θφγδ

Solar Energy

Dr. Sushil Kumar Rathore,

Mechanical Engg. Department,
NIT Rourkela
 Introduction
All substances, solids, liquids and gases, at temperatures above absolute
zero, emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Heat transfer by radiation is distinguished from the heat transfer by

other means; such as conduction and convection, by its velocity of
propagation, which, in vacuum is independent of frequency and has the
value of 2.997925 X 108 m/s, and by the fact that no intervening
medium is required for its transmission.

Fig.: Electromagnetic spectrum according to wavelength

 Fig.: Atmospheric Window of the wavelengths that enter our atmosphere
Ref. https://climate.ncsu.edu/edu/RadiationTypes

Our atmosphere is transparent to radio waves, visible light, and some infrared and UV radiation.
 The SUN
• The sun is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter with a diameter of 1.39 X 109
m and is, on the average, 1.5 X 1011 m from the earth.

• Several fusion reactions have been suggested to supply the energy radiated by the
sun.

• The one considered the most important is a process in which hydrogen (i.e. four
protons) combines to form helium (i.e. one helium nucleus); the mass of helium
nucleus is less than that of the four protons, mass having been lost in the reaction
and converted to energy.

• The sun rotates on its axis about once every four weeks. However, it does not
rotate as a solid body; the equator takes about 27 days and the polar regions take
about 30 days for each rotation.

• The sun has as effective blackbody temperature of 5777 K. (The effective

blackbody temperature of 5777 K is the temperature of a blackbody radiating the
same amount of energy as does the sun.)
Fig.: The structure of the sun
• The radiation in the sun’s core is in the x-ray and gamma-ray parts of the
spectrum, with the wavelengths of the radiation increasing as the temperature
drops at larger radial distances.

• It is estimated that 90% of the energy is generated in the region of 0 to 0.23 R

(where R is the radius the sun).

• At a distance 0.7 R from the center, the temperature has dropped to about
130,000 K and the density has dropped to 70 kg/m3 .

• The zone from 0.7 to 1.0 R is known as the convective zone. Within this zone
temperature drops to about 5000 K and density at about 10−5 kg/m3 .

• The sun’s surface appears to be composed of granules (irregular convection cells),

with dimensions from 1000 to 3000 km and with cell lifetime of a few minutes.
• Other features of the solar surface are small dark areas called pores,
which are of the same order of magnitude as the convective cells, and
larger dark areas called sunspots, which vary in size.

• The outer layer of the convective zone is called the photosphere. The
density is (about 10−4 that of air at sea level).

• The photosphere is the source of most solar radiation.

 Solar Constant
• The eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is such that the distance between
the sun and the earth varies by 1.7 %.

• At a distance of one astronomical unit, 1.495 X 1011 m, the mean

earth-sun distance, the sun subtends an angle of 32’.

• Solar constant: Solar constant, Gsc, is the energy from the sun, per unit
time, received on a unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of the radiation, at mean earth-sun distance, outside of
the atmosphere.

• The availability of very high altitude aircraft, balloons, and spacecraft

has permitted direct measurements of solar radiation outside most or
all of the earth’s atmosphere.

• Gsc =1367 W/m2 with an uncertainty of the order of 1%. (Based on

spacecraft measurements and measurements from 3 rocket flights)
The world radiation center has adopted this value.
Fig.: Sun earth relationships
 Spectral distribution of extraterrestrial radiation
In addition to the total energy in the solar spectrum (i.e. the solar constant),
it is useful to know the spectral distribution of this radiation, that is the
radiation that would be received in the absence of the atmosphere.

Fig.: The WRC standard spectral irradiance curve at mean earth-sun distance

• The spectral value first increases sharply with wavelength, passes

through a maximum at a wavelength of 0.48µm.
• 99% of the sun’s radiation is obtained up to a wavelength of 4µm.
 Variation of extraterrestrial radiation
Two sources of variation in extraterrestrial radiation must be considered.

The first is the variation in the radiation emitted by the sun. There are
conflicting reports in the literature on periodic variations in intrinsic solar
radiation.

It has been suggested that there are small variations (less than ±1.5%) with
different periodicities and variations related to sunspot activities.

in view of uncertainties and variability in atmospheric transmissions, the

energy emitted by the sun can be considered to be fixed.

Variations in the earth–sun distance, however, lead to variations in

extraterrestrial radiation flux in the range of ±3.3%.

The earth revolves about the sun in an elliptical orbit having a very small
eccentricity. Consequently, the distance between the earth and the sun
varies a little through the year. Because of this variation, the extraterrestrial
flux also varies.
The value on any day can be calculated
from the equation:
360𝑛𝑛
𝐺𝐺𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1 + 0.033 cos
365

Where n is the day of the year. 𝐺𝐺𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 is the

extraterrestrial radiation, measured on Fig.: Variation of extraterrestrial
solar radiation with time of year
the plane normal to the radiation on the
nth day of the year.

The extraterrestrial radiation flux varies

± 3.3% over a year.
 Planck’s Law: Planck’s law states that the spectral emissive power of a black
surface is given by
2𝜋𝜋𝐶𝐶1
𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏λ =
𝐶𝐶
λ5 [exp 2 − 1]
λ𝑇𝑇
Where 𝐶𝐶1 and 𝐶𝐶2 are constants whose values are 0.596 X 10−16 W-m2 and
0.014387 m-K respectively. λ is the wavelength and T, the temperature of the
black surface in K.

Stefan-Boltzmann law: 𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 = σ𝑇𝑇 4

Where σ is a constant called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

σ = 5.670 𝑋𝑋 10−8 W/m2 K 4 and T is the temperature of the surface in K.
 Definitions
Beam Radiation: The solar radiation received from the sun without having
been scattered by the atmosphere. Beam radiation is also referred to as
direct radiation.
Diffuse radiation: The solar radiation received from the sun after its
direction has been changed by scattering by the atmosphere.

In general, the intensity of diffuse radiation coming from various directions

in the sky is not uniform. The diffuse radiation is, therefore, said to be
anisotropic in nature.

Scattering:
• Scattering can be defined as the redirection of incoming radiation from
its original direction of propagation, due to interactions with molecules
and particles of the medium.

• Reflection, refraction, diffraction etc. are different forms of scattering

Total solar radiation: The sum of the beam and diffuse solar radiation.

Irradiance, W/ m2 : The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a

surface, per unit area of surface. The symbol G is used for solar irradiance,
with appropriate subscripts for beam, diffuse, or spectral radiation.

Irradiation or radiant exposure, J/m2 : The incident energy per unit area
on a surface, found by integration of irradiance over a specified time,
usually an hour or a day.

Insolation is a term applying specifically to solar energy irradiation.

The symbol H is used for insolation for a day.

The symbol I is used for insolation for an hour (or other period if
specified).

The symbol H and I can represent beam, diffuse, or total and can be on
surfaces of any orientation.
Subscripts : o refers to radiation above the earth’s atmosphere,
referred to as extraterrestrial radiation; b and d refer to beam and
diffuse radiation; T and n refer to radiation on a tilted plane and on a
plane normal to the direction of propagation.
If neither T nor n appear, the radiation is on a horizontal plane.

Radiosity or Radiant Exitance, W/ m2 : The rate at which radiant

energy leaves a surface, per unit area, by combined emission,
reflection, and transmission.

Emissive power or Radiant Self-Exitance, W/ m2 : The rate at which

radiant energy leaves a surface per unit area, by emission only.
Any location on Earth can be identified by two numbers--latitude and
longitude.
• Latitude φ: The latitude φ of a location is the angle made by the line
joining the location to the center of the earth with the equatorial
plane. By convention, latitude is measured as positive for the northern
hemisphere. It can vary from −900 to +900 .
• Longitude L : Longitude shows (your) location in an east or west direction,
relative to the Greenwich meridian.
• The meridian which passes through the observatory at Greenwich, UK is by
international agreement, called the prime meridian.
• The line itself divided the eastern and western hemispheres of the Earth -
just as the Equator divides the northern and southern hemispheres.

• Places to the east of Greenwich have longitude angles up to 1800 east.

• Places to the west of Greenwich have longitude angles up to 1800 west.
• The polar axis about the earth rotation is represented by NOS.

• The prime meridian has zero longitude.

• Consider a point C on the surface of the earth. A semicircle passing through
the place C and the poles is known as the meridian.

• The angle BOJ is the longitude of the place C.

 φ
L

Fig.: Figure to understand longitude

 Solar radiation geometry

Angle of incidence θ: The angle between the beam radiation on a

surface and the normal to that surface.

Zenith Angle θ𝑍𝑍 : It is angle made by the sun’s rays with the normal to
the horizontal surface.

Slope β: Slope β is the angle made by the plane surface with the
horizontal. It can vary from 0 to 1800 .
• Surface azimuth angle γ: It is the angle made in the horizontal plane between
the horizontal line due south and the projection of the normal to the surface on
the horizontal plane. It can vary from -1800 to +1800 . The angle will be taken
positive if the normal is east of south, and negative if west of south.

Solar azimuth angle γ𝑠𝑠 : The angular

displacement from south of the
projection of beam radiation on the
horizontal plane. By convention, the
solar azimuth angle is taken to be
positive if the projection of the line
of sight is east of south and negative
if west of south.
• Hour angle ω:
• The hour angle of a point on the earth’s surface is the angle through which
the earth would turn to bring the meridian of the point directly under the
sun. The earth is rotating, so this angular displacement represents time. So in
observing the sun from earth, the solar hour angle is an expression of time,
expressed in angular measurement, usually degrees, from the solar noon.

• At solar noon, at the observer’s longitude on earth, the hour angle is 0.000
degrees with the time before solar noon expressed as negative degrees, and
the local time after solar noon expressed as positive degrees.
• 1 h = +15° Earth rotation
• 4 min = +1° Earth rotation
For example, at 10:30 a.m. local apparent time the hour angle is −22.5° (15° per
hour times, 1.5 hours before noon).
• Indian Standard Time:
Meridian passing through Allahabad (Mirzapur) at 82.50 east (of Greenwich
Meridian) longitude was picked as the central meridian for India, corresponding to
a single time zone for the country at 5 hours and 30 minutes in advance of GMT.

• Indian Standard Time:

Meridian passing through Allahabad (Mirzapur) at 82.50 east (of Greenwich
Meridian) longitude was picked as the central meridian for India, corresponding to
a single time zone for the country at 5 hours and 30 minutes in advance of GMT.

Longitude of Greenwich = 00
Longitude of Allahabad =82.50

Longitude difference = 82.50 - 00 = 82.50

Time difference between the two places = 82.5 x 4 = 330 Minutes = 5 Hour 30
Minutes

If it is 12 Noon at Greenwich then the time at Allahabad will be 5:30 PM.

Declination δ: The declination is the angle made by the line joining the centers of the
sun and the earth with the projection of this line on the equatorial plane.

Fig.: Declination Fig.: Variation of declination over the year

It is positive when it is north and negative when it is south.

• The declination angle varies from a maximum value of +23.450 on
June to a minimum value of −23.450 on December 21.

• It is zero on the two equinox days of March 21 and September 22.

• Cooper has given the following simple relation for calculating the
declination
360
δ(in degrees)=23.45 sin [ (284 + 𝑛𝑛)]
365
where n is the day of the year.
Solar time (Local apparent time): In solar energy problems it is always
desirable to convert clock time into solar time.
Solar Time is the time based on the apparent angular motion of the sun across
the sky, with solar noon being the time the sun crosses the meridian of the
observer. Solar time is used in all sun angle relationships.

The solar time in general deviates from the local clock time.

Solar time = Standard time ±𝟒𝟒(𝑳𝑳𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 − 𝑳𝑳𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 )+E

Where the second term arises due to the difference in observer’s longitude and
the longitude on which the local standard time is based; the sun traverses each
degree of longitude in 4 minutes.
The negative sign in the first correction is applicable for eastern hemisphere,
while the positive sign is applicable for the western hemisphere.

India is situated in eastern hemisphere. So, negative sign will be taken.

E is the correction arising out of the variation in the length of the solar day
through the year and is called the equation of time.

Empirical equation :

E=229.18(0.000075+0.001868 cosB - 0.032077 sinB - 0.014615 cos2B - 0.04089 sin2B)

360(n−1)
Where, B=
365

And n=day of the year, 1≤ n ≤ 365

Ref.: Iqbal M. 1983, An introduction to Solar Radiation, Academic Press, Canada

Fig.: Equation of time correction

Note: Geographically Indian coordinates is as follows:
“The country is situated north of the equator between 8°4' (for
mainland) to 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' to 97°25' east longitude.”
So India lies in the Northern and Eastern hemispheres.

Qus. 1: Determine the local apparent time (LAT) corresponding to

1430 h (IST) at Mumbai (190 07′ N, 720 51′ E) on July 1. In India,
standard time is based on 82.500 E.
Note: Geographically Indian coordinates is as follows:
“The country is situated north of the equator between 8°4' (for
mainland) to 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' to 97°25' east longitude.”
So India lies in the Northern and Eastern hemispheres.

Qus. 1: Determine the local apparent time (LAT) corresponding to

1430 h (IST) at Mumbai (190 07′ N, 720 51′ E) on July 1. In India,
standard time is based on 82.500 E.
Relation between the angles:
cosθ = sinφ(sinδ cosβ + cosδ cosγ cosω sinβ)+cosφ(cosδ cos ω cos β-sinδ
cosγ sin β)+cos δ sinγ sin ω sin β ………………..(1)

Special case:
Vertical surface: 𝜷𝜷=𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟎𝟎 ,
cosθ = sinφ cosδ cosγ cos ω - cosφ sinδ cosγ + cosδ sinγ sin ω………..(2)

Horizontal Surface: 𝜷𝜷=𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 ,

cosθ= sinφ sinδ+ cosφ cosδ cosω ……………………………(3)
Note: The angle in this case is the zenith angle 𝜃𝜃 𝑧𝑧 .

Inclined surface facing due south, γ=𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 ,

cosθ = sinφ(sinδ cosβ + cosδ cosω sinβ)+cosφ(cosδ cos ω cos β-sinδ sin β)
cosθ=sinδ sin(φ- β)+cosδ cosω cos(φ- β) ……………………………(4)
Vertical surface due south 𝜷𝜷=𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟎𝟎 , γ=𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 ,
cosθ = sinφ cosδ cosω-cosφ sinδ …………………………………(5)

Inclined surface facing due north γ=𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎

cosθ = sinδ sin(φ + β)+cosδ cosω cos(φ + β) …………………………………(6)
 Numerical Problem
Calculate the angle made by beam radiation with the normal to a flat-
plate collector on May 1 at 0900 h (local apparent time). The collector
is located in New Delhi (280 35′ N, 770 12′ E). It is tilted at an angle of
360 with the horizontal and is pointing due south.

cosθ=sinδ sin(φ- β)+cosδ cosω cos(φ- β)

360
δ(in degrees)=23.45 sin [ (284 + 𝑛𝑛)]
365
where n is the day of the year.
 Numerical Problem
Calculate the angle made by beam radiation with the normal to a flat-
plate collector on May 1 at 0900 h (local apparent time). The collector
is located in New Delhi (280 35′ N, 770 12′ E). It is tilted at an angle of
360 with the horizontal and is pointing due south.

cosθ=sinδ sin(φ- β)+cosδ cosω cos(φ- β)

360
δ(in degrees)=23.45 sin [ (284 + 𝑛𝑛)]
365
where n is the day of the year.
Air mass: The ratio of mass of atmosphere through which beam radiation passes
to the mass it would pass through if the sun were at the zenith (i.e. directly
overhead).
1
𝑚𝑚 =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐θ𝑧𝑧

The radiation available on the surface of earth is less than the radiation available
outside the earth’s atmosphere.

The reduction in intensity depends on the atmospheric conditions (amount of

dust particles, water vapor, ozone content, cloudiness, etc.), and solar altitude.

The latter factor determines the length of atmosphere through which the solar
beam has to pass before reaching the earth’s surface.

If the altitude of the sun is small, the length traversed by the beam is long. On
the other hand, if the sun is at the zenith (overhead), the solar beam traverse a
vertical path (shortest path).
 Solstice and Equinox
The earth’s axis of rotation is tilted 23.50 with respect to its orbit around
the sun. In its orbital movement, the earth keeps its axis oriented in the
same direction.
The tilted position of the earth, along the earth’s daily rotation and yearly
revolution, accounts for the varying distribution of solar radiation over the
earth’s surface, the changing length of hours of daylight and darkness,
and the changing of the seasons.
 Solstice and Equinox

At the winter solstice (December 21), the north pole is inclined 23.50
away from the sun. All points on the earth’s surface of 66.50 north
latitude are in total darkness for 24 hours while all regions within 23.50 of
the south pole receives continuous sunlight.
At the time of the two equinoxes (March 21 and September 21, approx.),
both the poles are equidistant from the sun and all points on the earth’s
surface have 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness.
 Tropic of Cancer passes through eight Indian states.
1-Gujrat-Gandhinagar
2-Rajasthan-Banswara
3-Madhya Pradesh-Bhopal
4-Chhatisgarh-Ambikapur
5-Jharkhand-Ranchi
6-West Bengal-Durgapur
7-Tripura-Nutan Bazar
8-Mizoram-Sabual

Fig: Ref.: https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-states-in-India-that-faces-the-Tropic-of-Capricorn

 Estimation of monthly average daily global radiation
The first attempt at estimating solar radiation was due to Angstrom who
suggested that it could be related to the amount of sunshine by a simple
linear relation of the form:
𝐻𝐻𝑔𝑔 𝑆𝑆
= a’ + b’( )
𝐻𝐻𝑐𝑐 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Where,
𝐻𝐻𝑔𝑔 = Monthly average of the daily global radiation on a horizontal surface or
daily global horizontal Irradiation at a location (kJ/m2 . day)
𝐻𝐻𝑐𝑐 = Monthly average of the daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at
the same location on a clear day (kJ/m2 . day)

𝑆𝑆= monthly average of the sunshine hours per day at the location (h)
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = monthly average of the maximum possible sunshine hours per day at
the location (h)
a', b’ = constants obtained by fitting data
Because of difficulties in deciding what constitutes a clear day, Page suggested that 𝐻𝐻𝑐𝑐 in the
Equation be replaced by 𝐻𝐻0 , the monthly average of the daily extraterrestrial radiation which
would fall on a horizontal surface at the location under consideration.

𝐻𝐻𝑔𝑔 𝑆𝑆
= a + b( )
𝐻𝐻0 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Where a and b are revised constants.

Values of a and b have been obtained by regression analysis of measured values of global solar
radiation and sunshine duration of many cities in the world by Lof et al.

In the above computations, the quantity 𝐻𝐻0 is the mean of the value (𝐻𝐻0 ) for each day of the month.
𝐻𝐻0 is obtained by integrating over the day length as follows:

360𝑛𝑛
𝐻𝐻0 =G sc 1 + 0.033 cos
365
∫ cosθ𝑧𝑧 dt

360n
H0 =G sc 1 + 0.033 cos ∫ sinφ sin δ+cosφ cos δ cosω dt
365

180ω 15 t π
Now, t= 15π (as ω = )
180

Where t is in hours and ω is in radians.

180
Hence, dt = dω
15π
 360𝑛𝑛
𝐺𝐺𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1 + 0.033 cos 365
Substituting the values in Eqn.
12 360n +ω𝑠𝑠
H0 = G sc 1 + 0.033 cos ∫−ω sinφ sin δ+cosφ cos δ cosω dω
π 365 𝑠𝑠
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝐇𝐇𝟎𝟎 = 𝐆𝐆 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝟏𝟏 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 ω𝒔𝒔 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬φ 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 δ+cosφ cos δ sinω𝒔𝒔
𝝅𝝅 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

The calculation of 𝐻𝐻0 has been simplified by Klein, who has determined the
particular day in each month on which the extraterrestrial radiation is nearly
equal to the monthly mean value.

The date on which the value of H0 is equal to 𝐻𝐻0 are as follows:

January 17, February 16, March 16, April 15, May 15, June 11, July 17,
August 16, September 15, October 15, November 14 and December 10.
The hour angle corresponding to sunrise or sunset ω𝑠𝑠 on a horizontal
surface can be found from Eq. 3, if zenith angle is set equal to 900

cosθ𝑧𝑧 = sinφ sinδ+ cosφ cosδ cosω

cos ω𝑠𝑠 = - tanφ tanδ
ω𝒔𝒔 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 −𝟏𝟏 (−tanφ tanδ)

Since 150 of the hour angle is equivalent to 1 hour, the corresponding

day length (in hours)
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝐒𝐒𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 = ω𝐬𝐬 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 −𝟏𝟏 (−tanφ tanδ)
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Where ω𝑠𝑠 is in degrees.
Table: Constants a and b for many cities of the world [Ref.: Lof et al.]
Table: Constants a and b for Indian cities (Ref. Modi and Sukhatme)
Qus.: Estimate the monthly average daily global horizontal irradiance
at Vadodara (220 00′ N, 730 10′ E) during the month of March if the
average sunshine hours per day is 9.5.
Assume that the values of a and b for Ahmedabad are valid for
Vadodara. Based on Klein’s recommendation, 𝐻𝐻0 can be taken equal
to H0 on March 16.
Reference Books:
• Solar Energy by S. P. Sukhatme and J K Nayak, Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill
Education (India) Private Limited
• Solar Energy, Fundamentals and Applications by H P Garg and J Prakash, First
revised edition, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
• Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes by John A. Duffie and William A.
Beckman, Second Edition, A Wiley-Interscience Publication, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.
• An introduction to Solar Radiation by M. Iqbal, Academic Press, 1983
• Page, J. K. 1961. The estimation of monthly mean values of daily total short-
wave radiation of vertical and inclined surfaces from sunshine records for
latitudes 400 N-400 S. Proc. UN Conf. New Sources of Energy, 4:378.
• Nonconventional energy resources by B H Khan, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing

The coordinates of Greenwich are: 51° 28' 57.276" N, 0° 0' 27.572" W