Solar Thermal Systems

(Application)

Dr. Sushil Kumar Rathore,

Mechanical Engg. Department,
NIT Rourkela
Solar collectors:
• Solar power has low density per unit area (1 kW/sq. m to 0.1 kW).
Hence, it is collected by covering a large ground area by solar thermal
collectors.
• It absorbs solar energy as heat and then transfers it to the heat transfer
fluid efficiently.
Classification:
Comparison of concentrating and non-concentrating types solar
collectors:

• In concentrating type solar collectors, solar radiation is converged from a

large area into a smaller area using optical means.

• Beam radiation, which has a unique direction and travels in a straight line,
can be converged by reflection or refraction techniques.

• Diffused radiation, however, has no unique direction and so does not obey
optical principles.

• Thus, concentrating-type solar collectors mainly make use of the beam

radiation component (plus very little diffuse component coming directly
over the absorber), while non-concentrating (flat plate) collectors absorb
both beam as well as diffused radiation, a distinct advantage of a flat-plate
collector.
• A flat-plate collector is simple in construction and does not require sun
tracking. Also because of its simple stationary design, a flat-plate collector
requires little maintenance.

• The principal disadvantage of a flat plate collector is that because of the

absence of optical concentration, the area from which heat is lost is large.

• The main advantage of concentrating type collectors is that high

temperature can be attained due to concentration of radiation.
Performance indices:
Collector efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the energy actually absorbed and
transferred to the heat-transport fluid by the collector (useful energy) to the energy
incident on the collector.

Concentration ratio (CR): It is defined as the ratio of the area of aperture of the
system to the area of the receiver. The aperture of the system is the projected area of
the collector facing (normal) the beam.

In flat plate collector, no optical system is utilized to concentrate the solar radiation
and hence the concentration ratio is 1. The temperature range is less than 1000 C.

Line focus collectors: CR up to 100 and temperature range 150-3000 C.

Point focus collectors: CR up to 1000 and temperature range 500-10000 C.

Temperature range: Range of temperature to which the heat-transport fluid is heated

up by the collector.
Figure: Schematic diagram for representation of light concentration process

Ref.: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/eme812/node/8
Liquid Flat-Plate Collector:
A flat plate collector is placed at a location in a position such that its length
aligns with the line of longitude and is suitably tilted towards south to have
maximum collection.
The basic elements in a majority of these collectors are:
(i). Transparent cover (one or two sheets of glass or plastic)
(ii). Blackened absorber plate usually made of copper, aluminum or steel
(iii). Tubes, channels or passages in thermal contact with the absorber plate
(iv). Weather tight, insulated container to enclose the above components

Fig.- Positioning of flat-plate collector Fig.- Construction of flat-plate collector

• A liquid, most commonly water, is used as the heat-transport medium
from the collector to the next stage of the system.

• Sometimes a mixture of water and Ethylene glycol (antifreeze mixture)

is also used if the ambient temperature are likely to drop below 00
during nights.

• As solar radiation strikes on a specially treated metallic absorber plate,

it is absorbed and raises the plates temperature.

• The absorber plate is usually made from a metal sheet ranging in

thickness from 0.2 to 1 mm.
• The heat is transferred to the heat-transfer liquid circulating in the
tube, beneath the absorber plate and in intimate contact with it.

• The metallic tube range in diameter from 1 to 1.5 cm. These are
soldered, brazed, welded or pressure bonded to the absorber plate
with a pitch ranging from 5 to 12 cm.

• Header pipe, which are of slightly larger diameter of typically 2-2.5 cm,
lead the water in and out of the collector and distribute to tubes.

Fig.- Construction of flat-plate collector

• The metal that is most commonly used, both for the absorber plate, the tubes
and the header pipes, is copper.

• Thermal insulation provided by a 2.5 to 8 cm thick layer of glass wool prevents

heat loss from the absorber surface.

• The glass cover permits the entry of solar radiation as it is transparent for
incoming short wavelengths but is largely opaque to the longer infrared
radiation reflected from the absorber. (Green house effect)

• The glass cover also prevents the heat loss due to convection by keeping the
air stagnant.

• The glass cover may reflect some 15% of incoming solar radiation, which can
be reduced by applying anti-reflective coating on the outer surface of the
glass.

• Plain or toughened glass of 4 to 5 mm thickness is the most favored material.

Solar air heater:
A solar air-heating collector is similar to a liquid flat plate collector with a change in
the configuration of the absorber and tube. The value of the heat transfer coefficient
between the absorber plate and the air is low.

Due to this reason, the surfaces are sometimes roughened or longitudinal fins are
provided. Corrugated, V-shaped, matrix, etc.

The electrical power required to blow the air through the system can be significant as
it involves flow of large volume of fluid.

Fig. : Various types of flat-plate air heating collector

Modified flat plate collector (With Booster Mirrors):
• By providing plane reflectors at the edge of a flat-plate collector
to reflect additional radiation into the receiver, the
concentration of the solar radiation can be increased. These
mirrors are also called booster mirrors.
• The concentration ratio of these concentrators has a maximum
value of 4.
• It requires periodic tilt adjustment.

Fig. : Modified flat-plate collector

Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator
• It consists of a cylindrical parabolic trough reflector and a metal tube receiver
at its focal line.
• The receiver tube is blackened at the outside surface to increase absorption.
• It is rotated about one axis to track the sun.
• The heat transfer fluid flows through the receiver tube, carrying the thermal
energy to the next stage of the system.
• Concentration ratio: Range 5-30

Fig.: Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator

Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator

Fig.: Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator

Ref.: https://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/solar-hot-water/parabolic-trough-
reflector.html
Linear Fresnel Lens Collector:
• In this collector, a Fresnel lens, which consists of fine, linear grooves on the surface
refracting material (generally optical quality plastic) on one side and flat on the
other side, is used.

• The angle of each groove is designed to make the optical behavior similar to a
spherical lens.

• The beam radiation which is incident normally, converges on the focal line, where
a receiver tube is provided to absorb the radiation.

• A concentration ratio of 10-30 may be realized and temperature range

150 − 3000 C.

Fig. Linear Fresnel Lens Collector

Parabolic Dish Collector:
• It consists of a solar reflector dish, solar
receiver, and the mounting structure.

• The dish is mounted on the dual-axis solar

tracker that keeps it oriented always
toward the sun.

• The solar radiation after being reflected

by the dish are concentrated on the
Fig. : Parabolic dish collector
central receiver positioned at the focal
point of the solar parabolic dish.

• The dish is mounted on the dual-axis solar

tracker that keeps it oriented always
toward the sun. The solar radiation after
being reflected by the dish are
concentrated on the central receiver
positioned at the focal point of the solar
parabolic dish.
• It can have a concentration ratio ranging from 10 to few thousand and can yield a
temperature up to 30000 C.

• The solar parabolic dish finds its major application in electricity generation using
the Stirling engine mounted at the central receiver.

• Size is limited by material constraints, and the largest practical dishes are
normally around 10 m in diameter, with a generating capacity of 25 kW [7].
Central Tower Receiver:
• In a central tower receiver collector, the receiver is located at the top
of a tower.

• Beam radiation is reflected on it from a large number of

independently controlled, almost flat mirrors, known as heliostats,
spread over a large area on the ground, surrounding the tower.

• Thousands of such heliostats track the sun to direct the beam

radiation on the receiver from all the sides.

• Concentration ratio of as high as a value of 3000 can be obtained.

• The absorbed energy can be extracted from the receiver and

delivered at a temperature and pressure suitable for driving the
turbine.
The central tower receiver is used for high-temperature applications
(normally above 550°C), where the efficiency of the thermodynamic
cycle is higher compared with the line-focus technologies.

Fig. : Central tower receiver

 Solar Water Heater

• A tilted flat-plate solar collector with

water as a heat-transfer fluid is used.

• A thermally insulated hot-water

storage tank is mounted above the
collector.

• The heated water of the collector

rises up to the hot water tank and
replaces an equal quantity of cold
water, which enters the collector.

• The cycle repeats, resulting in all the

water of the hot water tank getting Fig.: Solar water heater
heated up.
When hot water is taken from the hot
water outlet, the same is replaced by
cold water from a cold-water make up
tank fixed above the hot water tank.

This scheme is known as passive

heating scheme, as water is circulated
in the loop naturally due to thermo-
siphon action.

When the collector is fixed above the

level of the hot-water tank, a pump is Fig.: Solar water heater
required to induce circulation of water
in the loop and the scheme is known as
active or forced solar thermal system.

Temperature range =60−800 C

Solar Passive Space Heating:
The south-facing thick wall, called Trombe
wall is made of concrete, adobe, stone or
composites of brick blocks and sand, designed
for thermal storage.

In order to increase the absorption, the outer

surface is painted black.

The entire south wall is covered by one or two Fig.: Solar passive space heating
sheets of glass or plastic with some air gap
(usually 10-15 cm) between the wall and inner
glazing.

Solar radiation after penetration through the

glazing and the wall thus gets heated, rises up
and enters the room through the upper vent.

The circulation of air continues till the wall

goes on heating the air. Thus, the thermal wall
collects, stores and transfers the heat to the
room.
Opening the damper at the top of the
glazing allows the excess heat to escape
outside, when heating is not required.

Sometimes a reflective horizontal

surface is also provided to make Fig.: Solar passive space heating
available the additional radiation for
thermal storage.
In Fig., another variation of a solar
space-heating is shown. Here, a
collector cum-rock-bed storage
system is integrated with the
apartment.

During daytime when direct gain

through the glaze is sufficient, the hot Fig. : Solar space heating with rock bed storag
air from the air heater (collector) is
not allowed to enter the room.

The available thermal energy is stored

in the rock bed to be used later,
preferably during night.

Rocks known for thermal storage:

dolerite, granite, gneiss, etc.
Solar Distillation (Desalination of water)

Fig. : Simple basin-type solar still

• Portable or fresh water (water with less than 500 ppm slat content) is one
of the fundamental necessities of life for humans.

• According to one estimate, about 79 percent of water available on the

earth is salty, 20 percent is brackish (less salty water from wells) and only
one percent is fresh.

• A simple basin-type solar still consists of a shallow blackened basin filled

with saline or brackish water to be distilled. The depth of water is kept
about 5-10 cm.

• It is covered with a slopey transparent roof.

• Solar radiation, after passing through the roof, is absorbed by the blackened
surface of the basin and thus increases the temperature of water.

• The evaporated water increases the moisture content, which gets condensed on
the cooler underneath the glass.

• The condensed water slips down the slope and is collected through the
condensate channel attached to the glass.

• A typical solar still in Indian climate varies from 5.3 l/sq. m day in summer to 0.9
l/sq. m day in winter
Solar Vapour Compression Refrigeration:
Here, solar power is first converted to mechanical power.

The shaft power thus produced drives the compressor of a

conventional vapour compression refrigerator.

A suitable refrigerant vapour is compressed and then condensed to a

liquid, rejecting heat to the ambient.

Now, the pressure is reduced by passing it through an expansion valve

where it gets evaporated at low pressure, producing a cooling effect.

Thus, the refrigerant absorbs heat in the evaporator, from the space to
be cooled and rejects it in the condenser.
 Fig.: Solar-vapour compression refrigeration system

Freon-12 boiling point : -29.8 deg

Solar power cycle:

Fig. : Solar power generation method using cylindrical parabolic (line focusing) concentrators
Cylindrical parabolic concentrators are generally used to supply steam
at 1500 C.

Because of their geometry, such troughs are usually made to track the
sun by being rotated about their focal line.

Line focus systems are used in small-sized electrical generating

systems for applications such as driving irrigation pumps, providing
space heating and cooling, providing industrial process heat, etc.
Solar Pond:

Salt Gradient or Non-Convective Solar Ponds:

Fig: Salt-gradient solar pond

Fig. : Solar gradient solar pond with heat exchanger

• A non-convective solar pond is a simple device for collecting and storing
solar energy.

• In ordinary water ponds, solar radiation is transmitted through water to the

bottom, and the water in the bottom gets heated.

• As a result of buoyancy, the heated water rises, and the heat is finally
released to the atmosphere through convection and evaporation from its
surface.

• In a non-convective solar pond, the convective and evaporative heat losses

are reduced, and thermal energy is stored.

• In this case, the warm water in the bottom is prevented from rising to the
surface.

• Non-convective ponds may be stabilized by varying the salt concentration in

the pond.
• The salt-gradient solar pond is the most common type of non-convective
solar pond. This is a pond in which salt is dissolved in high concentrations
near the bottom, with decreasing concertation near the surface.

• The most commonly used salts is such ponds are sodium chloride and
magnesium chloride.

• The salt gradient pond consists of three layers.

• In the top layer, convection takes place due to wind evaporation.

• The second layer, which is non-convective because the higher salt

concentration with increasing depth negates the thermal buoyancy forces.

• The third layer (bottom layer) is a convective layer of essentially constant

salt concentration, which acts as a thermal storage.

• Non-convective slat gradient ponds are typically 1 to 3 meters deep.

Fig.: Temperature and concentration profile for a typical pond
Fig.: Flow diagram of solar pond electric power plant
 Solar Radiation Measurement
Solar radiation flux is usually measured with the help of a pyranometer or a
pyrheliometer.

Pyranometer: A pyranometer is an instrument which measures either global or

diffuse radiation falling on a horizontal surface over a hemispherical field of view.

Fig. : Pyranometer for measuring global radiation

Fig. : Pyranometer for measuring global radiation
Ref. :https://www.deltaohm.com/en/product/lppyra02-serie-first-class-pyranometer/
Working principle:

The pyranometer consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed

to solar radiation.

Its temperature increases until the rate of heat gain by solar radiation
equals the rate of heat loss by convection, conduction and re-radiation.

The hot junctions of a thermopile are attached to the black surface, while
the cold junctions are located under a guard plate so that they do not
receive the radiation directly.

As a result, an emf is generated (usually in the range of 0 to 10mV which

can be read.
Construction:

It has its hot junctions arranged in the form of horizontal circular disc of
diameter 25mm and coated with a special black lacquer having a very high
absorptivity in the solar wavelength region.

The disc is placed on a large diameter guard plate which may be horizontal
or sloping.

Two concentric hemispheres, 30mm and 50mm in diameter respectively,

made of optical glass having excellent transmission characteristics, are
used to protect the disc surface from weather conditions.
Measurement of diffuse radiation:
The pyranometer can also be used for the measurement of diffuse radiation. This
is done by mounting it at the centre of a semicircular shading ring, which is fixed
in such a way that its plane is parallel to the plane of the path of the sun’s daily
movement across the sky.

Besides, it shades the thermopile element and the two glass domes of the
pyranometer at all times from direct sunshine.

Consequently, the pyranometer measures only the diffuse radiation received from
the sky.

Fig. : A pyranometer with shading ring for measuring diffuse radiations

Fig. : A pyranometer with shading ring for measuring diffuse radiations
Ref. : https://www.kippzonen.com/Product/42/CM121B-C-Shadow-Ring
Pyrheliometer:
A pyrheliometer is an instrument which measures the solar beam radiation flux falling
on a surface normal to the sun’s rays.

In contrast to pyranometer, the black absorber plate (with the hot junctions of a
thermopile attached to it) is located at the base of a collimating tube.

The tube is aligned with the direction of the sun’s rays with the help of a two-axis
tracking mechanism and an alignment indicator.

Thus, the black plate receives only beam radiation and a small amount of diffuse
radiation falling within the acceptance angle of the instrument.

Fig.: Pyrheliometer for measuring beam radiation

Fig.: Pyrheliometer for measuring beam radiation
Ref.:https://educalingo.com/en/dic-de/pyrheliometer
 Thermal Energy Storage

The intermittent, variable and unpredictable nature of solar radiation

generally leads to a mismatch between the rate and time of collection of
solar energy and the load needs of a thermal application.

As a result, it is often necessary to use a storage system in between.

The storage system stores energy when the collected amount is in excess
of the requirements of the application and discharges energy when the
collected amount is inadequate.
The size of a storage system is largely determined by the specific purpose for
which it is used. The three situations are shown in Fig. 1:

The time interval during the day over which the energy required is essentially
the same as the time of collection (Fig. 1(a)). However, a storage system is
needed because there is some mismatch between the amount of energy
required and the amount collected at any instant.

The storage system in such a situation has to store energy only for short
intervals of time and is relatively small in size. It is called a buffer storage
In Fig. 1 (b), the load demand shown extends over all 24 hours, whereas the
collection takes place only during the sunshine hours. As a result, a system larger
than a buffer storage having the capacity to store energy for a day or two is required,
such a system is called diurnal storage.

Fig. 1(c) shows the situation in which the storage system stores energy during the
summer when the collection is in excess of the demand, and delivers the excess
energy in winter when the collection is less than the demand. Such a system is also
called an annual storage.

Fig. 1: Different situations for using a thermal energy storage (a) Buffer storage, (b) Diurnal
storage, (c) Annual storage