Intermolecular Forces of

Liquids and Solids;

Phase Changes
Vocabulary Game
 A gas or a liquid; a
substance that can flow.
FLUID
A homogeneous part of a system
in contact with other parts of
the system, but separated by
well-defined boundaries

PHASE
A phase of matter with definite
shape and volume

SOLID
A phase change from liquid to gas

EVAPORIZATION
Process that gives off or release
heat to the surroundings.

EXOTHERMIC PROCESS
The amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of 1 gram
of a substance at 1 oC

SPECIFIC HEAT
A phase change from solid to gas

SUBLIMATION
A phase change from gas to solid

DEPOSITION
Process that absorbs heat from
the surroundings

ENDOTHERMIC PROCESS
A phase of matter with no definite
shape or volume of its own

GAS
13
 Phase changes are transformations of matter
from one physical state to another. They
occur when energy (heat) is added or
removed from a substance.
They are characterized by changes in
molecular order

14
 The changes from solid to liquid, liquid to gas is ,
and solid to gas take place when heat is absorbed
(heat gained).
They are ENDOTHERMIC PROCESSES.

The reverse changes from gas to liquid , gas to solid, and

liquid to solid give off heat (heat lost) and are
EXOTHERMIC PROCESS

15
 SUBLIMATION

EVAPORATION
MELTING

FREEZING
CONDENSATION

DEPOSITION

16
How does a change in energy affect phase
changes?
Phase changes occur when heat is added or removed from a
substance.
Heat is added:
a. increases the kinetic energy of the particles and the particles
move faster.
The increase in kinetic energy is accompanied by an increase
in temperature.
b. added heat break attractive forces between particles.
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 Heat is removed:

a. decrease in kinetic energy of the particles. The

motion of the particles slow down. A decrease
in temperature is observed.
b. Forces of attraction are formed, and a phase
change may occur.
No change in temperature is observed.

18
 The change in temperature of
a substance as it is being
heated can be shown in a
graph called the heating
curve .
The heating curve is a plot
of temperature and heat
added to the substance.

19
 The change in temperature of
a substance as it is being
cooled can be shown in a
graph called the cooling
curve .

20
 In the heating and cooling curves, there are certain
portions where the temperature changes as heat
is being added or removed, and portions where the
temperature remains constant even if heat is being
added or removed.
What is happening at these
portions?

21
 1. When heat change is accompanied by a change in
temperature, a change in kinetic energies of the
particles in the substance is occurring. The particles are
either moving faster or slowing down.
2. When temperature remains constant during heat
change, the particles move at the same speed.
The heat added or removed is involved in breaking
or forming attractive forces.

22
 A phase change occurs at this temperature: solid melts
or liquid freezes at the melting point, which is also the
freezing point; liquid boils, or gas condenses at the
boiling point, which is also the condensation point.

23
 During phase changes, two physical states of the
substance exist at the same time. When
addition or removal of heat is stopped at this
temperature, the two physical states will
interconvert from one state to the other, and
will be at equilibrium.

24
 MELTING AND FREEZING: SOLID- LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM

When solid is heated

 Temperature increases
 Average kinetic energy increases
 molecules of solid will break apart
 transformation of solid to liquid is and the melting
reverse is freezing
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 MELTING AND FREEZING: SOLID- LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM

 During the transition, the average kinetic

energy of the molecules DOES NOT CHANGE, so
the temperature stays constant.
The melting point of a solid or the freezing point
of a liquid is the temperature at which solid and
liquid phases coexist in equilibrium.

26
 MELTING AND FREEZING: SOLID- LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM

 Melting points are distinct for each substance. It is

dependent on the strength of attractive forces that
hold the particles in the solid. The stronger the attractive forces
that hold the particles in the solid, the higher is the melting point
of the substance.
 The melting (or freezing) point of a substance when the external
pressure is 1 atm pressure is called its normal melting (or
freezing) point. For water, this is 0oC.
 At 0OC and 1 atm, the dynamic equilibrium for water and ice is
27
 MELTING AND FREEZING: SOLID- LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM

 Example: a glass of ice water.

 As the ice cube melts to form water, some of the water
between ice cubes may freeze, thus joining the cubes together.
 When heat is added to this system at equilibrium, ice
will continue to melt until all have been transformed
to the liquid state. The amount of heat needed to convert
the solid to the liquid state at the melting point is called
the heat of fusion of the substance.

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 MOLAR HEAT OF FUSION AND MELTING POINT

 The actual amount of energy involved in the

transformation of a substance from solid to liquid is
dependent on the amount of sample used. This
property is often expressed in terms of molar quantities
of sample.

29
Molar heat of fusion ( ΔHfus) is the energy required to
melt 1 mole of a substance
 For water:
 molar heat of fusion is 6.01 kJ / mol.
 vaporization is 40.7 kJ/mol.
 If the heat input is constant, a longer period is needed for one mole of
water to evaporate than the time needed for the ice to melt. An 18-
gram sample of ice at 0oC will need 6.01 kJ of energy to be completely
transformed into liquid water, still at 0oC.

30
 Molar heat of fusion ( ΔHfus) is the energy required to
melt 1 mole of a substance

 The stronger the attractive forces that hold the

particles of the solid together, the larger is the heat
of fusion.

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32
 BOILING AND CONDENSING: LIQUID-VAPOR
EQUILIBRIUM
 When liquid is heated
 Temperature increases
 Average kinetic energy increases
 When the molecules have sufficient energy to
escape from the surface, a phase change occurs.
 Evaporation or vaporization is the process in which a
liquid is transformed into a gas.
 The temperature at which this occurs is the boiling
point of the substance . While the liquid vaporizes, the
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temperature remains constant.
 BOILING AND CONDENSING: LIQUID-VAPOR
EQUILIBRIUM
 The boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm pressure is
called its normal boiling point .
 For water, this is at 100oC.
 The reverse of vaporization or boiling is called
condensation, the change from the gas phase to the
 liquid phase.
 Condensation occurs because a molecule strikes the liquid
surface and becomes trapped by intermolecular forces in
34 the liquid.
 BOILING AND CONDENSING: LIQUID-VAPOR
EQUILIBRIUM
 This process occurs at the same temperature
when the liquid vaporizes into the gaseous
state. The boiling point can thus be also
called condensation point ( dew point), and
occur at the same temperature.

35
 BOILING AND CONDENSING: LIQUID-VAPOR
EQUILIBRIUM
 At the boiling point, both liquid and gaseous
states of the substance are present, and the
 transformations of liquid to gas and gas to liquid
happen at the same time.
 At 100 OC and 1 atm, and the dynamic equilibrium
is represented by

36
 BOILING AND CONDENSING: LIQUID-VAPOR
EQUILIBRIUM
 As heat is absorbed, some water will boil off but
the temperature remains at 100 OC (373.15 K) until
all the liquid has vaporized. The amount of heat
absorbed by the sample as the liquid transforms
into gas is called heat of vaporization.
 When all of the sample has turned into gas,
further heating will cause the temperature of the
gas to increase again.
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 MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION (ΔHvap)
AND BOILING POINT
 The heat of vaporization is an extensive property
and is thus dependent on the amount of sample
undergoing phase change. Hence, published
quantities of heats of vaporization specify the
amount of substance, and is often expressed as
molar heat of vaporization.

38
  Molar heat of vaporization ( ΔHvap) is defined as the energy
(usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid
at a given temperature, usually, at the boiling point. The
molar heat of vaporization of water at 100oC is 40.8 kJ/mol.

39
 SOLID-VAPOR EQUILIBRIUM

 In a solid, the particles may be in fixed positions, but

they are able to vibrate in place and with increasing
intensity as temperature increases. When particles are
able to acquire enough energy to break attractive forces
 with adjacent particles, the energetic particles may move
into the gaseous state. This phase change is called
 sublimation.

40
 SOLID-VAPOR EQUILIBRIUM

 Sublimation is the process in which molecules go directly

from solid into vapor phase. The reverse process is called
deposition, where molecules make a transition
directly from vapor to solid. The process may be
represented by the following equilibrium:

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 MOLAR HEAT OF SUBLIMATION

 Molar heat of sublimation ( ΔHsub) of a substance is

the amount of energy that must be added to a mole
of solid at constant pressure to turn it directly into a gas,
without passing through the liquid phase.
 Sublimation is always greater than that of vaporization
even if both sublimation and evaporation involve
changing a substance into its gaseous state because
in sublimation, the starting physical state of the
substance is the solid state, which is lower in energy than
the liquid state where vaporization starts. ,
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43
44
 HEAT CHANGE WITH CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE

 When a system contains only one phase, the

temperature will change when it receives energy
during heating or when energy is removed during
cooling.
 The specific heat of a substance differs for solid, liquid,
and gaseous states.
 Example: water

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 HEAT CHANGE WITH CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE

 The heat change (q) for this process is given below:

where m = mass of sample in grams

S = specific heat of the sample in the appropriate
physical state
T = change in temperature

46
 Sample Problem:
 You found a piece of copper metal weighing 3.10 g
imbedded in an ice block. How much heat is absorbed by
the piece of metal as it warms in your hand from
the temperature of the ice block at 1.5 oC to your
body temperature of 37.0 oC? The specific heat of copper
is 0.385 J/goC. Assume that the metal is pure copper.

47
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
 Sample Problem 1: How much energy is required to
change 2600 gram of ice at 0˚C into water at the same
temperature? ΔHfus H2O = 6.01kJ//mol
 Solution: Since the problem indicates no change in
temperature and involves a solid phase, then the formula
to be used is q = m ΔHfus .
 q = m ΔHfus

48
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
 Sample Problem 2: How much energy is required to
change 2600 gram of water at 100˚C into steam at the
same temperature?
 Solution: Since the problem indicates no change in
temperature and involves a liquid phase, then the formula
 to be used is q = m ΔHvap
q = mΔHvap

49
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
 Sample Problem 3: Calculate the amount of energy (in
kJ) needed to heat 346 gram of liquid water from 0 OC to
182 OC. Assume that the specific heat of water is 4.184
J/g OC over the entire liquid range and the specific heat
of steam is 1.99 J/g OC.
 Solution: The heat change (q) is calculated for each stage.
Step 1: Heating water fro 0 OC - 100 OC

50
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
 Sample Problem 3: Calculate the amount of energy (in
kJ) needed to heat 346 gram of liquid water from 0 OC to
182 OC. Assume that the specific heat of water is 4.184
J/g OC over the entire liquid range and the specific heat
of steam is 1.99 J/g OC.
 Step 2: Evaporating 346 g of water at 100 OC (a phase
change)

51
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
 Sample Problem 3: Calculate the amount of energy (in
kJ) needed to heat 346 gram of liquid water from 0 OC to
182 OC. Assume that the specific heat of water is 4.184
J/g OC over the entire liquid range and the specific heat
of steam is 1.99 J/g OC.
Step 3: Heating steam from 100 OC to 182 OC.

52
  Calculate the amount of energy (in kJ)
needed to heat 68.0 gram of water from
0 OC to 124 OC. The specific heat of
water is 4.184 J/g OC over the entire
liquid range and the specific heat of
steam is 1.99 J/g OC. Molar heat of
vaporization 40.79 kJ/mol.
53
54
Specific heat H2O(g) = 2.02J/g 0C
Specific heat H2O(l) = 4.184 J/g 0C
Molar heat of vaporization= 40.79kJ
Solution:
1. Cooling steam from 1240C to 1000C
q1 = mS T
2. Condensing 68.0g water at 1000C
q2 = m Hvap
3. Cooling liquid water from 100 to 45
q3= mS T
qT = q1 + q2+ q3
 Test Your Understanding
1.The transformations of matter from one
physical state to another is called
2. ---- is the process that gives off or release
heat to the surroundings.
3. Phase change from solid to gas is called
4. Phase change from gas to solid is called
5. The process that absorbs heat from the
surroundings
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 Test Your Understanding
True of False

6. When temperature remains constant

during heat change, the particles move at
the same speed.
7. The removed heat is used to break
attractive forces between particles.
8. The decrease in the kinetic energy makes the
motion of the particles speed up.
57
 Test Your Understanding
True of False

9. During the removal of heat, a phase change can

occur.
10. There is no observed change in temperature
during phase change.

58
59
 Assignment
1. If 1587 Joules are used to melt 5.26 grams of
aluminum, what is the heat of fusion of aluminum?
2. How much energy is needed to heat a 115 g sample of
water from 15 °C to 100 °C? S water= 4.184 J/g0C.
3. Calculate the amount of energy (in kJ) needed to heat
6.0 gram of water from 0 OC to 135 OC. The specific
heat of water is 4.184 J/g OC over the entire liquid range
and the specific heat of steam is 1.99 J/g OC.

60
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
 If 2083 Joules are used to melt 5.26 grams of aluminum,
what is the heat of fusion of aluminum?
q= m ΔHfus

61
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
 If 5.26 g of zinc is melted, it takes 579 Joules to
completely melt the sample. What is the heat of fusion of
zinc?
q= mΔHfus

62
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
 . How much energy is needed to heat a 125 g sample of
water from 20 °C to 100 °C? S water= 4.184 J/g0C
q= mS T

63
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
 Calculate the amount of energy (in kJ) needed to heat
346 gram of water from 0 OC to 182 OC. Assume that the
specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g OC over the entire liquid
range and the specific heat of steam is 1.99 J/g OC.
 Solution: The heat change (q) is calculated for each stage.

64
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
 Step 1: Heating of water from 0 OC to 100 OC
q1 = m SΔt
= (346 g) (4.184 J/g OC) (100 OC – 0 OC)
= 1.45 x 105 J
= 145 kJ

65
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
Step 2: Evaporating 346 g of water at 100 OC (a phase
change)
q2 = mΔhvap
= (346 g( Imol/18g) (40.79 kJ/mol)
= 784 kJ

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 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
Step 3: Heating steam from 100 OC to 182 OC.
q3= mSΔt
= (346 g) (1.99 J/gOC) (182. OC – 100. OC)
= 5.65 x 104 J
= 56.5 kJ
The overall energy required is given by
qT = q1 + q2 + q3
= 145 kJ + 784 kJ + 56.5 kJ
67
= 986 kJ
  Calculate the amount of energy (in kJ) needed to heat 68.0
gram of water from 0 OC to 124 OC. The specific heat of
water is 4.184 J/g OC over the entire liquid range and the
specific heat of steam is 1.99 J/g OC.

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Review: Solve
What are the different
features shown in the
diagram?

What do you think is the

graph all about?
Objective

✘ describe the components of a phase diagram;

✘ use phase diagrams of pure substances to determine
its phase at given temperature
and pressure;
✘ interpret the phase diagram of water and carbon
dioxide;
✘ describe how changes in temperature and pressure
can change the state of matter
What is a phase diagram?

✘ A phase diagram is a graphical representation of the

physical states of a substance under different
conditions of temperature and pressure.
✘ It gives the possible combinations of pressure
and temperature at which certain physical state
or states a substance would be observed.
A. The Three Areas

The three areas are marked

solid, liquid, and vapor .
Under a set of conditions in
the diagram, a substance can
exist in a solid, liquid, or
vapor (gas) phase.
B. Three Lines (Curves)
The lines that serve as
boundaries between
physical states represent
the combinations of
pressures and
temperatures at which
two phases can exist in
equilibrium. In other
words, these lines define
phase change points.
B. Three Lines (Curves)
1. The green line divides the
solid and liquid phases, and
represents melting (solid to
liquid) and freezing (liquid
to solid) points.
✘ 2. The blue line
divides the liquid
and gas phases, and
represents
vaporization (liquid
to gas) and
condensation (gas to
liquid) points.
✘ 3. The red line divides
the solid and gas
phases, and
represents
sublimation (solid to
gas) and deposition
(gas to solid) points.
How is the normal melting and boiling points determined in a phase
diagram?

✘ The normal
melting and boiling
points are those
when the pressure
is 1 atmosphere.
Two Important Points

1. The triple point is the combination of pressure

and temperature at which all three phases of
matter are at equilibrium. It is the point on a phase
diagram at which the three states of matter coexist.
2. Critical point

✘ It is the set of temperature and pressure on a phase

diagram where the liquid and gaseous phases of a
substance merge together into a single phase.
✘ Beyond the temperature of the critical point, the
merged single phase is known as a supercritical
fluid.
✘ The temperature and pressure corresponding to this
are known as the critical temperature and critical
pressure
What is the difference between the phase diagram for water
and carbon dioxide?
+ The solid-liquid equilibrium line (the melting
point curve) slopes backwards rather than
forwards.
+ phase diagram of water shows a negative
slope for the boundary line between the
liquid and solid state. This difference has to
do with that fact that water actually expands as
it goes from the liquid state to the solid state.
✘ For water, the melting point gets lower at higher pressures
✘ caused by the crystal structure of the solid phase
✘ increase in pressure will move the above equilibrium to
the side with the smaller volume
✘ To make the liquid water freeze again at this higher
pressure, the temperature should be reduced. Higher
pressures mean lower melting (freezing) points.
✘ What is the triple
point for water?
✘ What is the critical
temperature?
✘ What is the critical
pressure?
✘ What is the normal
boiling point? melting
point?
Identifying data from the phase diagram of water

The triple point for water occurs at a very low

pressure, 0.006 atm and at 273.2 K temperature.
✘ the critical temperature is 647 K (374°C).
✘ The critical pressure is 218 atm.
✘ The normal melting point of water is 273 K (0
✘ oC), and its normal boiling point is 373
K(100oC)
The Phase Diagram for Carbon Dioxide

✘ The only thing special about this phase

diagram is the position of the triple point,
which is well above atmospheric pressure.
✘ It is impossible to get any liquid carbon
dioxide at pressures less than 5.2
atmospheres.
✘ At 1 atm pressure, carbon dioxide will sublime at a
temperature of 197.5 K (-75.5 °C). This is the
reason why solid carbon dioxide is often known as
"dry ice."
✘ There is no liquid carbon dioxide under normal
conditions - only the solid or the vapor