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Module-3: Brush up your Grammar and Vocabulary

3.1: Parts of Speech

The parts of speech are the basic categories of words according to their function in a sentence. It
is a category to which a word is assigned in accordance with its syntactic functions. English has
eight main parts of speech, namely, Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions,
Conjunctions and Interjections. In grammar, the parts of speech, also called lexical categories,
grammatical categories or word classes is a linguistic category of words.

1. Nouns as Part of Speech

A noun is a part of speech that identifies a person, place, thing, idea or events. Nouns are the
simplest among the 8 parts of speech. In a sentence, nouns can play the role of subject, direct
object, indirect object, subject complement, object complement, an appositive, or adjective as
depending on the necessity.

Types of Nouns:

● Proper Noun: It refers to specific entities. It can be the name of a specific person, place
or thing. Example - Priya, Delhi.
● Common Noun: Common nouns refer to general & unspecific categories of entities. They
can be the name of common things or class of objects. Example - men, chair, girls.
● Collective Noun: They are nouns that refer to a group of something in a specific manner
or the collection of some persons or things and represented as a singular noun. Example-
jury, herd, flock.
● Abstract Noun: Denotes something that cannot be seen, touched, etc. and signifies a
quality. More ethereal, theoretical concepts use abstract nouns to refer to them. Example-
manners, promise, fear, energy, love.
● Materialistic Noun: Material nouns refer to materials or substances from which things are
made. Example- cotton, rice, paper.
Nouns as Part of Speech - Further Classification and rules to use them:

● Countable nouns- These are the nouns that can be counted are considered as individual
and separable items. To the linguists, these countable nouns can occur in both single and
plural forms. They can be modified by numerals and can co-occur with quantificational
determiners like many, most, more, several, etc. E.G. Pens, tables.

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1. We can use countable nouns with the indefinite articles a and an, which
indicate one person or thing. Example- a notebook, an apple.
2. We can also use countable nouns with the plural form of the noun. Example-
three men, several mangoes, 12 apples.
● Uncountable nouns- Nouns which cannot be segregated, measured and counted as
individual units or elements. E.G. water, information, money. Uncountable nouns cannot
take an indefinite article (a/an), nor can they be made plural. They are also called Mass
Nouns. Examples are as follows:

(i) Incorrect- Would you like a coffee ?

Correct- Would you like coffee ?

(ii) Incorrect- I have an information.

Correct- I have some information.

Correct- I have a lot of information.

2. Pronouns as part of speech:

Pronouns are the words which are used in place of nouns like people, places, or things. They are
used to avoid sounding unnatural by reusing the same noun in a sentence multiple times. In the
sentence Maya saw Sanjay, and she waved at him, the pronouns she and him take the place of
Maya and Sanjay, respectively. The other examples of pronouns are: I, you, she, her, it, everyone,
somebody, hers, theirs, etc.

Types of Pronouns as Part of Speech

● Personal Pronouns: Personal pronouns are used for the first person (the speaker -I) and
the second person (the person spoken to - you). We use he, she, it and they to refer to other
people and things (third person) when it is clear from the context what we are referring to.
Example- Hina isn’t coming with us. She has to finish homework.
Like nouns, pronouns can function as subjects as well as objects. Additionally, there is a possessive
case. As the name implies, it marks possession of a personal pronoun. The possessive case can
further be divided into two as follow:

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1. Possessive determiners: They function grammatically like adjectives, modifying a noun

or nouns. However, they cannot function as nouns in a sentence. Example- My father’s
house is being sold off. (My modifies father to show his relation to the speaker.)
2. Possessive Pronouns: They are personal pronouns in the possessive case which have the
grammatical function of nouns. Example -Those shoes are mine.

Forms of Personal Pronouns as Part of Speech

Subject/ Object Possessive Possessive

Nominative Determiners
Pronouns

1st person singular I Me My Mine

2nd person singular You You Your Yours

3rd person singular He/ She Him/ Her His/ Her His/ Hers

3rd person impersonal It It Its

1st person plural We Us Our Ours

2nd person plural You You Your Yours

3rd person plural They Them Their Theirs

● Reflexive and Emphatic Pronouns: We use a reflexive pronoun as object of the verb
when it refers to the same thing as the subject. Reflexive pronouns are formed by adding

“-self” (singular) or “-selves” (plural) to the end of my, your, our, him, her, it or them (as
well as the indefinite pronoun one).

*Exceptions: Transitive verbs like keep, stop, bathe, turn, rest, qualify, hide, etc. do not use
reflexive pronouns.

Incorrect- You should keep yourself away from intoxicating substances.

Correct- You should keep away from intoxicating substances.

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● Demonstrative Pronouns: They are used to indicate specific people or things and signify
whether they are singular/plural and whether they are close or far from the speaker. Some
of the demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these and those. Consider the following
examples:
1. These are really tasty. (Plural + close by)
2. I want those books right now. (Plural + not close)
● Indefinite Pronouns: The Indefinite Pronoun is used in place of a noun that is not being
specified in the sentence. They are used depending upon whether the nouns being
represented are person or thing and whether the noun is singular or plural. Some of the
indefinite pronouns are any, somebody, none, whatever, all & many. Examples-
1. Somebody is knocking at the door. (Person + Singular)
2. None of these apples are rotten. (Thing + Plural)
● Distributive Pronouns: They are the pronouns in which members of a group are
considered separately, rather than collectively. Some of the distributive pronouns are each,
every, neither, etc. Examples-
1. Each ate his own apple. (Pronoun)
2. Each boy ate his own apple. (Determiner)

● Reciprocal Pronouns: These pronouns are used when two or more people act as the
subject of a verb and both individually and equally receive the verb’s action. Some of the
reciprocal pronouns are each other, one another, etc.Example- Mary and I love each other.

● Relative Pronouns: These are used to connect relative clauses (or adjective clauses) to the
main clause in a sentence. Some of the relative pronouns are who, which, what, whose, etc.
Examples-
1. There’s the man who extorted money from me.
2. The letter that I wrote has reached its destination.
● Interrogative Pronouns: The Interrogative Pronouns are used to ask questions. There are
only five of these which are who, whose, whom, which & what. Example- Who is your
class teacher?

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Rules to use Pronouns as Part of Speech and Tips to remember them:

Use a subject pronoun, not only as the subject of a sentence but after to be verbs (is, are, was, were,
will be, maybe, may have been, etc.) when the pronoun renames the subject. Do not use object
pronouns following to be verbs.

Singular pronouns (I, he, she, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, someone,
somebody, each, either, neither, etc.) require singular verbs. This rule is frequently overlooked
when using the pronouns each, either, and neither, followed by of. These three pronouns always
take singular verbs.

Reflexive pronouns are used when both the subject and the object of a verb are the same person or
thing.

3. Verbs

Verbs as part of speech are used to signify the actions, processes, conditions, or states of being of
people or things. It is basically a word that characteristically is the grammatical center of a
predicate and expresses an act, occurrence, or mode of being, that in various languages is inflected
for agreement with the subject, for tense, for voice, for mood, or for aspect, and that typically has
full descriptive meaning and characterizing quality in it.

Classification of Verbs as Part of Speech

1. Finite and Non-Finite Verbs:

Finite Verb: A finite verb is the main verb of a sentence and has a direct relationship to the subject
of a sentence or clause. A sentence with a finite verb does not require another verb in the sentence
in order to be grammatically correct. Examples:

1. I play every day.

2. She skips many classes.

All the verbs mentioned above are finite verbs as they express actions directly related to the subject
of the sentence. The only verbs that can be said to be finite are those in their base form (eat, play,
read-all the infinitive form without), their past tense form, or their third-person singular form (eats,
plays, reads).

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Infinite Verb- Verb forms that are never considered finite and are known as non-finite verbs are
gerunds, infinitives, and participles (both past and present). Example:

The teacher is teaching the French Revolution.

Here, the present continuous verb ‘is teaching’ has been used. Note that ‘teaching’ is the present
participle form and is considered as a non- finite verb. The finite verb in the sentence is the
auxiliary verb ‘is’.

2. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs:

Transitive Verb - This describes an action that is happening to someone or something. This person
or thing is known as the direct object of the verb. Examples: He is holding a pen.

Intransitive Verbs- These verbs do not have objects, i.e., no one/nothing is receiving their action.

3. Regular and Irregular Verbs:

Regular verbs- They are those to whose base form “-d” or “-ed” can be added to form both the
past simple tense and past participle forms.

Irregular verbs- They are those verbs whose past tense and past participle forms are usually
completely different from one another. And since they do not follow any predictable pattern, one
has no other option but to learn each one separately.

4. Adverb
Adverb: It is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb or an entire clause.

Types of Adverbs:

1. Adverb of Time: It describes when for how long something happens and answers the question
‘when’ through words like soon, early, late, now, before, still, yet, later, tomorrow, etc. In an
interrogative sense, when and how long function as the adverb of time. Examples: The show will
resume soon.

2. Adverb of Place: Describe the direction, distance, movement, or position involved in the action
of the verb and thus answers the question ‘where’ through the words like here, there, everywhere,
north, south, forward, downward, behind, etc. In an interrogative sense, where functions as an
adverb of place. Examples: The boat was moving downstream.

3. Adverb of Manner: It describes how something happens or someone does something. It

actually answers the question ‘how’ or in ‘what manner’ through words like beautifully,
wonderfully, smartly, badly, bravely, etc. In an interrogative sense, how functions as an adverb of
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manner. Usually, adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives. Examples: The lion moved
slowly towards its prey.

4. Adverbs of Degree or Quantity: It describes the degree or extent of the verb, adjective, or
adverb they are modifying. It answers the question ‘how far’ through words like very, quite,
almost, fairly, truly, pretty, somewhat, etc. In an interrogative sense, ‘how far’ and ‘how much’
function as adverbs of degree or quantity. Examples: You are pretty close to the correct answer.

5. Adverbs of Frequency (or Number): It describes how frequently or how often something
happens. Words like always usually, twice, firstly, daily, monthly, etc. are adverbs of frequency.
Examples: Twice did I land up in jail.

6. Adverbs of Reason: It describes ‘why’ something happens or is the case. Words like therefore,
thus, hence, consequently, etc. are adverbs of reason. Example: Pratima has never behaved so
oddly. We must therefore conclude that something is wrong.

7. Adverbs of Affirmation: Expresses what the speaker knows about the truth of the statement.
Words like perhaps, certainly, undoubtedly, clearly, allegedly, etc. are adverbs of affirmation.
Example: You have certainly fallen prey to greed.

8. Adverbs of Negation: It is used to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective or another adverb
in a negative way with words such as not, hardly, barely, never, seldom. Example: I do not work
on holidays.

9. Relative Adverbs: It joins two clauses by relating itself to a noun and indicates time, place,
reason or manner. Examples: I know the house where he lives.
5. Adjectives

Adjectives are words that describe or modify a noun or a pronoun in the sentence. The adjectives
are easy to spot because they come immediately before the nouns they modify. They are used to
identify or quantify individual people and unique things and are usually positioned before the noun
or pronoun that they modify. Some sentences also contain multiple adjectives. Examples:

1. Priya is an obedient girl. (Obedient describes what kind of girl Priya is, therefore it
is an adjective.)
2. Many birds are flying in the sky. (Many describes the quantity of birds flying in the
sky.)

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Types of Adjectives as Part of Speech

1. Adjectives of Quality: They describe the kind, quality or characteristic of a noun or pronoun
they are referring to. Examples:

● Parth is clever.
● Jigisha is a voracious reader.
● Mitali’s gestures are amazing.

2. Adjectives of Quantity: They indicate how much of a thing is meant in indefinite terms, or it
answers the question ‘How much?’ These adjectives are mostly used with uncountable nouns.
Some of these adjectives are many, much, some, little, great, any, enough, etc. Examples:

● Can I have some water?

● I had enough rest for the day.

3. Adjectives of Number: They indicate how many people or things are meant and it answers the
question How many? It can also demonstrate a noun’s position or place in a certain order.
Adjectives of number are used with countable nouns. The adjective of numbers are of three types:

● Definite Numeral Adjective: It denotes the exact number of nouns or their exact
position like one, two, three, first, second, third, etc. Example- The class consists
of forty-five students.
● Indefinite Numeral Adjective: These adjectives indicate an approximate amount
like several, few, many, some, etc. Example - Several books are torn.
● Distributive Numeral Adjective: It refers to individual nouns within the whole
amount like each, every, either, neither, etc. Example - Every student is required to
participate.

4. Demonstrative: These adjectives point out at pronouns and nouns and always come before the
words that they are referring to: these, that, those. Examples:

● I used to wear these types of trousers.

● Those are the bangles you were looking for.

5. Interrogative: The Interrogative adjectives are used to ask questions and are always followed
by a noun: which, what, who etc. Examples:

● Which song should I sing?

● What date is it?
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6. Exclamatory: They Exclamatory Adjectives indicate strong emotions and are used with the
noun. Example:

● What an idea!
● What a beautiful flower it is!

7. Possessive: They show ownership or possession and always come before the noun: my, your,
his, her, its, our, your, their, etc. Examples:

● I will use my pencil.

Degree of Adjectives: There are three degrees of adjectives, also known as degrees of comparison,
namely, positive, comparative, and superlative.

● Positive Degree- When you talk about or describe only a single person, place, or thing,
you should use the positive degree. Example: Sudha is an elegant lady.
● Comparative Degree - When two persons, places, or things are compared, the comparative
degree of the word is used. Normally, “-er” is added at the end of the word to transform
the word into its comparative form. Some words do not take “-er” as a suffix. So, the word
“more” is put before them. Also, the word “than” should be added after the adjective in the
comparative degree. Example: Priya is more intelligent than Meera.
● Superlative Degree - When two or more things are compared, the superlative form of the
adjectives should be used and the word “the” should be added before the adjective. In order
to transform the adjective into its superlative form, the suffix “-est” or the word “most”
should be added before the word. Example: I think this is the best movie that I have ever
watched in my life.

Order of Adjectives as Part of Speech:

We often use multiple adjectives to describe/ modify the same noun or pronoun. Each of these
adjectives works independently to modify the same word. To avoid inappropriate- sounding
sentences when we use more than one adjective, they are required to be put in a specific order
according to the type of description they provide. This is known as the order of adjectives which
are stated below:

1. Determiner- An article (a, an, the), a number or amount, a possessive adjective (my,
his, her, its, your, our, their), or a demonstrative (this, that, these, those).
2. Opinion- good, bad, strange, lovely
3. Size- big, small, tiny, huge
4. Shape- curved, straight, round, square
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5. Quality- wet, dry, clean, sad, happy
6. Age- old, young, new, ancient
7. Color-red, yellowish, transparent, blue
8. Pattern- checked, striped, plaid, flowered
9. Origin-American, British, eastern, western
10. Material- wooden, plastic, steel, cloth
11. Type-human, chemical, domestic, electronic, money (problems), etc.
12. Purpose- sleeping, shopping, work, gardening
6. Prepositions

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate some relation between the
noun or pronoun and some other word. The noun or pronoun that is connected by the preposition
is known as the object of the preposition. Some common prepositions are in, on, for, to, of, with,
and about, etc. Example: The notebook is kept on the table. (‘The table’ is the object of the
preposition ‘on’.)

Categories of Prepositions as Part of Speech:

Prepositions can broadly be divided into the following categories:

i. Simple Prepositions

(1) Preposition of Time- at, in, on, for, during, since, by, until, before, after, to, past, etc.
Examples:

● I go to my school at 7:30 a.m. every day. (Indicates a definite point of time.)

● I play football in the evening. (Denotes a specific time, period, month, and year;
however, ‘at noon’ is an exception.)
● He got admitted on the 9th of June. (Used with days and dates.)
● We will have a tea break by 4 p.m. (refers to the latest time by which an action will
be over.)
● I have been working in the company for the last 10 years. (Denotes a period of time
to say how long something continues.)
● I haven’t seen Meera since last Tuesday. (Shows the point of time.
● Prathibha will join us from the 2nd of May. (Refers to the starting point of an
action.)

(2) Preposition of Place- at, in, on, by/near/close to, next to/beside, between, behind, in front of,
above/over, below/under, among, amongst, etc. Examples:
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● Sheela lives at the Chinese restaurant. (Refers to an exact point.)
● Sheela lives in Delhi. (Refers to a big area.)
● The competition was between Saroj and Prajakta. (Used for two people or things.)
● The gifts are to be distributed among the pupils. (Used for more than two people
or things.)
● Mother has asked to divide the sweets amongst (Used for more than two people or
things and is always used before a vowel.)

(3) Preposition of Direction or Movement- to, from, over, under, along, around, across, through,
into, out of, toward(s), away from, onto, off, up, down, etc. Examples:

● I go to the gym every morning. (Used to indicate movement from one place to
another.)
● The predator moved towards the prey. (Points out at a particular direction.)
● The doctored entered into the operation theatre. (Indicate a movement inside
something.)
● The flight took off on time. (Refers to separation.)

(4) Preposition of instrument or device- by, with, by means of, etc. Examples:

● A long journey by bus is quite exhausting.

● I write with a pen.

(5) Preposition of Reason or Purpose- for, though, because of, on account of, from, etc.
Examples:

● I couldn’t reach on time because of the rain.

● I have bought the stationery for the project work.

(6) Preposition of Connection- of, to, with, etc. Examples:

● In the end, Maya decided to leave with Raj.

● I will write a letter to the editor of the journal.

(7) Preposition of Origin - of, from. Examples:

● My grandfather was of British descent.

● We are from the USA

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ii. Compound Prepositions: It has got parts and is not just one word. For instance, ‘in front of’,
that is used as a single word instead of a prepositional phrase, followed by another preposition. In
simple words, it is a combination of a prepositional word and a preposition. Examples:

● I am standing in front of the mall.

● The market is close to the temple.

iii. Double Prepositions: It is formed by combining two simple prepositions such as from behind,
out of, from beneath, etc. Examples:

● Are you out of your mind!

● Pramila suddenly appeared from behind the curtain and surprised the audience.

iv. Participle Preposition: When a participle functions as a preposition, it is called a participle

preposition. Some of these are not withstanding, concerning, pending, considering, assuming, etc.
Examples:

● Everyone barring infants was allowed on the boat.

● Anything concerning the sales report should be brought to my notice.

v. Prepositional Phrase: It is made up of at least a preposition and its object, which can be a noun,
pronoun, or a noun phrase. Examples:

● The team climbed up the hill.

● A beautiful village is situated by the sea.

7. Conjunctions

Conjunctions are used to link different clauses together, and to join words, phrases and sentences.
By using conjunctions, we can make complex sentences that show a connection between actions
and ideas. Examples: and, but, so, although, or, etc.

Types of Conjunctions

1. Coordinating Conjunctions: Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases, and independent

clauses of equal grammatical rank in a sentence. These include and, but, or, yet, for, so, nor, etc.

● Are you an atheist or an agnostic? (‘Or’ joins individual words.)

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● I will have a mango and a banana. (‘And’ joins individual words.)
● I like the actor’s performance on stage but dislike his movies. (‘But’ joins two
phrases.)
● Maya has been appreciated for both her spontaneity and the ability to tackle tough
situations. (‘And’ joins two phrases.)
● I went to the market, but I did not purchase vegetables. (‘But’ joins two
independent clauses.)
● It was already dark, so I took a cab. (‘So’ joins two independent clauses.)

2. Subordinating Conjunctions: Subordinating conjunctions join independent and dependent

clauses. Some of these are because, since, as, although, though, while, in spite of, whereas, etc.
Often a subordinating conjunction indicates a cause-and-effect relationship or a contrast.
Examples:

● Since I was not at home, I couldn’t cook food.

● Although you have passed the exam, there is room for improvement.
● I went to the doctor in spite of being fit

3. Correlative Conjunctions: Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work

together to show the relationship between two things in a sentence. Some of the most common
correlative conjunctions are either... or, neither... nor, not only... but also, no sooner...than, hardly...
when, etc. Examples:

● I neither like capsicum nor tomatoes in my soup.

● You can either sign the document or leave immediately.
● Not only did he pass the exam, but also topped it.
● Whether you like it or not, we will attend the gathering this Sunday.

8. Interjections

It is a word used to express emotions or some sudden outburst of feeling. Usually, an interjection
is used in informal language. Though interjections do not relate grammatically to the other parts
of the sentence or help the reader understand the relationship between words and phrases in the
sentence, they express a wide variety of feelings, such as joy, sorrow, surprise, disgust, etc.

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Interjections exist in the form of a single word, a phrase, or even a short clause. Moreover, they
are usually, though not always, placed at the beginning of a sentence. They are important as they
convey emotions which may otherwise be overlooked in a sentence. Take for example the
following:

● This movie has quite a few morbid scenes.

● Ugh! This movie has quite a few morbid scenes!
● Undoubtedly, the second sentence adds an emotion to the given sentence.

The Emotions Expressed by Interjections as Part of Speech:

● Joy: Hurrah! Ha-ha!

● Sorrow: Alas! Ah! Oh!
● Surprise: Oh! What! Ha!
● Appreciation: Bravo! Hear-hear!
● Contempt: Fie! Pooh!
● Calling: Hello! Ho!
● Drawing attention: Look! Listen! Behold!
● Making or becoming silent: Hush!

Examples of Interjections as Part of Speech:

● Hooray! You lost, I won.

● Alas! My neighbor’s pet is dead.
● Congratulations! You procured the first rank.
● Hello! Can you hear me?
● Hush! Keep quiet! The baby is sleeping.
● Oh no, I can’t believe I woke up late again!
● Um... I think your answer is incorrect.

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3.2: Tense

Time: Time is a non-linguistic concept, which we generally measure in hours, days, and years. It
is not related to grammar, but the actions take place in that time. Time is a Linear being. It gives
rise to the timeline. Always the present moment is present time, the moment that has already passed
is past time and the time to come is future time.

Types of time:

Present Time:

● Present Time in Present State. E.g. i) I’m hungry. ii) Do you like my hat?
● Present Time in Present Event: E.g. i) I declare the meeting closed. ii) She serves and it’s
an ace.
● Present Time in Present Habit: E.g. i) I work in two elementary schools. ii) It rains a lot in
this part of the country.

Past Time:

● Simple past: E.g. i) The train derailed yesterday. ii) She sang a beautiful song.
● Present Perfect: E.g. i) I have completed my task. ii) Her computer has been broken.
● Present Perfect Progressive: The present perfect progressive has the same sort of meaning
as the simple present perfect, except that the period leading up to the present typically has
limited duration. E.g. i) I have been reading your book. ii) She has been studying for the
exams.
● Past Perfect: The past perfect means ‘past in the past’, that is, a time further in the past as
seen from a definite point in the past. E.g. i) The place had been abandoned for years. ii)
She had given up her studies.

Future Time:

● Will or Shall (Modal Verbs): The neutral future of prediction is expressed by will or shall
and normally occurs with a first person subject. E.g. We shall discuss about the plan in two
days. ii) Temperature tomorrow will be much the same as today.
● Be going to: This verb indicate the future as a fulfilment of the present. It may refer to a
future resulting from a present intention. E.g. i) He is going to pay a visit to you. ii) The
party is going to be a great one.

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● Simple present tense: The simple present tense is used for the future in certain types of
subordinate clause, especially adverbial time clauses and conditional clauses. E.g. i)
Tomorrow is a holiday. ii) Our examination begins next Monday.
● Present Progressive: The present progressive is used for future events arising from a present
plan, programme, or arrangement. E.g. i) We are preparing for the forthcoming
examination. ii) What are you doing for lunch?
● Future in the Past: They were going to arrest him, when he escaped from the building. E.g.
The priceless tapestry was about to catch fire, but was fortunately saved through the prompt
action of the fire service.
● Past in the future: E.g. i) I hope that by the end of the month you will have finished your
report. ii) In three months’ time, the plant will have taken root.

Tense: By tense we understand the correspondence between the form of the verb and our concept
of time (past, present and future). Tense is a category used in the grammatical description along
with the Mood and Aspect referring primarily to the way grammar marks the time at which the
action denoted by the verb took place.

Types of Tense: Present Tense and Past Tense

Present Tense: There are four tense forms. Simple present, Present progressive, Present Perfect
and Present Perfect Progressive.

Simple present: E.g. i) I eat rice. ii) Here comes our chief guest. iii) She wants to speak at once.

Simple present tense is used in the following cases.

a. To express a habitual action: She exercises every day.

b. To express general truth: The earth revolves around the sun.
c. In exclamatory sentences, beginning with here and there to express what is actually taking
place in the present: There goes the rocket!
d. In vivid narrative, as a substitute for the simple past, and in broadcasting and commentaries
on sporting events, instead of the present continuous tense to talk about the action and
events: Sachin now advances forward and plays the fast ball.
e. To express a future event that is part of a fixed timetable or fixed program: The next train
is due in 5 minutes time.

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f. To introduce quotations: Mark Twain says, “The right word may be effective, but no word
was ever as effective as effective as a rightly timed pause’.

Present progressive: E.g. i) It is raining. ii) I am feeling very nervous. iii) We are going to have
a debate tomorrow.

Present progressive is used for the following purposes:

a. To describe an ongoing action: He is reading (now).

b. To describe a temporary action that may not be actually happening at the time of speaking:
I am reading ‘Gone with the wind’.
c. To mention an action that has already been planned/arranged to take place in the near
future: I am going to Kolkata tonight.

Present perfect: E.g. i) I have taken my lunch. ii) We have received the mail. iii) You have done
the work.

Present perfect is used for the following purposes:

a. To indicate completed activity in the immediate past: She has just entered.
b. To express past actions whose time is not given and not definite: Have you read ‘The
Children of a Lesser God’?
c. To describe past events when you think more of their effect in the present thatn of the
action itself: She has hurt my sentiments. (I am upset)
d. To denote an action began sometime in the past and continuing up to tohe present moment:
My teacher has been ill since last week.
e. To express habitual or continued actions: We have lived here for twenty years.

Present perfect progressive: E.g. i) I have been waiting for you. ii) She has been staying there
for years.

Present perfect progressive tense is used for an action that began at some time in the past and is
still going on. It is used with since and for to denote point and period of time, respectively: They
have been building the house for several months.

Past Tense: There are four tense forms. Simple present, Present progressive, Present Perfect and
Present Perfect Progressive.

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Simple past: E.g. i) It rained heavily. ii) The train arrived one hour late. iii) If I were you, I would
buy that property.

Simple past is used to is used to indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with
adverbs or adverbial phrases of the past: I danced enthusiastically yesterday. Sometimes simple
past is used without an adverb or time. In such cases, the time may be either implied or indicated
by the context: I read Akbar and Birbal’s tales during the holidays.

Past progressive: E.g. i) It was raining. ii) It was getting dark. iii) We were preparing for the
competition.

The past continuous tense is used to denote an action going on at some time in the past. The time
of the action may or may not be indicated: The rock fell on him while he was sitting.

Past Perfect: E.g. i) I had been to Puri. ii) He had missed the class. iii) The train had left the station
when we reached there.

The past perfect tense is used to describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past
and before the happening of another event in the past: When I arrived at the party, she had already
left it.

Past Perfect progressive: E.g. i) We had been fighting all the way. ii) They had been trying their
level best.

The past perfect progressive is used for an action that began before a certain point in the past and
continued up to that time, having linked to the period or point of time in the past: At that time, he
had been writing a book for two months.

Aspect: Aspect concerns the manner in which a verbal action is experienced or regarded, for
example as complete or in progress.

1. The perfect aspect: Perfect aspect is used for a past happening, which is seen in relation to a
later event or time. E.g. i) He had gone to attend the party. ii) I have completed my work.

2. The progressive aspect: Progressive aspect refers to activity in progress and it also adds
temporariness to the meaning. E.g. i) He is taking his breakfast now. ii) They were dancing on the
floor.

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3.3: Voice Change

Let’s consider an example:

Ravi is eating rice…The action of the subject is highlighted (person denotes the subject).

Rice is being eaten by Ravi…The person is denoted by the subject.

From the above example we understand that Active Voice is where the action of subject is
explained by the verb and Passive Voice is that where the action is the result of the verb. When we
change the active voice into passive voice the object in the transitive verb becomes the subject.
Both active and passive forms of verbs have to be used in writing and speech, it is important to
understand the difference between the two forms.

Technical writing involves the use of impersonal language, which demands the use of impersonal
passive. The impersonal passive is the most important linguistic device that makes technical
communication impersonal, objective, and formal. An impersonal passive construction contains
the past participle form of the main verb preceded by the appropriate tense form of the verb ‘to
be’. The best way to convert the active into passive, is (Object + to be+ verb in past-participle
form). In technical and scientific writing, it is advisable for the writers to opt for passive without
agents to achieve objectivity. Therefore, E.g. This solution was, therefore found to be far more
suitable. ‘The observations were recorded to be put forward at appropriate time’. The impersonal
passive is preferred for two reasons i) it deletes the subject of an intransitive verb and a dummy is
used in the construction of the sentence. ii) This dummy has neither thematic nor referential
content. There is a simple rule followed to convert active into passive, that is, change the subject
into a direct object and the direct object into a subject. In most of the cases, the indirect object is a
person, which you call personal passive. E.g.,

Active voice: The father explained the exercise to the children. Passive

voice: The children were explained the exercise by the father.

Active Voice Passive Voice

Present Simple He delivers the letters. The letters are delivered.

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Past Simple He delivered the letters. The letters were delivered.

Future Simple He will deliver the letters. The letters will be delivered.

Present Progressive He is delivering the letters. The letters are being delivered.

Past Progressive He was delivering the letters. The letters were being delivered.

Be+going to He is going to deliver the The letters are going to be delivered.

letters.

Present Perfect He has delivered the letters. The letters have been delivered.

Past Perfect He had delivered the letters. The letters had been delivered.

Infinitive He has to deliver the letters. The letters have to be delivered.

Modals He must deliver the letters. The letters must be delivered.

Short answers:

To make short answers:

● We use the verb to be (am/is/are/was/were) for Present Simple, Past Simple, Present
Continuous, Past Continuous and Going To questions.
● We use the verb have (have/has/had) for Present Perfect and Past Perfect questions.
● We use will for Future Simple questions.

Note: The following tenses cannot be changed into the passive voice.

1. Present perfect continuous tense

2. Past perfect continuous tense
3. Sentence having Intransitive verbs

Uses

The Passive is used:

● When the agent (=the person who does the action) is unknown, unimportant or obvious
from the context.
1. Jane was shot. (We don’t know who shot her.)
2. This church was built in 1815. (Unimportant agent)

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3. He has been arrested. (Obviously by the police)
● To make more polite or formal statements.
1. The car hasn’t been cleaned. (more polite).
2. You haven’t cleaned the car. (less polite)
● When the action is more important than the agent, as in processes, instructions, events,
reports, headlines, new items, and advertisements.
1. 30 people were killed in the earthquake.
● To put emphasis on the agent.
1. The new library will be opened by the Queen.

Agent: To say who did the action that we are talking about, i.e. to refer to the agent, we use the
preposition by and the name (by Peter) , noun (by the teacher) or pronoun (by him) at the end of
the sentence.

We usually only refer to the agent when it gives us some important information which otherwise
would be missing from the sentence. Example: Our house was designed by a famous architect.

We don’t mention the agent:

● If we don’t know who has done what we are talking about.

❖ Our car was stolen last night. (We don’t know who stole it)
● If we are not interested in who has done what we are talking about or it is not important to
mention it.
❖ He has been taken to hospital. (What we are interested in is the fact that he has been
taken to hospital and not who has taken him.)
● If it is easy to understand who did something without it being mentioned.
❖ The murderer was arrested last night. (It is not necessary to mention that he has
been arrested by the police because it is self-evident.)
● If the subject of the active voice sentence is something like somebody, people, they, you,
etc.
❖ Someone broke the window. → The window was broken.

Active to Passive:

To change a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice:

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● The object of the active voice sentence becomes the subject of the passive voice sentence.
● We change the main verb of the active voice sentences into the passive voice. The tense
remains unchanged.
● The subject of the active voice sentence becomes the agent of the passive sentence. It is
placed after the past participle and it is preceded by the preposition by.

Double Object Verbs: When we have verbs that take two objects like, for example, give
somebody something, we can convert the active sentence into a passive one in two ways:

a. By making the indirect (animate) object the subject of the passive voice sentence, which is
also the way that we usually prefer.
b. By making the direct (inanimate) object the subject of the passive voice.

Example: Rick gave me (indirect object) this book (direct object).

1. I was given this book by Rick. 2. This book was given to me by Rick.

3.4: Direct and Indirect Speech

Indirect (reported) speech in statements: If we want to report what other people said, thought
or felt, we can use the direct or indirect (reported) speech. Examples:

The direct speech: "I like it," he said. "Irene is late," he thought. "I will pass the exam," she hoped.

The indirect (reported) speech: He said he liked it. He thought that Irene was late. She hoped she
would pass the exam.

If the reporting verb is in the past tense, we change the following:

1. verb tenses and verb forms 2. Pronouns 3. adverbs of time and place.

A) The changes of verb tenses in the indirect (reported) speech

Present - past

The present simple tense becomes the past simple tense and the present continuous becomes the
past continuous. Examples:

1. "I never understand you," she told me. - She told me she never understood me.
2. "We are exercising," he explained. - He explained that they were exercising.

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Present perfect - past perfect: The present perfect simple changes into the past perfect simple and
the present perfect continuous changes into the past perfect continuous. Examples:

1. "I have broken the window," he admitted. - He admitted that he had broken the
window.
2. "I have been waiting since the morning," he complained. - He complained that he
had been waiting since the morning.

Past - past perfect: The past simple tense becomes the past perfect simple and the past continuous

becomes the past perfect continuous.

1. "She went to Rome," I thought. - I thought that she had gone to Rome.
2. "He was thinking of buying a new car," she said. - She said he had been thinking
of buying a new car.

Will - conditional

Will changes into the conditional.

● "I will come on Sunday," he reminded me. - He reminded me that he would come
on Sunday.

Notes: I shall, we shall usually become would.

● "I shall appreciate it," he said. - He said he would appreciate it.

The first person conditional I should, we should usually changes into would.

● "We should be really glad," she told us. - She told us they would be really glad.

May becomes might.

● "I may write to him," she promised. - She promised that she might write to him.

The verb forms remain the same in the direct and indirect speech in the following cases.

1. If the reporting verb is in the present tense.

● Bill: "I am enjoying my holiday." - Bill says he is enjoying his holiday. Sandy:
● "I will never go to work." - Sandy says she will never go to work.

2. When we report something that is still true.

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● Dan: "Asia is the largest continent." - Dan said Asia is the largest continent.
● Emma: "People in Africa are starving." - Emma said people in Africa are starving.

3. When the speech is made and reported at the same time and the fact is still true.

● Michael: "I am thirsty." - Michael said he is thirsty.

4. With modal verbs would, might, could, should, ought to, used to.

● George: "I would try it." - George said he would try it.
● Mimi: "I might come." - Mimi said she might come.
● Steve: "I could fail." - Steve said he could fail.
● Linda: "He should/ought to stay in bed." - Linda said he should/ought to stay in
bed.

5. After wish, would rather, had better, it is time.

● Margo: "I wish they were in Greece." - Margo said she wished they were in Greece.
● Matt: "I would rather fly." - Matt said he would rather fly.
● Betty: "They had better go." - Betty said they had better go.
● Paul: "It is time I got up." - Paul said it was time he got up.

6. In if-clauses.

● Martha: "If I tidied my room, my dad would be happy." - Martha said that if she
tidied her room, her dad would be happy.

7. In time-clauses.

● Joe: "When I was staying in Madrid I met my best friend." - He said that when he
was staying in Madrid he met his best friend.

8. We do not change the past tense in spoken English if it is clear from the situation when the
action happened.

● "She did it on Sunday," I said. - I said she did it on Sunday.

We must change the tense, however, in the following sentence, otherwise it will not be clear
whether we are talking about the present or past feelings.

● "I hated her," he said. - He said he had hated her.

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9. We do not usually change the modal verbs must and needn't. But must can become had to or
would have to and needn't can become didn't have to or wouldn't have to if we want to express an
obligation. Would/wouldn't have to are used to talk about future obligations.

● "I must wash up." - He said he must wash up/he had to wash up.
● "I needn't be at school today." - He said he needn't be/didn't have to be at school
that day.
● "We must do it in June." - He said they would have to do it in June.

If the modal verb must does not express obligation, we do not change it.

● "We must relax for a while." (suggestion) - He said they must relax for a while.
● "You must be tired after such a trip." (certainty) - He said we must be tired after
such a trip.

B) The pronouns in the indirect (reported) speech

We have to change the pronouns in the indirect (reported) speech to keep the same meaning of a
sentence.

● "We are the best students," he said. - He said they were the best students.
● "They called us," he said. - He said they had called them.

C) Time and place

Let's suppose that we talked to our friend Mary on Friday. And she said: "Greg came yesterday."
It means that Greg came on Thursday. If we report Mary's sentence on Sunday, we have to do the
following:

● Mary: "Greg came yesterday." - Mary said that Greg had come the day before.
● If we say: Mary said Greg had come yesterday, it is not correct, because it means
that he came on Saturday.

The time expressions change as follows.

today - that day, tomorrow - the next day/the following day, the day after tomorrow - in two days'
time, yesterday - the day before, the day before yesterday - two days before, next week/month -
the following week/month, last week/month - the previous week/month, a year ago - a year before/
the previous year.

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● Bill: "She will leave tomorrow." - Bill said she would leave the next day.
● Sam: "She arrived last week." - Sam said she had arrived the previous week.
● Julie: "He moved a year ago." - Julie said he had moved a year before.

Reported questions

Questions become statements in the reported speech. The reporting verb say changes into ask, want
to know, wonder …

● "Where have you been?" he said. - He asked me where I had been.

● "What time did it start?" he said. - He wanted to know what time it had started.
● "Why won't he do it?" she said. - She wondered why he wouldn't do it.

In yes/no questions we use if or whether in the reported questions. ‘If’ is more common and
‘whether’ is more formal.

● "Will you come?" she asked me. - She asked me if/whether I would come.
● "Did he marry Sue?" she said. - She wondered if/whether he married Sue.

Reported commands, requests and advice

The commands, requests and advice mostly have the same form in English: verb + object +
infinitive. The reporting verbs are: advise, ask, beg, forbid, order, persuade, recommend, tell, urge,
warn etc. Unlike the direct speech the person addressed must be mentioned in the indirect

Speech.

● "Get up!" he said. - He told me to get up.

● "Please, revise for the test," he said. - He urged me to revise for the test.
● "Put on your coat," I said. - I advised him to put on his coat.

Negative commands, requests and advice are reported by verb + object + not + infinitive.

● "Don't hesitate," he said. - He persuaded me not to hesitate.

● "Don't smoke," the doctor warned my father. - The doctor warned my father not to
smoke.

Reported statements with tell

● "I'm leaving," he told me. - He told me that he was leaving.

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Reported commands, requests or advice with tell

● "Leave the room," he told John. - He told John to leave the room.
● "Don't give up," the teacher told her students. - The teacher told the students not to
give up.

Similarly ask is used in reported questions, commands, requests or advice in different forms.

● "Will you make coffee?" he said. - He asked me if I would make coffee.

Reported commands, requests or advice with ask

● "Make coffee, please," he said. - He asked me to make coffee.

● "Don't park in my place," Greg told me. - Greg asked me not to park in his place.

Exclamations In Indirect Speech

Exclamations usually become statements in indirect speech. The exclamation mark disappears.

a. Exclamations beginning What (a) ... or How ... can be reported by:

● - exclaim/say that:
● - give an exclamation of delight/disgust/horror/relief/surprise etc.
● - if the exclamation is followed by an action we can use the construction with an
exclamation of delight/disgust etc. + he/she etc. + verb.

Direct: He said, “What a dreadful idea!” or “How dreadful!”

Indirect: He exclaimed that it was a dreadful idea/was dreadful.

Yes And No In Indirect Speech

Yes and no are expressed in indirect speech by subject + appropriate auxiliary verb.

Direct: He said, “Can you swim?” and I said “No”

Indirect: He asked me if I could swim and I said I couldn’t.

Offers And Suggestions In Indirect Speech

A. Offers:“Shall I bring you some tea?” could be reported He offered to bring me some tea.
B. Suggestions:“Shall we meet at the theatre? could be reported He suggested meeting at the
theatre.

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3.5: Concord

The Rules of Subject Verb Agreement in Standard English

1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number. This is the cornerstone rule that forms the background
of the concept.

● The dog growls when he is angry.

● The dogs growl when they are angry.

2. Don’t get confused by the words that come between the subject and verb; they do not affect
agreement. E.g. The dog, who is chewing on my jeans, is usually very good.

3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb usually do not affect agreement. E.g. The
colors of the rainbow are beautiful.

4. When sentences start with “there” or “here,” the subject will always be placed after the verb, so
care needs to be taken to identify it correctly. There and here are never subjects. In sentences that
begin with these words, the subject is usually found later on in the sentence.

● There were five books on the shelf. (were, agrees with the subject book)
● Here is the report you wanted. (Is agrees with subject report)
● There is a problem with the balance sheet.
● Here are the papers you requested.

5. Subjects don't always come before verbs in questions. Make sure you accurately identify the
subject before deciding on the proper verb form to use.

● Does Lefty usually eat grass?

● Where are the pieces of this puzzle?

6. If two subjects are joined by and, they typically require a plural verb form. Subjects joined by
Or or Nor take a verb that agrees with the last subject.

● The cow and the pig are jumping over the moon.
● Bob and George are leaving.
● Neither Bob nor George is leaving.
● Neither Bob nor his friends are leaving.

7. The verb is singular if the two subjects are separated by and refer to the same person or thing.

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● Red beans and rice is my mom's favorite dish.
● The poet and critic has been honoured.

(if the article ‘the’ is used twice , we are referring to two people.)

8. If the words each, every, or no come before the subject, the verb is singular.

● No smoking and drinking is allowed. Every man and woman is required to check
in.

9. If the subjects are both singular and are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or,
and not only/but also the verb is singular.

● Jessica or Christian is to blame for the accident.

● Either Manoj or Madhu has the key to this problem.

10. The only time when the object of the preposition factors into the decision of plural or singular
verb forms is when noun and pronoun subjects like some, half, none, more, all, etc. are followed
by a prepositional phrase. In these sentences, the object of the preposition determines the form of
the verb.

● All of the chicken is gone. All of the chickens are gone.

11. The singular verb form is usually used for units of measurement, time, money, and weight are

usually singular when the amount is considered one unit.

● Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running.

● Five dollars is (not are) too much to ask.
● Ten days is (not are) not nearly enough time.

On occasion, however these terms are used in the plural sense:

● There were thirty minutes to countdown.

When the subject is a sum of money considered as a whole, the singular verb is used. When the
subject is a sum of money and the reference is to the bills or coins considered separately, the plural
verb is used.

● A thousand dollars is not a small sum.

● A thousand dollars were distributed among the prize winners.

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● Two thousand dollars is his fee for a single appearance in the Supreme Court.
● There were twenty silver coins jingling in his pocket.

12. When an –of phrase follows a percentage, distance, fraction, or amount, the verb agrees with
the noun closest to the verb. Ex:

● Half of the tables are occupied.

● 21% of the population is poor.
● 21% of the books are paperback.

13. If the subjects are both plural and are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or,
and not only/but also, the verb is plural.

● Dogs and cats are both available at the pound.

14. If one subject is singular and one plural and the words are connected by the words or, nor,
neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, you use the verb form of the subject that is nearest the
verb.

● Do your sisters or your girlfriend want any pizza?

15. Indefinite pronouns typically take singular verbs. Some subjects always take a singular verb

even though the meaning may seem plural. These subjects always take singular verbs: each,
someone, either, anyone, neither, nobody, one, somebody, no one, anybody ,everyone, everybody.

● Everybody wants to be loved.

● Someone in the game was (not were) hurt.
● Neither of the men is (not are) working.

16. * Except for the pronouns (few, many, several, both) that always take the plural form.

● Few were left alive after the flood.

With indefinite quantifiers (e.g., all, few, many, much, some), the verb agrees with the preceding
noun or clause. With a singular or non-count noun or clause, use a singular verb:

● Much of the book seems relevant to this study.

● All the information is current

With a plural noun, use a plural verb:

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● Many researchers depend on grants from industry.
● All the studies are current.

17. If two infinitives are separated by and, they take the plural form of the verb.

● To walk and to chew gum require great skill.

18. When gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence they take the singular verb form of the
verb, but when they are linked by and they take the plural form.

● Standing in the water was a bad idea.

● Swimming in the ocean and playing drums are my hobbies.

19. Collective nouns may be singular or plural, depending on their use in the sentence. A collective
noun is a noun used to name a whole group. Following are some common examples: Collective
nouns like herd, senate, class, crowd, jury, crew, army , crowd, orchestra ,audience, flock, public,
class , group, swarm, club, team committee, troop, United States etc. take a singular verb form
when they act as a single unit. They take a plural verb form when the members or parts of the
group are acting individually.

● The jury has decided on its verdict. The jury have different opinions about the
verdict.
● The orchestra is playing a hit song. (Orchestra is considered as one unit—singular.)
● The orchestra were asked to give their musical backgrounds. (Orchestra is
considered as separate individuals—plural)
● The ship’s crew was a mixed group of different nationalities. (Here the reference is
to the crew as a whole.)
● When the ship arrived in port, the crew were taken into custody on a charge of
mutiny.
● A committee was appointed to study the question. The Committee were divided on
the question.

Note that in American English, collective nouns are always treated as singular. Some nouns are
plural in form, but singular in meaning. They should be followed by singular verbs.

● The news is too good to be true.

● The wages of sin is death.

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● Politics is a dirty game.
● The United Nations is our only hope.
● ‘Gulliver’s Travels’ is an interesting book.

20. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as singular and take a singular verb.

● The Burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks.

21. The following words may be singular or plural, depending upon their use in a sentence, some,
any, all, most.

● Most of the news is good. (singular)

● Most of the flowers were yellow. (plural)
● All of the pizza was gone. (singular)
● All of the children were late. (plural)

22. Some nouns, while plural in form, are actually singular in meaning. Ex. Mumps, home,
economics, social studies, economics , measles , statistics civics physics, gymnastics phonics,
news, acrobatics, aesthetics, thesis,

● Mathematics is (not are) an easy subject for some people.

● Physics is (not are) taught by Prof, Baldwin.

23. ‘Don’t’ and ‘Doesn’t’ must agree with the subject. Use doesn’t after he, she, it.

● Doesn’t he (not don’t) know how to sail?

● They don’t (not doesn’t) make movies like that anymore.

24. Usually, a singular verb follows NONE, even if the noun following it is plural. However, in

conversational English, a plural noun has become acceptable.

● None of the workers receives a tip.

● None of the workers receive a tip (less formal).

25. Adjectives preceded by THE and used as plural nouns take a plural verb:

● The rich get richer.

● The poor face many hardships.

26. Expressions using the phrase number of depend on the meaning of the phrase:

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● They take a singular verb when referring to a single quantity. Example: The number
of students registered in the class is 20.
● They take plural verbs when they are used as indefinite quantifiers. Example: A
number of students were late.

27. With expressions AS WELL AS, IN ADDITION TO, TOGETHER WITH, the first noun
determines if the verb is singular or plural.

● France, as well as other European countries, has a tip-included policy.

● His brother as well as his two sisters is working in the garden.
● The girls, together with their friend , are having a party tonight.
● Waiters, in addition to others who work for tip, are usually generous tippers.

28. In the subjects with NEITHER/NOR and NOT ONLY BUT ALSO the noun closest to the verb
determines if that verb is singular or plural.

● Neither the host nor his guests were happy.

● Neither the guests nor their host was happy.
● Not only the waiter but also the cook and busboy work for tips.

29. A plural verb is used with subjects using BOTH/AND. However, if the compound subject
describes two parts of a single process, then a singular verb is used.

● Both John and his sister are going to be at the party.

● Carol and Bob were at the party.
● The administration and interpretation of educational tests is an important part of
her job.

30. Final Rule – Remember, only the subject affects the verb!

3.6. Parallelism

Sentence elements that are alike in function should also be alike in construction. These elements
should be in the same grammatical form so that they are parallel. Using parallel structure in your
writing will help with economy, clarity, equality and delight.

Here are some examples of parallel elements:

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These elements, on the other hand, are not parallel:

Used in a sentence, they create a jarring effect and produce writing with unclear emphasis and
meaning. We call such an error "faulty parallelism."

Writers generally use parallelism as a technique in the following five ways.

1. With elements joined by coordinating conjunctions, especially and, but, and or.

Examples of parallel words:

Examples of parallel phrases:

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Examples of parallel clauses:

Parallel Structure

The examples below show how to repair faulty parallelism.

Example #1

Example #2

1. Use parallel structure with elements in lists or in a series.

A series is a group of three or more elements in a row. The last element in the series is connected
to the others with one of these coordinating conjunctions: and, or, but (not), or yet (not).

Commas should be placed between each element in the series and before the coordinating
conjunction.

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Examples of series:

As the examples below show, a series whose components are not in parallel format sounds
awkward and may cause misunderstanding.

Example #1

Example #2

1. Use parallel structure with elements being compared. (X is more than / better than Y)

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When we compare things, we often use words such as more, less, better, and worse, We connect
the items being compared with words like as and than.

Note the comparison methods in the examples below.

Comparing items without using parallel structure may cause confusion about what is being
compared to what. Repair faulty parallelism in comparisons by making one element of the
comparison parallel to the other.

2. Use parallel structure with elements joined by a linking verb or a verb of being. Joining elements
with linking verbs or verbs of being suggests a completing of the first item by the second one.
Often, in fact, equality between the two is being set up, as the examples below illustrate.

Repair faulty parallelism with linking verbs or verbs of being by making one element of the
equation parallel to the other.

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3. Use parallel structure with elements joined by a correlative conjunction. These are the major
correlative conjunctions:either...or, neither...nor, both...and, not only...but also.

Repair faulty parallelism with correlative conjunctions by making one structure parallel to the
other as shown below.

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Remember: Parallelism in sentence construction helps to create economy, rhythm, emphasis, and
clarity in your writing. Use this writing technique to your advantage!

3.7: Word formation- root words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms & homophones

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