous Velocity
The average velocity or speed of an object does not provide detailed
information about the entire motion. therefore, we may need to know

fte
the velocity or speed of an object at a certain instant of time.
The instantaneous velocity (vinst ) is defined as the slope of the
tangent line to the position versus time curve at a given time. It can
be mathematically expressed
∆x dx
vinst = lim =
∆t→0 ∆t dt
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if a body covers equal displacement in equal time of interval a body is
called moving with uniform velocity.
For uniform motion, the instantaneous velocity equals the average
velocity:
vinst = vav
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 8 / 97
cont...

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In all other cases, a body moves with nonuniform velocity.
The instantaneous speed of a particle is the magnitude of its
instantaneous velocity:

fte
Instantaneous Speed = |vinst |

Average and Instantaneous Accelerations

Average Acceleration: When the velocity of a particle changes with
time, the particle is said to be accelerating. Average acceleration is
ra
defined as the change in velocity (∆~v ) divided by the time interval
(∆t) during which that change occurs:

∆~v ~vf − ~vi

aav = =
∆t tf − ti
where ~vf and ~vi are the final and initial velocities, respectively.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 9 / 97
 The SI unit of average acceleration is meters per second squared
(m/s2 ).

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Instantaneous Acceleration (~ainst or simply ~a): It is the limit of the
average acceleration as the time interval ∆t approaches zero:

∆~v ~v (t + ∆t) − v (t) d~v

fte
~ainst = lim = lim = .
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t dt
where ~v (t + ∆t) is the velocity at time t + ∆t, and ~v (t) is the
velocity at time t.

Example
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A car moving along the x-axis starts from the position xi = 2 m when
ti = 0 and stops at xf = −3 m when tf = 2 s.
(a) Find the displacement, the average velocity, and the average speed
during this interval of time.
(b) If the car goes backward and takes 3 s to reach the starting point,
then repeat part (a) for the whole time interval.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 10 / 97
cont...

d
fte
(a) The car’s displacement, as shown in Fig. above, is given by:

∆x = xf − xi = −3 m − 2 m = −5 m.

The average velocity is then:

ra v=
∆x
=
xf − xi
=
−5 m
= −2.5 m/s.
∆t tf − ti 2s − 0s
Since ∆x and v are negative for this time interval, the car has moved
to the left, toward decreasing values of x, as shown in Fig. above
The total covered distance is:
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 11 / 97
cont...

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d = 5 m,
and the average speed is:

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total distance d 5m
v= = = = 2.5 m/s.
∆t tf − ti 2s − 0s

(b) After the backward movement, the final position and final time of the
car are:
xf = 2 m, tf = 2 s + 3 s = 5 s.
ra
The total distance covered by the car is:

d = 5 m + 5 m = 10 m.

Since displacement involves only the initial and final positions, it is:

∆x = xf − xi = 2 m − 2 m = 0.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 12 / 97
cont...

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The average velocity is:
∆x xf − xi 0
v= = = = 0.
∆t tf − ti 5s − 0s

fte
Finally, the average speed for the whole movement of the car is:
total distance d 10 m
s= = = = 2 m/s.
∆t tf − ti 5s − 0s

As you can see, the average velocity is 0, while the average speed is 2 m/s,
ra
since the latter depends only on the total covered distance d.

Problem:
A car travels in the positive x-direction for 20 km at 40 km/h. It then
continues in the same direction for another 20 km at 80 km/h.
(a) What is the average velocity of the car during this 40 km trip?
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 13 / 97
cont...

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(b) What is its average speed?

Example

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The velocity-time graph shows the motion of a bicyclist in a straight line.

(a) From the slope of the graph,

calculate the acceleration of the
bicyclist between segment A and B,
B and C, C and D, and D and E.
ra (b) Calculate the average acceleration
of the bicyclist.

a) The acceleration from point A to B can be calculated by measuring the

slope as:
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 14 / 97
cont...

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vf − vi 10 m/s − 0 m/s 10 m/s
a= = = = 2.5 m/s2
tf − ti 4s − 0s 4s

fte
The acceleration from point B to C by measuring the slope is:

vf − vi 15 m/s − 10 m/s 5 m/s

a= = =
tf − ti 8s − 4s 4s
therefore,
a = 1.25 m/s2
ra
The acceleration from point C to D can be calculated as:

vf − vi 0 m/s − 15 m/s −15 m/s

a= = = = −3.75 m/s2
tf − ti 12 s − 8 s 4s
Similarly, the acceleration from point D to E can be calculated as:

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 15 / 97

cont...

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vf − vi −5 m/s − 0 m/s −5 m/s
a= = = = −1.25 m/s2
tf − ti 16 s − 12 s 4s
(b) The average acceleration can be calculated by measuring the slope

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from point A to E:

vf − vi −5 m/s − 0 m/s −5 m/s

a= = =
tf − ti 16 s − 0 s 16 s
therefore,
a = −0.3125 m/s2
ra
Motion with Constant Acceleration
The simplest kind of accelerated motion is straight-line motion with
constant acceleration.
In this type of motion, the velocity changes at a constant rate
throughout the motion.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 16 / 97
cont...

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Starting with the definition of x − x0 = vav · t
acceleration: v0 +v
Substituting vav = 2 :

fte
∆v v − v0
a= =
∆t t 1
x − x0 = (v0 + v )t (3)
2
Rearranging for v :
From Eqn (1), substitute v = v0 + at
v = v0 + at (1) into vav = v0 +v :
2
ra
The average velocity for constant
acceleration is:
1
vav = v0 + at
2
v0 + v
vav = (2) Substitute vav into x − x0 = vav · t:
2
1
The displacement x − x0 is given by: x − x0 = v0 t + at 2 (4)
2

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 17 / 97

cont...

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the velocity v at time t is:
Using v = v0 + at, solve for t:

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v = v0 + at v − v0
t=
Rearranging for v0 : a
Substitute t into
v0 = v − at x − x0 = 12 (v0 + v )t:
Substituting v0 into Eqn 4: 1 v − v0
x − x0 = (v0 + v ) ·
ra 1
x − x0 = vt − at 2 + at 2
2 a
2 Simplify to:
1 v 2 = v02 + 2a(x − x0 ) (6)
x − x0 = vt − at 2 (5)
2

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 18 / 97

cont...

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Problem
A box slides down an incline with a uniform acceleration, see Fig. below.
It starts from rest and attains a speed of 12 m/s in 4 s. Find:

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(a) the acceleration, and
(b) the distance moved in the first 4 s.

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Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 19 / 97
Free fall motion

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A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence
of gravity alone, regardless of its initial motion.
Objects thrown upward/downward and those released from rest are all

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falling freely once they are released.
Any freely falling object experiences an acceleration directed
downward, regardless of its initial motion.
For freely falling bodies, the motion is vertical along the y -axis.
Therefore, the acceleration a is replaced by the acceleration due to
gravity g , and the displacement x is replaced by y in the equations of
ra
motion for rectilinear motion:
y (up), a = −g y (down), a = g
v = vo − gt v = vo + gt
y − yo = 12 (vo + v )t y − yo = 12 (vo + v )t
y − yo = vo t − 21 gt 2 y − yo = vo t + 12 gt 2
v 2 = vo2 − 2g (y − yo ) v 2 = vo2 + 2g (y − yo )
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 20 / 97
cont...

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The value of g is primarily influenced by the altitude, latitude, and
local mass distribution of the Earth.

fte
As the altitude increases, the value of g decreases.
g is higher at the poles because the distance to the Earth’s center (r )
is shorter.
g is lower at the equator due to the larger distance to the Earth’s
center and the centrifugal force caused by the Earth’s rotation.
⇒ Free fall is a case of motion with constant acceleration.
ra
Example:
A boy throws a ball upwards, giving it an initial speed v0 = 15 m/s.
Neglect air resistance.

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cont...

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(a) How long does the ball take to return to the boys hand?
(b) What will be its velocity then?

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ra
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 22 / 97
Solution 2 × 15 m/s
t= = 3.1 s

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(a) We choose the positive y 9.8 m/s2
direction as upward with its origin at
(b) given:
the boys hand, i.e., yi = 0. The balls
acceleration is a = g = −9.8 m/s2 .

fte
v0 = 15 m/s, y = 0, g = −9.8m/s2
When the ball returns to the boys
hand, Given:
vf2 = v02 − 2g (y − yi ) (9)
v0 = 15 m/s, yi = 0, y = 0, a = −g

vf2 = (15 m/s)2 − 0

ra 1 2
y − yi = v0 t − gt
2
(7) Thus:

1 vf = ±15 m/s
0 = (15 m/s)t − (9.8 m/s2 )t 2 (8)
2 We select the negative sign because
2 the ball is moving downward just
 
9.8 m/s
t 15 m/s − t =0 before returning to the girls
2
hand:v = −15 m/s.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 23 / 97
cont...
Example

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Assume that you are on the roof of the physics building, 46.0 m above the
ground as shown in the figure below. Your friend, who is 1.80 m tall, is

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walking alongside the building at a constant speed of 1.20 m/s. If you
wish to drop an egg on your friends head, where should he be when you
release the egg ? Assume that the egg is in free fall.

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Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 24 / 97
cont...

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Solution
s
Given Data:
r
2∆y 2(44.2)

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t= = = 3.00 s.
g 9.8
y = 46.0 m (height of building)
yfriend = 1.80 m (height of friend) The friend moves at a constant
vfriend = 1.20 m/s (speed of friend) speed, so the horizontal distance is:
g = 9.8 m/s2 acceleration.
x = vfriend t.
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The vertical distance the egg falls is:
Substituting the values:
∆y = y − yfriend = 46.0 m − 1.80 m =
x = (1.20 m/s)(3.00 s) = 3.60 m.
44.2 m.
The friend should be 3.60 m away
1 from the point directly below the
∆y = gt 2 ,
2 edge when the egg is released.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 25 / 97
cont...
Problem

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A stone thrown from the top of a building is given an initial velocity
of 20.0 m/s straight upward. The stone is
launched from a height of 50.0 m above the

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ground. It just misses the edge of the roof
on its way down, as illustrated in the figure
above.
1 Using tA = 0 as the time the stone
leaves the throwers hand at position A,
determine the time at which the stone
ra reaches its maximum height.
2 Find the maximum height of the stone
and determine the velocity of the stone
when it returns to the height from
which it was thrown.
3 Find the velocity and position of the
stone at t = 5.00 s.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 26 / 97
Kinematics in 2D

d
fte
Kinematics in Two Dimensions
Position, Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors
Projectile Motion
Particle Dynamics and Planetary Motion
Uniform Circular Motion
ra
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 27 / 97
Position, Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors

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The Position Vector
We describe the position of a particle with the position vector ~r ,
which is a vector that extends from the origin of a certain coordinate

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system to the particle.
Using the unit vector notation, ~r can be written in two-dimensional
form as:
~r = x iˆ + y jˆ
where x iˆ and y jˆ are the vector components of ~r along the x and y
ra
axes respectively,
and the coefficients x and y are the scalar components, i.e., the
particle has the rectangular coordinates (x, y ). In three dimensions,
the position vector becomes:

~r = x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂.

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 28 / 97

cont...

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The Displacement Vector

fte
ra
Now, consider a particle moving in the xy plane. At point P, let its
position be ~ri when the time was ti .
At point Q, let its position be ~rf when the time was tf (the indices i
and f refer to the initial and final values).
During the time interval ∆t = tf − ti , the particle’s displacement is:

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 29 / 97

 ∆~r = ~rf − ~ri

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That is, the displacement vector ∆~r equals the difference between the
final and initial position vectors.

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Average Velocity
The average velocity, ~v , of a particle is defined as the ratio of its
displacement ∆~r to the time interval ∆t. That is:

∆~r ~rf − ~ri

~v = =
∆t tf − ti
ra
The average velocity is a vector quantity with a magnitude and a direction
along the displacement vector ∆~r .

Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous velocity, ~v , of a particle is defined as the limiting value
of the ratio ∆~r /∆t as ∆t approaches zero:
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 30 / 97
cont...

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∆~r d~r
~v = lim =
∆t→0 ∆t dt
In unit vector notation, the position vector ~r = x iˆ + y jˆ leads to:

fte
d(x iˆ + y j)
ˆ dx ˆ dy ˆ
~v = = i+ j = vx iˆ + vy jˆ
dt dt dt
dx dy
where vx = dt and vy = dt .
ra
Average Acceleration
The average acceleration, ~a, of a particle is defined as the ratio of the
change in velocity ∆~v = ~vf − ~vi to the time interval ∆t:

∆~v ~vf − ~vi

~a = =
∆t tf − ti

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 31 / 97

cont...

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Instantaneous Acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration, ~a, of a particle is defined as the limiting

fte
value of the ratio ∆~v /∆t as ∆t approaches zero:

∆~v d~v d 2~r

~a = lim = = 2
∆t→0 ∆t dt dt

In unit vector notation, ~v = vx iˆ + vy j,

ˆ so:
ra ~a =
d(vx iˆ + vy j)
ˆ
=
dvx ˆ dvy ˆ
i+ j = ax iˆ + ay jˆ
dt dt dt
dvx dvy
where ax = dt and ay = dt .

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 32 / 97

cont...
Example:1

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A particle moves over a path such that the components of its position with
respect to an origin of coordinates are given as a function of time by:

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x = −t 2 + 12t + 5, y = −2t 2 + 16t + 10

where t is in seconds and x and y are in meters.

(a) Position Vector and Magnitude at t = 6 s The position vector ~r is
given by:
ra
~r = x iˆ + y jˆ = (−t 2 + 12t + 5)iˆ + (−2t 2 + 16t + 10)j.
ˆ

At t = 6 s:

x = −62 + 12(6) + 5 = 41, y = −2(62 ) + 16(6) + 10 = 34.

Thus,
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 33 / 97
cont...

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~r = 41iˆ + 34j.
ˆ

The magnitude of ~r is:

fte
p p √
|~r | = x 2 + y 2 = 412 + 342 = 1681 + 1156 = 53.26 m.

The direction of ~r is given by the angle θ:

 
−1 y −1 34
 
θ = tan = tan = tan−1 (0.83) = 39.7◦ .
x 41
ra
(b) Velocity Vector and Magnitude at t = 6 s The velocity
components are:
dx d dy d
vx = = (−t 2 +12t+5) = −2t+12, vy = = (−2t 2 +16t+10) =
dt dt dt dt

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 34 / 97

cont...

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At t = 6 s:

vx = −2(6) + 12 = 0, vy = −4(6) + 16 = −8.

fte
Thus,
~v = vx iˆ + vy jˆ = −8j.
ˆ

The magnitude of ~v is:

q q
|~v | = vx2 + vy2 = 02 + (−8)2 = 8 m/s.
ra
The angle θ is:
   
vy −8
θ = tan−1 = tan−1 = 270◦ .
vx 0

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 35 / 97

cont...

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(c) Acceleration Vector and Magnitude The acceleration components
are:
dvx d dvy d

fte
ax = = (−2t + 12) = −2, ay = = (−4t + 16) = −4.
dt dt dt dt
Thus, the acceleration vector is:

~a = ax iˆ + ay jˆ = −2iˆ − 4j.
ˆ

The magnitude of ~a is:

q
ra q √
|~a| = ax2 + ay2 = (−2)2 + (−4)2 = 4 + 16 = 4.47 m/s2 .

The direction of ~a is:

   
−1 ay −1 −4
θ = tan = tan = 180◦ + tan−1 (2) = 243.4◦ .
ax −2
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 36 / 97
Projectile Motion

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Is special type of two dimensional motion experienced by an object or
particle.

fte
Any object that is thrown into the air is called a projectile.
Near the Earths surface, we assume that the downward acceleration
due to gravity is constant and the effect of air resistance is negligible.
Based on these two assumptions, we find that:
1 The horizontal motion and vertical motion are independent of each
other.
2
ra
The two-dimensional path of a projectile (also called its trajectory) is
always a parabola.
The horizontal and vertical motions are independent of each other;
i.e, neither motion affects the other.

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 37 / 97

cont...

d
fte
ra
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 38 / 97
cont...

d
Velocity
Consider a projectile which is thrown with a certain velocity v0
making an angle θ with the horizontal.

fte
the horizontal component of velocity remains constant throughout the
flight, whereas the vertical component of velocity changes uniformly
and is zero at the highest point.
To find the velocity v of the projectile at certain time t, we have to
find its x and y components at that time.
By first equation of motion along x-axis:
ra vfx = vix + ax t

Here, vfx = vx , vix = v0 cos θ, ax = 0, and t = t, hence

vx = v0 cos θ + (0)t = v0 cos θ (1)

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 39 / 97

cont...

d
By first equation of motion along y-axis:

vfy = viy + ay t

fte
Here, vfy = vy , viy = v0 sin θ, ay = −g , and t = t, hence

vy = v0 sin θ − gt (2)

Magnitude: By knowing the rectangular components, the magnitude

can be found using the formula
ra q
v = vx2 + vy2

Substituting values from equation (1) and equation (2) into equation
(3): q
v = (v0 cos θ)2 + (v0 sin θ − gt)2

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 40 / 97

cont...

d
the direction is given by
 
−1 vy
θ = tan

fte
vx

Putting values we get

 
−1 v0 sin θ − gt
θ = tan
v0 cos θ

Maximum Height
ra
The maximum vertical distance reached by the projectile from the
projection level is called the maximum height of the projectile.
Consider a projectile which is thrown with a certain velocity v0 ,
making an angle θ with the horizontal as shown in Fig below

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 41 / 97

cont...

d
fte
To find the maximum height, we use the third equation of motion along
the y-axis:
ra 2ay Sy = vfy2 − viy2
Here, vfy = vy = 0, viy = v0 sin θ, ay = −g , and Sy = H, hence

−2gH = 0 − (v0 sin θ)2

(v0 sin θ)2

H= (Maximum height H)
2g
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 42 / 97
cont...

d
Time of flight
Time tiken by projectile to go from point of projection to point of
impact

fte
consider a projectile which is thrown with certain velocity v0 making
an angle θ with horizontal.
1
Sy = Viy t + ay t 2
2
The time to reach the summit (highest point) will be half of the total
ra
time of flight. Let T 0 be the time to reach the summit, i.e.,
T 0 = T /2.
From the vertical motion equation:

Sy = 0, vy = v0 sin θ, ay = −g , t=T

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 43 / 97

cont...

d
fte 1
0 = v0 sin θ · T − gT 2
ra 2
1 2
gT = v0 sin θ · T
2
2v0 sin θ
T = (3.24)
g
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 44 / 97
cont...
Range

d
The horizontal distance from the point of projection to the point of
impact is called the range of the projectile.

fte
Consider a projectile that is thrown with a velocity v0 at an angle θ
with the horizontal, as shown in Figure 3.18.
The horizontal displacement (Sx ) is given by:

1
Sx = vix t + ax t 2
2
Here:
ra
2v0 sin θ
vix = v0 cos θ, Sx = R, ax = 0, t=T =
g

v02 sin(2θ)
R=
g
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 45 / 97
cont...

d
The range is maximized when sin 2θ = 1, which occurs when:

2θ = 90◦ or θ = 45◦

fte
Thus, the angle of projection for maximum range is:

θ = 45◦
ra
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 46 / 97
cont...
Exercise

d
1 A projectiles launch speed is five times its speed at maximum height
Find launch angle.

fte
2 A ball thrown from the top of a building has an initial speed of 20
m/s at an angle of 30◦ above the horizontal. The building is 40 m
high, and the ball takes time t before hitting the ground, as shown in
Fig.below. Take g = 10 m/s2 .
ra
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 47 / 97
cont...

d
(a) Find the time t1 for the ball to reach its highest point.
(b) How high will it rise?

fte
(c) How long will it take to return to the level of the thrower?
(d) Find the time of flight t.
(e) What is the horizontal distance covered by the ball during this
time?
(f) What is the velocity of the ball before striking the ground?

Exercise
ra
A stone is projected at a cliff of height h with an initial speed of 42.0 m/s
directed at angle θ = 600 above the horizontal as shown in figure below.
The stone strikes at A, 5.50 s after launching.

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 48 / 97

cont...

d
fte
Find
ra
(a) the height h of the cliff,
(b) the speed of the stone just before impact at A,
(c) the maximum height H reached above the ground.

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 49 / 97

cont...
Exercise

d
A stone is thrown from the top of a building upward at an angle of 30.0◦ to
the horizontal with an initial speed of 20.0 m/s, as shown in Figure below.

fte
The height from which the stone is thrown is 45.0 m above the ground.

ra
(a) How long does it take the stone to reach the ground? (b) What is the
speed of the stone just before it strikes the ground?
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 50 / 97
cont...

d
Exercise

fte
An object is projected at angle θ from the horizontal with initial velocity
v0 . Which one of the following expressions represents the relationship
between maximum height, hmax , and range of the projectile, R?
(A) R = hmax tan 2θ
(B) R = 4hmax tan θ
(C) R =
ra
2hmax
tan θ
4hmax
(D) R = tan θ

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 51 / 97

Particle Dynamics and Planetary Motion

d
Dynamics: The study of motion of objects with the cause of the motion.
A force is a push or a pull as shown in the figure below.

fte
A force is an interaction between two objects or an object and its
environment, leading to a better definition of force:
ra
Force ⇒ An interaction between objects or with the environment.

Forces exist only as a result of an interaction with an object.

Forces do not always cause motion!
A force is a vector quantity, characterized by both magnitude and
direction.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 52 / 97
Cont...

d
Effects of Forces
The effects of forces are:

fte
1 To accelerate or stop an object.
2 To change the direction of a moving object.
3 To change the shape of an object.

The Concept of Force as a Measure of Interaction

In physics, any of the four basic forces govern how particles interact:
1
2
ra
Gravitational,
Electromagnetic,
3 Strong nuclear, and
4 Weak forces.

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 53 / 97

cont...

d
All other forces of nature can be traced to these fundamental
interactions.
The fundamental interactions are characterized based on the following

fte
four criteria:
1 The types of particles that experience the force.
2 The relative strength of the force.
3 The range over which the force is effective.
4 The nature of the particles that mediate the force.
Forces are usually categorized as contact and non-contact (field
forces).
ra
Contact Forces
They involve physical contact between objects or require bodily contact
with another object:
Muscular Force
Friction Force
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 54 / 97
cont...

d
Normal Force
Applied Force

fte
Tension Force
Spring Force
Air Resisting Force

Non-Contact (Field) Forces

They do not involve physical contact between objects. They act through
space:
ra
Gravitational Force: Gravitational force of attraction between two
objects.
Magnetic Force: The forces exerted by a magnet on magnetic
objects. These exist without any contact between two objects.

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 55 / 97

cont...

d
Electrostatic Force: The forces exerted by electrically charged bodies
on other charged bodies. These forces can be both attractive and
repulsive in nature based on the type of charge carried by the bodies.

fte
The weak nuclear force: involved in most radioactive decay
processes and plays an important role in the nuclear rxns.
The strong nuclear force: the force b/n subatomic particles; keeps
the nucleus of an atom from flying apart; the strongest of all the
basic forces of nature.

Newtons Laws of Motion and Applications

ra
First Law of Motion

Newton’s First Law

An object will remain at rest, or in motion with constant velocity,
unless it experiences a net external force.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 56 / 97
cont...

d
P~
If F = 0, then

fte

~v = 0

or (Newton’s first law)

~v = constant


If it is initially at rest, it will remain at rest; if it is moving, it will

ra
continue to do so with constant velocity.
The property of an object that resists acceleration is called inertia.
Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to remain at rest or in
motion (with a constant velocity).
Quantitatively, the inertia of an object is measured by its mass.
The larger the mass, the greater is the inertia.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 57 / 97
cont...

d
Another way of stating Newtons First Law:
Newtons first law defines a special set of reference frames called

fte
inertial frames. This law can be stated as follows:
If an object does not interact with other objects, it is possible to
identify a reference frame in which the object has zero acceleration.
In the absence of external forces and when viewed from an inertial
reference frame (IRF), an object at rest remains at rest and an
object in motion continues in motion with a constant velocity (i.e.,
ra
with a constant speed in a straight line).

Acceleration = 0 ⇒ IRF.
An IRF is a frame in which an object that does not interact with
other objects experiences zero acceleration.

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 58 / 97

cont...

d
Equilibrium
Objects that are either at rest or moving with constant velocity are said to

fte
be in equilibrium.
When a particle is in equilibrium, the net force acting on it must be zero:
X
F~ = 0 (vector form). (10)

In component form:
ra X
X
F~x = 0, (11)
F~y = 0, (12)
X
F~z = 0. (13)

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 59 / 97

cont...
Example

d
A block of mass m = 21 kg hangs from three cords as shown in part (a) of
Fig. below. Given the following trigonometric values:

fte
4 3 5 12
sin θ = , cos θ = , sin φ = , cos φ = ,
5 5 13 13
find the tensions in the three cords.
ra
The tension in the vertical cord balances the weight of the block. Thus, by
taking g = 10 m/s2 , we get:
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 60 / 97
cont...

d
T1 = mg = (21 kg)(10 m/s2 ) = 210 N.
In part (c), we find the following equations:

fte
X
Fx = T3 cos θ − T2 cos φ = 0, (1)

and X
Fy = T3 sin θ + T2 sin φ − T1 = 0. (2)
From the x-component equation, we get the following relation:
ra cos φ 12/13 20
T3 = T2 · = T2 · = T2 . (3)
cos θ 3/5 13

Now, we substitute the result of T3 into the y -component equation. After

substituting T1 = mg = 210 N, we get:

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 61 / 97

cont...

d
20 4 5
T2 · + T2 · − 210 = 0. (4)
13 5 13
Simplifying:

fte
80 5
T2 + T2 = 210,
65 13
16 5
T2 + T2 = 210,
13 13
21
T2 = 210,
13
ra T2 = 130 N. (5)
Consequently, one can find the value of the third tension to be:
20
T3 = × 130 N = 200 N. (6)
13

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 62 / 97

cont...

d
problem
A traffic light weighing 125 N hangs from a cable tied to two other cables
fastened to a support as shown in the figure below. The upper cables

fte
make angles of θ1 = 37.0◦ and θ2 = 53.0◦ with the horizontal. Find the
tension in the three cables.

ra
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 63 / 97
cont...

d
Newton’s Second Law

This law states that:

fte
If a net external force acts on a body, the body accelerates. The
acceleration ~a of the body is directly proportional to the net force F~
acting on it.

~a ∝ F~ .
ra
The net force on a body is equal to the product of the bodys mass and its
acceleration. Mathematically,

F~ = m~a, Fx = max , Fy = may , Fz = maz .

The direction of acceleration is the same as the direction of the net force.

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 64 / 97

Example
Two masses m1 and m2 (m2 > m1 ), are connected by a light cord that

d
passes over a massless, frictionless pulley as shown in part (a) of Fig. 5.12.
This arrangement is called Atwoods machine and sometimes is used to
measure the acceleration due to gravity.

fte
Find the magnitude of acceleration of the two masses and the tension in
the cord (consider m1 = 4 kg and m2 = 6 kg).

ra
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 65 / 97
cont...

d
When Newtons second law is applied to m1 in part (b) of the figure, we
find: X
Fy = T − m1 g = m1 a.

fte
(1)
Also, we do the same for m2 in part (c) of the figure, to get:
X
Fy = m2 g − T = m2 a. (2)

When we add the last two equations, T will cancel out, and we get:
ra m2 g − m1 g = (m2 + m1 )a,

which simplifies to:

(m2 − m1 )g
a= .
m1 + m2

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 66 / 97

cont...

d
Substituting the given values m1 = 4 kg, m2 = 6 kg, and g = 9.8 m/s2 , we
get:
6 kg − 4 kg
a= × 9.8 m/s2 = 1.96 m/s2 . (3)

fte
6 kg + 4 kg
Next, we substitute this value of acceleration a into the first equation (1)
to find the tension T :
2m1 m2 g
T = .
m1 + m2
Substituting the given values:
ra T =
2(4 kg)(6 kg) × 9.8 m/s2
= 47 N. (4)
4 kg + 6 kg

Thus, the magnitude of the acceleration is 1.96 m/s2 and the tension in
the cord is 47 N.

Newtons Third Law

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 67 / 97
cont...

d
To every action there must be a reaction equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.

fte
This law states that if two objects interact, the force F~21 exerted by object
1 on object 2 is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the force
F~12 exerted by object 2 on object 1:

F~12 = −F~21 .
ra
These forces are called action and reaction forces.
two forces in an action-reaction pair never act on the same body. In
other words, the action and reaction forces act on different objects.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 68 / 97
 ~
Normal Force (N)
The normal force is the force exerted by a surface on an object in contact

d
with it.There are four most common cases of the normal force acting on
an object:

fte
Case I:The Normal Force on a Level Surface
~ is the force exerted on the Earth
The reaction of a block of weight W
~
W , see Fig.(a).
When this block rests on a table, the table exerts an upward action
~ called the normal force. see Fig.(b).
force, N,
The normal force is the force that prevents the block from falling
ra
through the table and can have any value up to the point of breaking
the table.
~ is the force that the block exerts on the table, N
The reaction to N ~ 0,
see Fig.(c). Therefore,

W ~ 0,
~ = −W ~0
~ = −N
N (5.6)
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 69 / 97
 d
fte ~ = m~g and N.
The forces acting on the block are only W ~
The normal force balances the weight of the block and provides
ra
equilibrium (~a = 0).
X
F~ = 0
~ +W
N ~ =0
~ = −W
N ~ = m~g
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 70 / 97
cont...
Case II: The Normal Force with an Applied Force at an angle θ

d
Figure a shows a block at rest on a flat surface.

fte
ra
The forces acting on the block are: the normal force (upward),
the gravity force (downward), and
an applied force at an angle θ.
The y -component of the 2nd law of motion yields:
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 71 / 97
cont...

d
X
Fy = may , (14)
which implies:

fte
n − mg + Fapp sin θ = 0, (15)
n = mg − Fapp sin θ. (16)

Case III:The Normal Force on a Level Surface Under Acceleration

Consider a block on a flat surface that is under acceleration, such as
ra
in an elevator, as shown in figure below.
The two forces acting on the block are the normal force (upward),
and the gravity force (downward).
An acceleration upward, however, will increase the magnitude of the
normal force, b/c the normal force must not only compensate for
gravity, but also, provide the acceleration.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 72 / 97
cont...

d
fte
The y -component of the 2nd law of motion yields:
ra X
Fy = may , (17)

which implies:

n − mg = may , (18)
n = may + mg . (19)
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 73 / 97
cont...
Case IV: The Normal Force on a Slope

d
In this case (see figure below), the gravitational force splits into two
components:

fte
Fy 0 ,grav = −mg cos θ (⊥ to the slope; opposite the n-force),

Fx 0 ,grav = −mg sin θ (down the slope).

The y 0 -direction can be solved for the normal force:
X
Fy 0 = may 0 , (18)
ra
n − mg cos θ = 0, (19)
n = mg cos θ. (20)
Therefore, the normal force on a slope is equal in magnitude to the
component of the gravitational force perpendicular to the slope.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 74 / 97
 d
fte
Frictional Forces
Frictional force is the force that opposes the motion of an object in
ra
contact with a surface. It is parallel to the surface and directed so as to
oppose the motion.

Static Friction Force (fs )

Static friction is the frictional force that acts when there is no sliding
between the two surfaces in contact.

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 75 / 97

 The magnitude of fs acting on an object at rest satisfies the

d
inequality:
0 ≤ fs ≤ fs,max = µs n, (27)
where µs is the coefficient of static friction, and n is the magnitude of

fte
the normal force.

Kinetic Friction Force (fk )

Kinetic friction is the friction that arises during motion.
The magnitude of fk acting on an object moving on a surface is given by:
ra fk = µk n. (28)

The values of µs (coefficient of static friction) and µk (coefficient of

kinetic friction) depend on the nature of the surfaces, but µk is generally
less than µs .

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 76 / 97

cont...

d
fte
ra
Figure: (a) A block at rest on a horizontal table. The static frictions fs and fs,max
are shown in parts (b) and (c). When the block moves, the kinetic friction fk
becomes less than fs,max as in parts (d) and (e).

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 77 / 97

cont...
Example:1

d
A block of mass m2 on a rough, horizontal surface is connected to a ball
of mass m1 by a lightweight cord over a lightweight, frictionless pulley as

fte
shown in Figure below. A force of magnitude F at an angle θ with the
horizontal is applied to the block as shown, and the block slides to the
right. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and surface is
µk .
Determine the magnitude of the acceleration of the two objects.
ra
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 78 / 97
cont...

d
Fnet = F cos θ − fk − T = m2 ax
Because the block moves only horizontally, apply the particle in

fte
equilibrium model to the block in the vertical direction:

Fy = n + F sin θ − m2 g = 0 (2)

Fy = T − m1 g = m1 ay = m1 a (3)
ra n = m2 g − F sin θ

fk = µk (m2 g − F sin θ) (4)

F cos θ − fk − T = m2 ax
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 79 / 97
cont...

d
Substitute Equation (4) and the value of T from Equation (3) into the
above equation:

fte
F cos θ − µk (m2 g − F sin θ) − m1 (a + g ) = m2 a

F cos θ + µk F sin θ − m1 g
a=
m1 + µ k m2 + m2

Example:2
ra
A block of mass m1 = 4 kg lying on a rough horizontal surface is
connected to a second block of mass m2 = 6 kg by a light non-stretchable
cord over a massless, frictionless pulley as shown in part (a) of Fig. below.
The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the surface is
µk = 0.5.
(a) Find the magnitudes of the acceleration of the system and the tension
in the cord.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 80 / 97
cont...

d
(b) Find the relation between m1 and m2 in the case when the system is
on the verge of slipping.

fte
ra
(a) Since the cord is non-stretchable, the two masses have the same
magnitude of acceleration. Consequently, we construct a free-body
diagram for the two masses as shown in parts (b) and (c) of Fig. above,
where we take the x-axis always along any of the bodys motion. In this
case, a cannot take negative values.
When Newtons second law is applied to m2 in part (b) of the figure, we
find:
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 81 / 97
cont...

d
X
Fx = m 2 g − T = m 2 a
X
Fy = 0

fte
From the first equation, we can find the magnitude of the tension in terms
of g and a. That is:
T = m2 g − m2 a (2)
Doing the same for m1 (see part (c) of Fig. 5.15), we get:
X
ra X
F x = T − fk = m 1 a

Fy = N − m 1 g = 0
P
Since fk = µk N, and from Fy = 0 we have N = m1 g , then:

fk = µk m1 g
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 82 / 97
cont...

d
When this result is substituted into the x-direction equation, we get:

fte
T = µk m1 g + m1 a (6)

Equating the magnitude of the tension from equations (2) and (6), we get:

µk m1 g + m1 a = m2 (g − a)

Solving for a, we get:

m2 − µ k m1
ra a=
m1 + m2
g

Note that, when m2 > µk m1 , we have accelerated motion, and when

m2 = µk m1 , we have motion with zero acceleration (i.e., the speed is
constant).

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 83 / 97

cont...

d
The value of a can then be evaluated as follows:
6 kg − 0.5 × 4 kg
a= × 9.8 m/s2 = 3.92 m/s2
6 kg + 4 kg

fte
We can find T by substituting the expression for a into equation (6) to get:

(µk + 1)m1 m2
T = g
m1 + m2
(0.5 + 1)(4 kg)(6 kg)
T = × 9.8 m/s2 = 35.28 N
ra 6 kg + 4 kg
(b) When the system is on the verge of slipping, the magnitude of the
force T that acts on mass m1 must equal the maximum static friction
fs,max = µs N, i.e.:
T = µ s N = µ s m1 g
Also, the weight of mass m2 must equal the magnitude of the tension, i.e.:
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 84 / 97
 d
fte
T = m2 g
Thus:
m2 g = µs m1 g
Finally:
m 2 = µs m 1 (On the verge of slipping)
ra
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 85 / 97
Uniform Circular Motion

d
Uniform Circular Motion is the motion of an object in a circular path
with constant speed.

fte
Objects moving in a circular path with constant speed can still
experience acceleration.
Acceleration in such motion arises due to:
I Change in the direction of velocity (not magnitude, as speed is
constant).
Key points in Uniform Circular Motion:
I
ra
Velocity is tangent to the circular path and perpendicular to the radius
at any point.
I Acceleration, known as centripetal acceleration, is always directed
towards the center of the circle and is perpendicular to the velocity.

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 86 / 97

Centripetal Acceleration and Period of Circular Motion

d
The angle ∆θ in Figures (a) and
(b) is the same.

fte
By SAS similarity:

|∆~v | v (∆~r )v
= → |∆~v | =
|~v | r r

Acceleration magnitude:
ra |~a| =
|∆~v |
∆t
(∆~r )v
→ |~a| = (20)
r · ∆t
v2
=
r

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 87 / 97

cont...

d
v2
ac = (Centripetal Acceleration)
r

fte
2πr
T = (Period of Motion)
v
The net force causing the particle to undergo this acceleration is
called centripetal force and is given by:

mv 2
F = Fc = (21)
ra r
Because the speed v is constant, the magnitudes of ~ac (centripetal
acceleration) and F~c (centripetal force) are also constant.
However, the directions of ~ac and F~c are not constant; they vary
continuously, always pointing toward the center of the circular path.

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 88 / 97

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

d
Every particle in the Universe attracts every other particle with a force
that is:

fte
Directly proportional to the product of their masses.
Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

m1 m2
Fg = G
r2
where:
ra
Fg : Gravitational force
m1 , m2 : Masses of the particles
r : Distance between the masses
G = 6.674 × 10−11 Nm2 /kg2 : Universal gravitational constant
By Newtons third law:

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 89 / 97

 F~12 = −F~21

d
fte
ra
Gravitational force between spherical objects acts as if all mass is
concentrated at their centers.
Example: Force near Earths surface
ME m
Fg = G
RE2

where:
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 90 / 97
Gravitational Force and Weight

d
The weight of an object near the Earth’s surface is given by:

F = mg

fte
The gravitational force can also be expressed as:
ME m
Fg = G
RE2

Equating the two expressions:

ra mg = G
ME m
⇒ g =G
ME
RE2 RE2

Consider an object at altitude h above Earth’s surface.

Distance from Earth’s center: r = RE + h.
Gravitational force at altitude h:
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 91 / 97
cont...

d
ME m ME m
Fg = G 2
=G
r (RE + h)2

fte
Free-fall acceleration g at altitude h:
ME ME
g =G 2
=G
r (RE + h)2

As altitude h increases, g decreases due to the inverse-square

relationship.
ra
At great distances (r → ∞), g → 0.
g decreases with altitude following the relationship:
ME
g =G
(RE + h)2

Weight (F = mg ) decreases as g decreases, approaching zero as

r→ ∞.
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 92 / 97
Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion

d
Keplers First Law: The Law of Ellipses
Keplers first law states that planetary orbits are ellipses with the Sun at
one focus. This challenged earlier models, which assumed circular orbits, a

fte
reflection of the supposed perfection of celestial motion.

ra
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 93 / 97
cont...

d
Kepler’s Second Law
The radius vector drawn from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas
in equal time intervals.

fte
Kepler’s Third Law
Consider a planet of mass Mp that is assumed to be moving about the Sun
(mass MS ) in a circular orbit as in Fig below. we model the planet as a
particle under a net force and as a particle in uniform circular motion and
incorporate Newtons law of universal gravitation,
ra
Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 94 / 97
cont...

d
v2
 
GMS Mp
Fg = Mp a → = Mp
r2 r

fte
The orbital speed of the planet is 2πr /T , where T is the period; therefore,
the preceding expression becomes

GMS (2πr /T )2
=
r2 r

4π 2
 
ra T =2
GMS
r 3 = Ks r 3

where Ks is a constant given by

4π 2
Ks = = 2.97 × 10−19 s2 /m3
GMS

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 95 / 97

cont...

d
fte
This equation is also valid for elliptical orbits if we replace r with the
length a of the semimajor axis (Fig. 13.5):
 2 
2 4π
T = a 3 = Ks a 3
GMS

Keplers third law: the square of the period is proportional to the cube of
ra
the semimajor axis. Because the semimajor axis of a circular orbit equals
the radius, the equation is valid for both circular and elliptical orbits.

Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 96 / 97

cont...

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Aliyyi Adem Kinematics in Two Dimensions December 26, 2024 97 / 97