0% found this document useful (0 votes)
32 views122 pages

Gender Equality Index 2024 Sustaining Momentum on a Fragile Path

The Gender Equality Index 2024 report by the European Institute for Gender Equality highlights a slight improvement in the EU's gender equality score to 71 out of 100, with significant disparities among member states. While progress has been made in the domain of power, the overall advancement in gender equality remains fragile, particularly in the work domain where gender employment gaps persist. The report emphasizes the need for continued efforts to address gender disparities and promote equality across various sectors.

Uploaded by

lefkis
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
32 views122 pages

Gender Equality Index 2024 Sustaining Momentum on a Fragile Path

The Gender Equality Index 2024 report by the European Institute for Gender Equality highlights a slight improvement in the EU's gender equality score to 71 out of 100, with significant disparities among member states. While progress has been made in the domain of power, the overall advancement in gender equality remains fragile, particularly in the work domain where gender employment gaps persist. The report emphasizes the need for continued efforts to address gender disparities and promote equality across various sectors.

Uploaded by

lefkis
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 122

GENDER EQUALITY

INDEX 2024
Sustaining momentum on a fragile path

An EU Agency
Gender Equality
Index 2024
Sustaining momentum on a
fragile path
European Institute for Gender Equality
The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) produces independent research and shares best
practice to promote gender equality and eliminate discrimination based on gender. As the EU
agency for gender equality, we help people achieve equal opportunities so everyone can thrive,
independent of their gender and background.

We combine research, data and tools to help policymakers design measures that are inclusive,
transformative and promote gender equality in all areas of life. We communicate our expertise and
research effectively. We work closely with partners to raise awareness. We do this at the EU and
national levels, and with EU candidate and potential candidate countries.

Cite this publication:


EIGE (2024), Gender Equality Index 2024 – Sustaining momentum on a fragile path, Publications
Office of the European Union

Manuscript completed in October 2024

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2024

© European Institute for Gender Equality, 2024

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

For any use or reproduction of elements that are not owned by EIGE, permission may need to be
sought directly from the respective rightholders.

Cover: © missbobbit/adobe.stock.com

Print ISBN 978-92-94-86259-4 ISSN 2599-8927 doi:10.2839/6853103 MH-01-24-001-EN-C


PDF ISBN 978-92-94-86258-7 ISSN 2599-8935 doi:10.2839/9523460 MH-01-24-001-EN-N

European Institute for Gender Equality

EIGE Gedimio pr. 16


LT-01103 Vilnius
LITHUANIA

Tel. +370 52157444


Email: [email protected]

Find us on
Abbreviations
AI artificial intelligence

AROP at risk of poverty

CARE Survey Survey of Gender Gaps in Unpaid Care, Individual and Social Activities

EHIS European Health Interview Survey

EIGE European Institute for Gender Equality

EQLS European Quality of Life Survey

EU-LFS European Union Labour Force Survey

EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions

EWCS European Working Conditions Survey

EWCTS European Working Conditions Telephone Survey

FRA European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights

FTE full-time equivalent

ILO International Labour Organization

ISCED International Standard Classification of Education

LGBTQI (1) lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer and intersex

MEP Member of the European Parliament

pp percentage point(s)

PPS purchasing power standard

SES Structure of Earnings Survey

STEM science, technology, engineering and mathematics

WHO World Health Organization

(1) This report uses the abbreviation LGBTQI, as it represents the most inclusive umbrella term for people whose sexual orientation
differs from heteronormativity and whose gender identity falls outside binary categories. The language used to represent this very
heterogeneous group continuously evolves towards greater inclusion, and different actors and institutions have adopted different
versions of the abbreviation (LGBT, LGBTIQ and LGBTI). The report uses institutions’ chosen abbreviations when describing the
results of their work.

European Institute for Gender Equality 3


Country codes
BE Belgium
BG Bulgaria
CZ Czechia
DK Denmark
DE Germany
EE Estonia
IE Ireland
EL Greece
ES Spain
FR France
HR Croatia
IT Italy
CY Cyprus
LV Latvia
LT Lithuania
LU Luxembourg
HU Hungary
MT Malta
NL Netherlands
AT Austria
PL Poland
PT Portugal
RO Romania
SI Slovenia
SK Slovakia
FI Finland
SE Sweden
EU 27 EU Member States
UK United Kingdom

Note on numerical data

Numerical data in the report is rounded to whole numbers; therefore, small differences in percentages
cited may not show or add up to 100 %.

4 European Institute for Gender Equality


Contents
Abbreviations3

Gender Equality Index 2024 highlights 9

Introduction13

1. Gender equality in the EU at a glance 14


1.1. Women in power: a driver of gender equality 14
1.2. Faster progress is needed for a ‘union of equality’ 16
1.3. Gender equality disparities are narrowing across the EU 19

2. Domain of work 23
2.1. Sectoral gender segregation is hindering progress 24
2.2. Employment gender gap is widest among couples with children 26
2.3. Women are more at risk of violence and harassment at work 27

3. Domain of money 29
3.1. Smaller poverty and inequality gaps ease COVID-19 pandemic setbacks 30
3.2. Already large gender gaps in individual earnings in couples with children, the older
workforce and the highly educated are widening 32
3.3. Gender gaps and individual income are closely linked to experience of violence,
including economic violence 34

4. Domain of knowledge 35
4.1. More people are educated but gender segregation is here to stay 36
4.2. Variations emerge in accessing higher education 38
4.3. Prevalent but overlooked: gender-based violence in academia 39

5. Domain of time 41
5.1. Care and housework still mark large gender disparities in time 42
5.2. Age and education affect equality in social engagement 44
5.3. High prevalence of violence against women limits sport’s benefits for gender equality 45

6. Domain of power 47
6.1. Gender equality divergence is highest in the power domain 48
6.2. Both progress and setbacks are seen in gender representation in politics and sports 50

European Institute for Gender Equality 5


Contents

6.3. Violence is holding women back in power and decision-making 53

7. Domain of health 54
7.1. Gender equality in health is stagnating 55
7.2. Intersectional analysis shows wider self-perceived health inequalities 57
7.3. Violence against women is a major public health threat 60

8. Domain of violence 61

Conclusions62
Closing employment gender gaps is pivotal to economic prosperity 62
Economic violence: another manifestation of gender inequality 63
Disaggregating gendered labour is key to new labour demands 64
Resolving care challenges is critical for an ageing EU 65
Redressing the gender power imbalance to renew democracy 66
Gender-based violence is holding women back in most sectors 67

References69

Annexes79
Annex 1. List of indicators of the Gender Equality Index 79
Annex 2. Gender Equality Index scores 86
Annex 3. Indicators included in the Gender Equality Index 2024 102
Annex 4. Gender Equality Index: conceptual and measurement frameworks at a glance 108

6 European Institute for Gender Equality


List of figures
Figure 1. Ranges of Gender Equality Index 2024 scores for Member States and changes
over time 15
Figure 2. Changes in scores by domain and sub-domain since last year’s edition 16
Figure 3. Gender Equality Index 2024 scores and changes over time in the Member States 17
Figure 4. Patterns of convergence in the Gender Equality Index by Member State, 2010–2022 21
Figure 5. Convergence of Gender Equality Index scores by Member State, 2010–2022 22
Figure 6. Scores for the domain of work and its sub-domains, and changes over time 24
Figure 7. Scores for the domain of work and changes over time in the Member States 25
Figure 8. FTE rates by sex, family composition, age, education level, country of birth and
disability (%, aged 15–89, EU, 2022) 27
Figure 9. Scores for the domain of money and its sub-domains, and changes over time 30
Figure 10. Scores for the domain of money and changes over time in the Member States 32
Figure 11. Mean monthly earnings by sex, family composition, age, education level,
country of birth and disability (purchasing power standard, working population,
EU, 2022) 33
Figure 12. Scores for the domain of knowledge and its sub-domains, and changes over time 36
Figure 13. Scores for the domain of knowledge and changes over time in the Member States 37
Figure 14. Graduates of tertiary education by sex, family composition, age, country of
birth and disability (%, aged 15–89, EU, 2022) 39
Figure 15. Scores for the domain of time and its sub-domains, and changes over time 42
Figure 16. Scores for the domain of time and changes over time in the Member States 43
Figure 17. Workers undertaking sporting, cultural or leisure activities outside the
home, daily or at least several times a week, by sex, family composition, age,
education level, country of birth and disability (%, aged 16–74, EU, 2022) 45
Figure 18. Scores for the domain of power and its sub-domains, and changes over time 48
Figure 19. Scores for the domain of power and changes over time in the Member States 49
Figure 20. Share of women candidates in 2024 for the European Parliament elections of
June 2024 and national binding quotas for gender balance among candidates
by Member State 50
Figure 21. Share of women elected to the constitutive session of the European Parliament
in 2019 and 2024, and national binding quotas for gender balance among
candidates, by Member State 51
Figure 22. Share of women on the boards of the sport organisations of the 10 most
popular Olympic sports 52
Figure 23. Scores for the domain of health and its sub-domains, and changes over time 55
Figure 24. Scores for the domain of health and changes over time in the Member States 56
Figure 25. Self-perceived health as ‘very good’ or ‘good’ by sex, family composition, age,
education level, country of birth and disability (%, aged 16+, EU, 2022) 59
Figure 26. Overall structure of the Gender Equality Index 109

European Institute for Gender Equality 7


List of tables
Table 1. Changes in the Gender Equality Index 2024 and domain scores since the 2023
Index (points), and contributions of different domains to Gender Equality Index
progress scores (%) 19
Table 2. Gender Equality Index scores, ranks and changes in score by Member State 86
Table 3. Gender Equality Index 2024 scores and ranks by domain and Member State 87
Table 4. Gender Equality Index 2023 scores and ranks by domain and Member State 88
Table 5. Gender Equality Index 2013 scores and ranks by domain and Member State 89
Table 6. Gender Equality Index scores and ranks for the domain of work and its sub-domains 90
Table 7. Gender Equality Index scores and ranks for the domain of money and its sub-domains 92
Table 8. Gender Equality Index scores and ranks for the domain of knowledge and its
sub-domains94
Table 9. Gender Equality Index scores and ranks for the domain of time and its sub-domains 96
Table 10. Gender Equality Index scores and ranks for the domain of power and its sub-domains 98
Table 11. Gender Equality Index scores and ranks for the domain of health and its
sub-domains100
Table 12. Gender Equality Index 2024 indicators included in the domain of work by
Member State 102
Table 13. Gender Equality Index 2024 indicators included in the domain of money by
Member State 103
Table 14. Gender Equality Index 2024 indicators included in the domain of knowledge by
Member State 104
Table 15. Gender Equality Index 2024 indicators included in the domain of time by
Member State 105
Table 16. Gender Equality Index 2024 indicators included in the domain of power by
Member State 106
Table 17. Gender Equality Index 2024 indicators included in the domain of health by
Member State 107
Table 18. Maxima of the indicators (2005, 2010, 2012, 2015) 116
Table 19. Characteristics of the Gender Equality Index 117
Table 20. Mean experts’ weights used for the Gender Equality Index (rounded) 118

8 European Institute for Gender Equality


Gender Equality Index 2024 highlights
• The Gender Equality Index score for the EU is 71 out of 100 points. This marks a 0.8-point
improvement on the 2023 Index score and an improvement of 7.9 points in total since 2010.
Although the domain of power has the lowest domain score (61.4 points), it continues to set the
pace for change. Since 2010, its score has improved by an impressive 19.5 points. Of that
increase, a 2.3-point jump between 2023 and 2024 accounts for 60 % of the overall progress in
the 2024 Index. Achievements in other domains are far fewer and their overall impact on gender
equality is less.
• Gender equality scores in the 2024 Index vary nationally, ranging from 82 points in Sweden to
57.5 points in Romania. Since the 2023 Index, the greatest headway has been made by Malta,
Czechia and Lithuania, with increases of 2.3, 2 and 1.7 points, respectively. Italy, Malta and
Portugal have progressed the most since 2010, with respective score increases of 15.9, 15.7 and
14.9 points. Half of the EU – 13 EU Member States – now has scores above 70, with only Sweden
exceeding 80 points. At this rate, the EU vision of a ‘union of equality’ is far from being realised.
• Convergence analysis shows that gender equality disparities within the EU decreased between
2010 and 2022. Despite different starting points, 15 Member States are now closer to the EU
average than in 2010: Bulgaria, Greece, Italy, Cyprus, Lithuania, Malta and Portugal (catching up)
and Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, France, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Finland and Sweden
(flattening). However, the remaining 12 countries have either fallen further behind or pulled
further ahead on equality: Czechia, Estonia, Croatia, Latvia, Hungary, Poland, Romania and
Slovakia (slower pace) and Germany, Spain, Luxembourg and Austria (outperforming).
Convergence in Index scores was at a 30 % annual rate during this period.

Domain of work: progress has stagnated

• Progress in the domain of work, which has the third-highest Index score, of 74.2 points, has
stagnated. Although the gender employment gap has slightly narrowed, this has been
counterbalanced by high gender disparities in sectoral segregation.
• The rates of women in work remain consistently lower than those of men. The gender gap is
severest among couples with children, with a difference of 26 percentage points (pp). Between
single women and men, the difference is 24 pp, and it is 22 pp between women and men born
abroad. These gaps are significantly wider than for the overall population, for which the gender
gap is 14 pp.
• High prevalence rates of workplace violence and sexual harassment underline the pervasiveness
of issues disproportionately affecting women across the EU. Gender segregation in the labour
market intensifies gender inequalities, leading to higher rates of violence in sectors traditionally
dominated by men. In women-dominated sectors (e.g. healthcare), women also face sexual
harassment, mostly perpetrated by men in higher-ranking positions. Fear of workplace

European Institute for Gender Equality 9


Gender Equality Index 2024 highlights

harassment can deter women from entering certain men-dominated sectors (e.g. construction
or transport), reinforcing occupational segregation and the gender pay gap.

Domain of money: a slight improvement, but there are widening gender


gaps among the highly educated and those with greater care responsibilities

• The domain of money has retained its position as the second-highest-ranking domain in the
Gender Equality Index, with a score of 83.4 points. The 0.8-point increase over 12 months has
mainly been due to the mitigation of the impact of COVID-19 on the labour market through
measures such as discretionary income support.
• Gender gaps in individual earnings are particularly large and are continuing to grow at the
expense of women, namely in couples with children, among 50- to 64-year-olds and among the
highly educated. These gaps reflect the negative effects on income of the skewed and often
lifelong uptake of unpaid care responsibilities and occupational gender segregation.
• Income level and access are closely linked to the prevalence of violence. Women’s lower income
than their partners’, and their having little power and control over their own income, are factors
that are associated with a heightened risk of various types of violence against women. Financial
dependence increases the risk of facing violence, particularly in intimate partner relationships
(EIGE, 2024a).

Domain of knowledge: progress has been steady but slow, hindered by


entrenched segregation in education

• The knowledge domain, with an overall EU score of 64.2 points, has shown sluggish but steady
progress since 2010. This progress has been driven solely by higher numbers of women and men
graduating from universities and participating in lifelong learning. Entrenched segregation in
education continues to bar more substantial progress in this domain.
• Gender gaps in educational attainment and adult learning are small and tend to favour women.
However, tertiary education varies greatly within different age groups. It is particularly
pronounced among women and men aged 25–49 years – with a gender gap of 9 pp to women’s
advantage – and among those over 65 years, where a 7-pp gap favours men.
• Gender-based violence in academia is a common and often overlooked issue, strongly affecting
physical and mental well-being, scientific careers and educational performance. Those in
precarious working conditions, such as early-career and transnational researchers and those
with short-term contracts, are particularly vulnerable to gender-based violence. In universities, it
is rarely reported, with only a small minority of victims coming forward.

10 European Institute for Gender Equality


Gender Equality Index 2024 highlights

Domain of time: an unequal division of care and housework tasks prevails

• Time remains one of the lowest-scoring domains, at 68.5 points, with a high score variation
among Member States. The unequal distribution of (unpaid) care, cooking and housework
activities between women and men dictates the low score of the domain.
• Working women are significantly less engaged than working men in sporting, cultural, leisure,
voluntary or charitable activities. This is largely attributed to a lack of time due to paid and
unpaid work. While participation in sporting, cultural or leisure activities gradually decreases
with age, it rises among women and men with a higher education.
• Although sport can lead to better physical and mental health, as well as enhanced teamwork
and leadership skills, women’s participation is often limited by sociocultural barriers, including
gender-based violence. Available evidence suggests that women and girls face a greater risk of
violence in sports than men and boys. The risk of abuse is especially high for those facing other
forms of discrimination or disadvantage, such as that based on race/ethnicity, (dis)ability, sexual
orientation and/or low socioeconomic position.

Domain of power: the presence of women in power has increased, but


women are still under-represented

• Women remain under-represented in positions of power and decision-making across the EU,
despite the domain of power seeing the most dynamic improvement in the Index. The domain
score is 61.4 points.
• EU parliamentary elections in 2024 saw a fall in women’s representation, reversing a previously
continuous upward trend for the first time. In the new European Parliament, women account for
39 % of Members of the European Parliament, which is a slightly lower percentage than before.
The EU average for women in national parliaments is 33 %, with women often also under-
represented at the local level. However, the share of women on the boards of the largest listed
companies in the Member States is now at an all-time high of 33 %, mostly due to binding
quotas.
• While there has been a push to eliminate gender-based violence in the EU, violence against
women plays a key role in discouraging women from pursuing or maintaining corporate or
political careers. Women politicians face gendered and sexualised violence, especially online.
Politicians from minority communities are affected more.

Domain of health: progress has been slowest across all domains, mainly due
to poorer health status

• Progress in gender equality in health has been the slowest of all of the domains – a mere 1.8-
point increase since 2010. Across the EU, the health status of women and men is deteriorating.
Between 2021 and 2022, the percentage of women and men perceiving their health to be very

European Institute for Gender Equality 11


Gender Equality Index 2024 highlights

good or good fell in two thirds of Member States. In 2022, 65 % of women and 70 % of men in
the EU thought of their own health positively.
• Women live longer than men, but they have poorer health. Across all groups, fewer women than
men consider their health to be very good or good. Women with disabilities, women with low
levels of education, single women and a large proportion of women aged 65+ years have the
lowest degrees of self-perceived good health. A sizeable part of Roma and lesbian, gay, bisexual,
trans, queer and intersex (LGBTQI) communities report severe difficulties and discrimination in
accessing healthcare.
• Although the healthcare sector plays a key role in preventing violence and providing support to
survivors, health professionals are at a much higher risk of violence than other professionals.
Severe time pressure and work overload, dealing with patients in distress and public
dissatisfaction with the healthcare system make for significant risk factors for workplace
violence.

12 European Institute for Gender Equality


Introduction
Ursula von der Leyen made a ‘union of equality’, based on the principle of equality for all and
equality in all its senses, a cornerstone of her mandate. Her political guidelines signal an important
breakthrough in gender equality commitments. Binding measures since 2019 have made
significant strides in supporting the fundamental principle of equal pay for equal work, gender-
balanced company boards, work–life balance, binding standards for equality bodies and combating
violence against women. Gender Equality Index score improvements, although small, show we are
heading in the right direction.

However, multiple and simultaneous crises and transformations are posing new challenges.
Mounting evidence shows that changes in climate, digital technologies, demographics and
geopolitics are profoundly affecting the lives of women and men from various social backgrounds.
EU green, digital and recovery policies fall short of recognising both the impact of these upheavals
on gender equality and the benefits of gender equality for a sustainable future. The EU cannot
afford to overlook such factors or not to take action to redress them. A freshly elected European
Parliament and a new European Commission provide a pivotal opportunity to put gender equality
at the heart of the new political term and the next multiannual financial framework. The time is
ripe to consolidate gender equality progress and priorities to foster a real union of equality.

Since 2010, the Gender Equality Index has set a benchmark for equality between women and men
to guide decision-makers on policies and goals for a more balanced and inclusive society across the
EU by highlighting what is working and where, and what is not working.

Chapter 1 presents the results of the Gender Equality Index 2024, along with key trends since the
2023 edition and between 2010 and 2022. A convergence analysis reveals diverse progress
patterns at the national level while providing a broader context for Index findings. Chapters 2–8
summarise the policy context, the EU and country scores in key Index domains and how these
scores link to violence against women. An intersectional approach exposes different layers of
inequality across domains.

European Institute for Gender Equality 13


1. Gender equality in the EU at a
glance
1.1. Women in power: a driver of gender equality

Since the first edition of the Gender Equality Index in 2013, which tracked progress since 2010,
gender equality in the EU has improved by 7.9 points to reach a score of 71 out of 100 points
(Figure 1). The 0.8-point increase since the 2023 Index is modest compared with the 1.6-point
annual jump captured in the 2023 edition of the Gender Equality Index.

A year-by-year comparison of domains reveals a similar trend of slow progress. The exception – the
domain of power – maintains its faster pace of change, with a 2.3-point rise since the previous
edition. Since 2010, gender equality in decision-making has made considerable progress. Its overall
increase of 19.5 points is largely due to substantial gains in women’s participation in economic and
social decision-making in several EU Member States (Figure 2). Despite such advances, the power
domain still has the greatest gender inequalities, scoring 61.4 points.

The domain of knowledge score, rising by just 0.6 points since the 2023 edition, is the second
lowest at 64.2 points. It has improved by only 4.4 points since 2010, indicating persistent and
pervasive gender segregation in certain fields of study in tertiary education.

The domain of time – whose score of 68.5 points has improved by 3.3 points since 2010 – does not
have new data for this edition. The domain underlines rising gender inequalities in time spent on
care and social activities.

The domain of work, despite having the third-highest score of 74.2 points, shows sustained gender
disparities in terms of labour force participation and across various economic sectors and
occupations. This ensures lifelong consequences for job quality, earnings and income. The domain
score has risen by 0.4 points since the 2023 edition and by 4.5 points since 2010.

The domain of money, scoring 83.4 points, has increased by 0.8 points since the 2023 edition and
by just 4.3 points since 2010. This reflects women’s higher risk of poverty due to enduring gender
inequalities in earnings and income.

Finally, the highest-scoring domain, health, has seen the least progress of all. Its score of
88.6 points has barely registered any change – it has increased by only 1.9 points since 2010 and
by 0.1 points since the 2023 Index – meaning gender equality in health has essentially stalled.

14 European Institute for Gender Equality


1. Gender equality in the EU at a glance

Figure 1. Ranges of Gender Equality Index 2024 scores for Member States and changes over time
EU trend Change Change
since since since
2010 2010 2021

Index + 7.9 + 0.8


RO EU: 71.0 SE

Work + 4.5 + 0.4


IT EU: 74.2 SE

Money + 4.3 + 0.8


BG EU: 83.4 LU

Knowledge + 4.4 + 0.6


LV EU: 64.2 SE

Time + 3.3 0.0


HR EU: 68.5 NL

Power + 19.5 + 2.3


HU EU: 61.4 SE

Health + 1.9 + 0.1


RO EU: 88.6 IE

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses 2022 data for the most part and traces progress over both the short term (2021–2022) and the longer term (2010–2022).
Source: Authors’ calculations.

European Institute for Gender Equality 15


1. Gender equality in the EU at a glance

Figure 2. Changes in scores by domain and sub-domain since last year’s edition

6.0

5.0

4.0

2.9
3.0 2.5
2.3
2.0
1.3 1.2
1.0 0.9
1.0 0.8 0.8
0.5 0.6
0.4 0.3 0.3
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0
0.0
– 0.1 – 0.2
– 1.0
Gender Equality Index

Domain of work
Participation
Segregation and quality of work

Domain of money
Financial
Economic

Domain of knowledge
Attainment and participation
Segregation in education

Domain of time
Care
Social

Domain of power
Political
Economic
Social

Domain of health
Status
Behaviour
Access
Source: Authors’ calculations.

1.2. Faster progress is needed for a ‘union of equality’

Gender equality levels vary considerably across Member States – from 82 points in Sweden to
57.5 points in Romania. Although Sweden leads the EU gender equality ranking, its score has
dropped slightly in recent years. Denmark and the Netherlands are next in the rankings, both with
a score of 78.8 points, while Spain has kept a steady fourth place (Figure 3). Malta, Czechia and
Lithuania have made the biggest gains since the 2023 edition – by 2.3, 2 and 1.7 points,
respectively. However, the highest score jumps since 2010 have been made by Italy (15.9 points),
Malta (15.7 points) and Portugal (14.9 points).

Improvement is most needed in Romania, Hungary and Greece, although scores for all three
countries rose in this edition. Meanwhile, gender equality regressed in Croatia, Bulgaria and
Sweden, as scores fell by 1 point, 0.6 points and 0.2 points, respectively.

Since 2010, progress has been slow in several high-ranking countries: Finland increased by just
1.4 points, Sweden by 1.9 points and Denmark by 3.6 points. Despite their far greater room for
improvement, it is similar for low-ranking countries: Czechia’s score rose by 4.3 points, Hungary’s
by 5.4 points, Romania’s by 6.7 points and Slovakia’s by 6.9 points.

16 European Institute for Gender Equality


1. Gender equality in the EU at a glance

Although half of the EU – 13 Member States – now has scores above 70 points, only Sweden
exceeds 80 points. With a 24.5-point gap between the highest- and lowest-ranking countries in
the Index, the promise of a union of equality requires further action.

Figure 3. Gender Equality Index 2024 scores and changes over time in the Member States

Gender Equality Index 2024 score (a) Change since 2010 Change since 2021
SE 82.0 1.9 – 0.2
DK 78.8 3.6 1.0
NL 78.8 4.8 0.9
ES 76.7 10.3 0.3
BE 76.1 6.8 0.1
FR 76.1 8.6 0.4
LU 75.4 14.2 0.7
FI 74.5 1.4 0.1
IE 73.4 8.0 0.4
DE 72.0 9.4 1.2
AT 71.7 13.0 0.5
EU 71.0 7.9 0.8
SI 70.1 7.4 0.7
MT 70.1 15.7 2.3
IT 69.2 15.9 1.0
PT 68.6 14.9 1.2
LT 65.8 10.9 1.7
BG 64.5 9.5 – 0.6
PL 63.4 7.9 1.5
LV 62.6 7.4 1.1
CY 60.9 11.9 0.2
EE 60.8 7.4 0.6
SK 59.9 6.9 0.7
CZ 59.9 4.3 2.0
HR 59.7 7.4 – 1.0
EL 59.3 10.7 1.3
HU 57.8 5.4 0.5
RO 57.5 6.7 1.4

(a) The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses 2022 data for the most part and traces progress over the short term (2021–2022) and
the longer term (2010–2022).
NB: There are four pairs of countries that have the same score. Their position in the rank is determined statistically based on the
second decimal place of the Index score. There are breaks in the time series in the domains of work, knowledge and time due to
methodological changes in the source of data (European Union Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS), European Working Conditions
Telephone Survey (EWCTS) and EIGE’s CARE Survey); see Annex 4.
Source: Authors’ calculations.

Recent progress in gender equality is mostly because of gains in decision-making. The domain of power
is the most forceful driver of progress in 22 Member States. A 2.3-point rise in the domain score
accounts for 60 % of the overall advance made in the Gender Equality Index 2024 (Table 1).

Malta, Czechia and Lithuania have made the most headway on gender equality in decision-making
since the 2023 edition. However, it was not all good news. In Croatia, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Cyprus and
Estonia, the share of women in decision-making fell.

Achievements in the domains of knowledge, money and work, respectively, account for 17 %, 13 %
and 9 % of progress made in the overall Index score.

In the knowledge domain, Slovakia advanced by an outstanding 3.9 points in 1 year. Romania and
Greece progressed the most among all Member States in the domain of money – by 2.2 and

European Institute for Gender Equality 17


1. Gender equality in the EU at a glance

1.8 points, respectively. Score rises of 1.2 points by Croatia, 1.1 points by Latvia and 1 point by
both Malta and Estonia in the domain of work are slightly higher than others in the same domain.

In contrast, seven countries (Ireland, Luxembourg, Finland, Belgium, Croatia, Sweden, Slovenia)
regressed in the domain of knowledge, while the domain of money saw Sweden’s and Ireland’s
scores dropping the most – by 1.5 and 1.4 points, respectively.

Portugal was the only country with a negative change in score in the domain of work. In the majority
of countries, the increase in score was rather minor, ranging from 0.1 points to 1.2 points. Conversely,
national score variability in the domain of power is much broader, ranging from a 5.3-point fall to a
6.9-point gain. This underscores the unevenness of progress in the EU.

The standstill in the domain of health is determined by rather contradictory score developments:
15 Member States moved forward, while the other countries regressed or stayed put.

Finally, progress was not recorded in the domain of time, as there was no change from the data
presented in the 2023 Index.

18 European Institute for Gender Equality


1. Gender equality in the EU at a glance

Table 1. Changes in the Gender Equality Index 2024 and domain scores since the 2023 Index
(points), and contributions of different domains to Gender Equality Index progress scores (%)

Changes in score (points) Contribution to changes (%)


MS MS
Index Work Money Knowledge Time Power Health Work Money Knowledge Time Power Health

EU 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.0 2.3 0.1 EU 9 13 17 0 60 0


BE 0.1 0.3 0.2 – 0.7 0.0 0.7 0.0 BE 18 6 – 37 0 37 1
BG – 0.6 0.9 – 0.4 0.0 0.0 – 3.9 0.5 BG 15 –5 –1 0 – 75 3
CZ 2.0 0.2 0.1 1.3 0.0 4.7 0.3 CZ 2 1 14 0 83 1
DK 1.0 0.7 0.0 1.0 0.0 3.8 – 0.7 DK 11 1 20 0 64 –5
DE 1.2 0.2 1.3 1.0 0.0 3.9 – 0.1 DE 4 13 21 0 62 –1
EE 0.6 1.0 0.7 2.0 0.0 – 0.2 0.6 EE 19 10 56 0 – 11 5
IE 0.4 0.8 – 1.4 – 0.9 0.0 2.9 – 0.2 IE 12 – 15 – 18 0 54 –1
EL 1.3 0.7 1.8 0.4 0.0 2.8 – 0.3 EL 9 16 5 0 69 –2
ES 0.3 0.2 1.2 0.1 0.0 0.9 – 0.2 ES 10 42 5 0 39 –4
FR 0.4 0.2 – 0.1 0.7 0.0 1.5 – 0.3 FR 9 –2 34 0 50 –5
HR – 1.0 1.2 1.1 – 0.3 0.0 – 5.3 0.4 HR 11 8 –5 0 – 76 1
IT 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.0 3.8 0.1 IT 10 5 6 0 78 1
CY 0.2 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.0 – 0.4 0.3 CY 26 18 26 0 – 26 4
LV 1.1 1.1 1.5 1.7 0.0 1.4 0.1 LV 14 17 39 0 29 1
LT 1.7 0.5 – 0.3 0.0 0.0 6.9 0.5 LT 4 –2 1 0 91 2
LU 0.7 0.5 0.2 – 0.8 0.0 3.6 – 0.4 LU 8 2 – 17 0 71 –2
HU 0.5 0.1 – 0.2 0.8 0.0 0.9 0.3 HU 4 –4 32 0 57 3
MT 2.3 1.0 1.5 1.3 0.0 5.9 0.5 MT 7 8 12 0 71 2
NL 0.9 0.5 – 0.2 1.2 0.0 2.6 – 0.8 NL 9 –2 31 0 52 –6
AT 0.5 0.6 – 0.4 0.5 0.0 1.7 – 0.4 AT 14 –8 17 0 56 –4
PL 1.5 0.3 1.3 0.9 0.0 3.2 0.4 PL 4 11 14 0 69 2
PT 1.2 – 0.2 0.8 1.0 0.0 3.9 0.5 PT –3 8 19 0 67 3
RO 1.4 0.5 2.2 1.0 0.0 2.1 0.4 RO 6 20 15 0 56 2
SI 0.7 0.3 0.5 – 0.2 0.0 2.9 0.4 SI 6 7 –6 0 77 4
SK 0.7 0.6 0.3 3.9 0.0 – 0.7 0.4 SK 9 3 65 0 – 21 3
FI 0.1 0.6 – 0.7 – 0.8 0.0 1.9 – 1.4 FI 14 –9 – 24 0 41 – 12
SE – 0.2 0.2 – 1.5 – 0.3 0.0 0.7 – 0.7 SE 8 – 44 – 13 0 23 – 12

NB: There are breaks in the time series in the domains of work, knowledge and time due to methodological changes in the source
of data (EU-LFS, EWCTS and EIGE’s CARE Survey); see Annex 4. MS, Member State.
Source: Authors’ calculations.

1.3. Gender equality disparities are narrowing across the EU

Overall progress in gender equality in the EU between 2010 and 2022 varies among countries, in
terms of both occurrence and speed. Comparing all Member States’ trends provides clarity on their
convergence towards the same goal. Success in terms of the EU objective of upward social
convergence – increasing gender equality within each country while also ensuring that less

European Institute for Gender Equality 19


1. Gender equality in the EU at a glance

gender-equal countries catch up with the more gender-equal countries – would minimise disparities
within the EU (Eurofound and EIGE, 2021).

The convergence analysis of the Gender Equality Index between 2010 and 2022 indicates that, on
average, there was improvement across the EU and a reduction in disparities between countries,
showing a clear upward convergence trend. Convergence in the Gender Equality Index scores was at
a 30 % annual rate during this period. However, this overall pattern does not capture the varied
levels of national developments, as not all countries improved at the same rate.

Comparing each country’s trend against the unweighted EU average (2) reveals the following
convergence and divergence patterns at the Member State level (Figures 4 and 5).

• Catching up. Bulgaria, Greece, Italy, Cyprus, Lithuania, Malta and Portugal have Index trends
lower than the EU average but are improving faster than that average, reducing the gap over
time.
• Flattening. Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, France, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Finland and Sweden have
Index scores above the EU average, but progress is slower than average, narrowing the gap
between them and the EU.
• Outperforming. Germany, Spain, Luxembourg and Austria are performing better than the EU
average and are advancing faster on gender equality, widening the gap with the EU.
• Slower pace. Czechia, Estonia, Croatia, Latvia, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovakia have
consistently lower-than-average Gender Equality Index scores and are progressing slowly,
leading to growing disparities with the EU over time.

The analysis identifies 15 countries that are showing patterns of upward convergence and 12
countries that are moving towards upward divergence. Since the 2023 edition, only two countries
have shown significant changes: France and Croatia. In both cases, growth rates have slowed
compared with the EU average.

(2) It differs from the EU’s Gender Equality Index score (weighted EU average).

20 European Institute for Gender Equality


1. Gender equality in the EU at a glance

Figure 4. Patterns of convergence in the Gender Equality Index by Member State, 2010–2022

Catching up EU

try
Coun

Country
Flattening
EU

Outperforming ntry
Cou
EU

Slower pace
EU

Country

Source: Authors’ calculations.

European Institute for Gender Equality 21


1. Gender equality in the EU at a glance

Figure 5. Convergence of Gender Equality Index scores by Member State, 2010–2022


85 85 85 85

75 75 75 75
65 65 65 65
55 55 55 55
45 45 45 45
2010 Belgium EU 2022 2010 Bulgaria EU 2022 2010 Czechia EU 2022 2010 Denmark EU 2022

85 85 85 85

75 75 75 75

65 65 65 65

55 55 55 55

45 45 45 45
2010 Germany EU 2022 2010 Estonia EU 2022 2010 Ireland EU 2022 2010 Greece EU 2022

85 85 85 85

75 75 75 75

65 65 65 65

55 55 55 55
45 45 45 45
2010 Spain EU 2022 2010 France EU 2022 2010 Croatia EU 2022 2010 Italy EU 2022

85 85 85 85

75 75 75 75

65 65 65 65

55 55 55 55

45 45 45 45
2010 Cyprus EU 2022 2010 Latvia EU 2022 2010 Lithuania EU 2022 2010 Luxembourg EU 2022

85 85 85
85
75 75 75
75
65 65 65 65

55 55 55 55

45 45 45 45
2010 Hungary EU 2022 2010 Malta EU 2022 2010 Netherlands EU 2022 2010 Austria EU 2022

85 85 85 85

75 75 75 75

65 65 65 65

55 55 55 55

45 45 45 45
2010 Poland EU 2022 2010 Portugal EU 2022 2010 Romania EU 2022 2010 Slovenia EU 2022

85 85 85

75 75 75

65 65 65

55 55 55

45 45 45
2010 Slovakia EU 2022 2010 Finland EU 2022 2010 Sweden EU 2022

NB: These graphs show the unweighted EU average, which differs from the EU’s Gender Equality Index score (weighted EU
average). A clear example of this difference is the case of Slovenia, where the Index score is above the unweighted EU average,
but below the weighted EU average (EU Index score).
Source: Authors’ calculations.

22 European Institute for Gender Equality


2. Domain of work
Gender is a defining factor in the EU labour market. The workforce drives economic output;
promoting gender equality within it enhances overall productivity (EIGE, 2017a). However, the
nature and quality of jobs, pay, career prospects and distribution of leadership positions vary
between different groups of women and men, in most cases to women’s disadvantage.

Labour market segregation remains a key factor contributing to gender inequality in the work
domain. Women are over-represented in healthcare, education and social sectors. Men dominate
higher-paying sectors such as technology, engineering and finance. Even within the same sector,
men are more likely to occupy higher-level positions than women (Eurofound, 2017). Gender
stereotyping is a major driver of occupational segregation (ILO, 2017). Assumptions about women’s
and men’s capabilities and preferences enforce gender stereotypes and discourage people from
choosing and staying in professions atypical for their gender.

The employment gap between men and women remains intractable. Despite there being more
women in paid jobs than ever before, women of working age spend more time out of the labour
market and are more likely to be in part-time jobs than men. The latter factor is largely due to
women having to care for children and for adults with disabilities. For men, undertaking part-time
work mainly takes place because of education and training. Part-time employment does not mean
women work less. Instead, it highlights their many hours of unpaid care and domestic work.

The economic cost of the gender employment gap in the EU is estimated to be EUR 370 billion per
year (EIGE, 2017b). At the individual level, unequal sharing of unpaid care activities at home puts
care providers at an economic disadvantage. Unpaid care responsibilities often involve
interruptions to carers’ work trajectories and largely explain the gender pension gap of 26 % in the
EU (EIGE, 2024a). While there is a clear economic imperative to act, there is also a social one. Low or
no income implies relying on partners or others (EIGE, 2024a), resulting in lower decision-making
power and/or an increased threat of violence. For women in the EU, paid work generally reduces the
risk of physical, sexual and psychological violence, arguably due to their greater economic
independence. Nonetheless, sexual harassment at work is a highly prevalent form of violence,
which has been exacerbated in recent years by new and evolving forms of violence, including
through digital and social networks.

Key actions under the EU gender equality strategy for 2020–2025 include the directive on gender
balance in corporate boards (3). It aims to ensure equal opportunities and fair treatment for both
women and men in the labour market, such as in employment conditions and career advancement.
Implementation of the work–life balance directive (4) ensures greater availability and uptake of
such measures, contributing to more equal sharing of care responsibilities. New EU initiatives on

(3) Directive (EU) 2022/2381 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 November 2022 on improving the gender
balance among directors of listed companies and related measures (OJ L 315, 7.12.2022, p. 44).
(4) Directive (EU) 2019/1158 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 on work–life balance for parents
and carers and repealing Council Directive 2010/18/EU (OJ L 188, 12.7.2019, p. 79).

European Institute for Gender Equality 23


2. Domain of work

pay transparency adopted in 2023 under the pay transparency directive (5) give employees the
right to request information on their individual and average pay levels, broken down by gender.
Employers are also required to publicly report data on average pay differences between women
and men employees. These directives seek to create a more equitable job market and contribute to
the broader goal of gender equality in the EU.

2.1. Sectoral gender segregation is hindering progress

A score of 74.2 points in the work domain (6) highlights the stubbornness of gender disparities in
the workplace in the EU (Figure 6). The long-term trend in this domain shows an improvement of
4.5 points from 2010 to 2022, while progress since 2021 has been minimal, with only a 0.4-point
increase. Gains are mainly through the sub-domain of participation, with a 1-point score increase
since 2021. In contrast, the sub-domain of segregation and quality of work has stalled and indeed
has slightly fallen by 0.1 points since 2021.

Figure 6. Scores for the domain of work and its sub-domains, and changes over time
Range of work domain scores by country EU trend Change Change
since 2010 since 2010 since 2021

Domain
of work + 4.5 + 0.4
IT SE
EU: 74.2

Sub-domain: + 1.0
+ 5.7
participation
IT
EU: 83.3 EE
Sub-domain:
segregation + 3.5 – 0.1
and quality
of work
CZ SE
EU: 66.1

50 60 70 80 90 100

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses 2022 data for the most part and traces progress over the short term (2021–2022) and
the longer term (2010–2022). There are breaks in the time series in the domain of work due to methodological changes in the
source of data (EU-LFS and EWCTS); see Annex 4.

(5) Directive (EU) 2023/970 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 10 May 2023 to strengthen the application of the
principle of equal pay for equal work or work of equal value between men and women through pay transparency and
enforcement mechanisms (OJ L 132, 17.5.2023, p. 21).
(6) The domain of work measures the extent to which women and men can benefit from equal access to employment and good
working conditions. The sub-domain of participation combines two indicators: the rate of full-time equivalent employment
and the duration of working life. Gender segregation and quality of work are included in the second sub-domain. Sectoral
segregation is measured through women’s and men’s participation in the education, human health and social work sectors.
Quality of work is measured by flexible working time arrangements and by the Career Prospects Index of the European
Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.

24 European Institute for Gender Equality


2. Domain of work

Source: Authors’ calculations based on the EU-LFS (2010, 2020, 2022), European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) (2015) and
EWCTS (2021); see Annex 1.

In 2022, Sweden achieved the highest country score in the work domain (85.0 points), while Italy had
the lowest score of 65.5 points (Figure 7). Nearly all countries have shown slight progress since 2021,
but only Croatia and Latvia have made significant gains, of 1.2 and 1.1 points, respectively. The
countries that have made the greatest headway since 2010 are Malta by 15.9 points, Hungary by
10.6 points and Luxembourg by 9.2 points. No country has seriously regressed since 2010 or 2021.

The domain’s score would have been lower if not for the increasing number of women in jobs. The
EU average for the sub-domain of participation (83.3 points) is outstripped by Estonia’s
94.2 points, Sweden’s 93.9 points and Lithuania’s 92.8 points. Italy has the lowest score in this
sub-domain at 70 points, with Greece at 74.9 points and Romania at 75.7 points faring a little
better. Since the 2023 Index, no countries have regressed. The largest increases in this sub-domain
since the 2023 edition were in Malta – with an increase of 2.9 points – and Cyprus and Latvia, with
both of their scores improving by 2.1 points.

With gender segregation and unequal working conditions deeply rooted in the EU, the sub-domain
of segregation and quality of work is the main obstacle to overall progress in this domain. The EU
average score for this sub-domain is 66.1 points. Sweden again ranks highest with 76.9 points,
followed by Malta’s 75.8 points and Denmark’s 75 points. Czechia, Poland and Bulgaria, with
respective scores of 56.5, 58.5 and 58.7 points, have the most ground to cover.

Figure 7. Scores for the domain of work and changes over time in the Member States
Score Change since 2010 Change since 2021
SE 85.0 4.6 0.2
DK 82.8 3.0 0.7
MT 81.0 15.9 1.0
LU 80.1 9.2 0.5
NL 79.8 3.5 0.5
FI 78.6 4.1 0.6
EE 78.5 7.3 1.0
LV 77.5 4.9 1.1
CY 77.3 6.8 0.8
IE 77.2 3.7 0.8
DE 77.0 7.0 0.2
AT 77.0 1.7 0.6
HU 76.6 10.6 0.1
PT 76.3 4.9 – 0.2
LT 76.2 3.6 0.5
SI 76.1 4.2 0.3
BE 75.7 3.0 0.3
ES 75.6 3.8 0.2
EU 74.2 4.5 0.4
FR 73.4 1.9 0.2
HR 73.3 6.1 1.2
SK 72.5 7.7 0.6
BG 70.9 3.0 0.9
PL 69.9 3.6 0.3
EL 69.4 5.8 0.7
CZ 69.1 4.2 0.2
RO 67.5 – 0.4 0.5
IT 65.5 4.2 0.5

European Institute for Gender Equality 25


2. Domain of work

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses 2022 data for the most part and traces progress over the short term (2021–2022) and
the longer term (2010–2022). There are breaks in the time series in the domain of work due to methodological changes in the
source of data (EU-LFS and EWCTS); see Annex 4.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on the EU-LFS (2010, 2020, 2022), EWCS (2015) and EWCTS (2021); see Annex 1.

2.2. Employment gender gap is widest among couples with children

Family composition, age, educational attainment, migration status and (dis)ability contribute to
employment disparities between women and men. Figure 8 illustrates the full-time equivalent
(FTE) (7) employment rates for these demographic groups. FTE employment rates among women
range from 3 % for those aged 65+ to 70 % for 25- to 49-year-olds. In contrast, the lowest FTE
employment rate among men is 6 % for those aged +65, and the highest is 92 % for men in
couples with children.

Fewer women than men are in full-time work in every group, with the gender gap particularly
pronounced (at 26 percentage points (pp)) among couples with children. This gap is significantly
larger than the overall population’s FTE employment gap of 14 pp. Other substantial gaps include a
24-pp difference between single women and men and a 22-pp difference between foreign-born
women and men. People with low educational qualifications experience both a high FTE
employment gender gap – 20-pp – and low full-time employment rates for both women and men
at 18 % and 38 %, respectively.

Gender inequalities have risen most among lone parents in recent years, with the gender gap
widening by 9 pp between 2014 and 2022. At the same time, employment gender gaps narrowed
for people with disabilities, native-born individuals, people aged 25–64 years and couples with and
without children.

(7) The FTE employment rate is a unit to measure employed people in a way that makes them comparable even though they may
work a different number of hours per week. The unit is obtained by comparing an employee’s average number of hours
worked with the average number of hours worked by a full-time worker. A full-time worker is therefore counted as one FTE,
while a part-time worker gets a score in proportion to the hours they work. For example, a part-time worker employed for
20 hours a week when full-time work consists of 40 hours is counted as 0.5 FTEs.

26 European Institute for Gender Equality


2. Domain of work

Figure 8. FTE rates by sex, family composition, age, education level, country of birth and
disability (%, aged 15–89, EU, 2022)

Gender gap Gender gap Gap change


Women Men
(pp) 2022 (pp) 2014 since 2014
Family (a)
Single 32 56 – 24 – 24
Lone parent 67 86 – 19 – 10
Couple without children 37 42 –5 –6
Couple with children 66 92 – 26 – 27
Age (b)
15–24 26 32 –6 –6
25–49 70 86 – 16 – 18
50–64 56 74 – 18 – 19
65+ 3 6 –3 –3
Education (b)(c)
Low 18 38 – 20 – 18
Medium 46 63 – 17 – 16
High 68 74 –6 –6
Country of birth
Native born 44 58 – 14 – 16
Foreign born 42 64 – 22 – 19
Disability
With disabilities 21 30 –9 – 10
Without disabilities 50 65 – 15 – 15
Overall
Population, aged 15–89 44 58 – 14 – 16

Gap decreased No change Gap increased

(a) Family types are defined based on the relationships between the members of households (i.e. a couple is defined as two
adults living in the same household and declaring themselves to be in a relationship, whether married or not). Children are those
household members who are economically dependent (aged under 18 years, as of 2021; those aged 18–24 were included in
previous years) who are declared to be children or stepchildren of the couple or one parent (in one-parent households) and are
not in employment or unemployment. For clarity of interpretation, the family types indicated strictly account for the
aforementioned types of relationships and the socioeconomic status of children, excluding households with different
compositions.
(b) Groups under the age and education dimensions sum to the overall population. For other groups, missing data and/or excluded
groups are not fully comparable with the overall population.
(c) Educational attainment includes people who have completed International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) levels
0–2 (low), 3 or 4 (medium) and 5–8 (high).
NB: Gap changes since 2014 are considered positive when they have decreased (in green, change of ≥ – 1), negative when they
have increased (in red, change of ≥ 1) or having not changed (in yellow, change of between – 1 and 1).
Source: Authors’ calculations using microdata from the EU-LFS (2022); the European Union Statistics on Income and Living
Conditions (EU-SILC) (2022) was used for disability analysis.

2.3. Women are more at risk of violence and harassment at work

Violence and harassment in the workplace occur in every sector and country in the world.
Indisputably, women are affected most. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO,
2024), more than one in five people have experienced violence in the workplace. Women are
particularly exposed to sexual harassment, as well as to other forms of violence at work. Insecure
contracts, new precarious forms of work (e.g. platform work), home-based work, digital
surveillance and poor work–life balance are all considered risk factors for workplace violence. In

European Institute for Gender Equality 27


2. Domain of work

parallel, discrimination and violence also occur outside the confines of paid work. People in unpaid
work (e.g. providing care, cleaning the house and cooking) are both much more vulnerable
economically and at greater threat from economic violence and abuse than those in paid work
(EIGE, 2023a). Gender stereotypes dictate women predominantly taking up such unpaid tasks.

With workplace segregation a key contributing factor to gender inequality, both violence and
sexual harassment are more prevalent in sectors traditionally dominated by men. Nevertheless,
women also face sexual harassment in women-dominated sectors (e.g. in healthcare), which is
most often perpetrated by men in higher-ranking positions (ILO, 2024). For example, healthcare
workers report levels of unwanted sexual attention that are up to three times higher than the
average for EU workers – 6 % versus 2 %, respectively. In contrast, just 0.3 % of information and
communication professionals report unwanted sexual attention (Eurofound, 2023). The fear of
harassment can be a considerable barrier to women entering certain sectors, reinforcing
occupational segregation and the gender pay gap.

The ILO Violence and Harassment Convention (C190) recognises that domestic violence can affect
employment, productivity, and health and safety at work, and that workplaces can prevent
violence against women (ILO, 2019). Governments, employers’ and workers’ organisations, and
labour market institutions, but also co-workers and managers, can play an important role in
recognising partner violence and in offering support and resources to victims of domestic violence
(ILO, 2019; Powell et al., 2015). Creating a culture in which employees feel confident in reporting
and/or taking bystander action if they see or hear about sexism, harassment, discrimination or
violence in or outside the workplace is also a preventative measure (Lee et al., 2019).

28 European Institute for Gender Equality


3. Domain of money
Access to money and levels of economic and financial resources from different sources, such as
earnings, pensions or benefits, are critical foundations for individual financial and economic
independence over a lifetime (EIGE, 2024a).

Progress in the domain of money continues to be slow, and income gender gaps persist. This is
especially so for some groups (e.g. couples with children and retired people). A more comprehensive
and multidimensional understanding of income gender gaps and greater statistical capacity are
needed to better identify gender gaps in this domain (EIGE, 2024a). More frequent statistical data
updates, individualised income assessments, and information on different types of financial
resources and how they are shared within households would enhance assessments of gender
equality in financial resources (EIGE, 2024a).

Gender stereotypes and biases, especially regarding who should take on a heavier load of unpaid
care and domestic work within the household, continue to drive gender inequalities in income. They
overly limit women’s opportunities for paid work, career choices and progression, and entrench
gender segregation in a labour market characterised by low pay for jobs traditionally held by
women (EIGE, 2022a; Eurofound, 2024). Although young women’s income is similar to young men’s,
gender gaps start widening as partnerships begin, children are born, and care and unpaid work
responsibilities accumulate within households.

The EU policy framework aims to address various gender inequalities in income. The gender
equality strategy for 2020–2025 emphasises the need to address root causes of gender inequality
by tackling the pay gap and segregation in the labour market and by promoting work–life
balance (8). The European Pillar of Social Rights aims to promote fair and equal opportunities in the
labour market through measures such as more accessible and affordable childcare (European
Commission, 2019). The pay transparency directive promotes pay transparency measures and aims
to protect employees from direct and indirect discrimination from gender bias. The directive on
adequate minimum wages (9) aims for adequacy of minimum wages. It also promotes collective
bargaining on wage-setting to support the most vulnerable workers amid rising living costs and
increasingly precarious work in gig and digital platform economies.

Critically, the 2024-adopted EU directive on combating violence against women and domestic
violence (10) recognises the different forms that violence can take. This includes economic violence,
with consideration for a victim’s access to her or his financial resources.

(8) Commission communication – A union of equality: Gender equality strategy 2020–2025 (COM(2020) 152 final).
(9) Directive (EU) 2022/2041 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 October 2022 on adequate minimum wages in
the European Union (OJ L 275, 25.10.2022, p. 33).
(10) Directive (EU) 2024/1385 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 on combating violence against
women and domestic violence (OJ L, 2024/1385, 24.5.2024).

European Institute for Gender Equality 29


3. Domain of money

3.1. Smaller poverty and inequality gaps ease COVID-19 pandemic setbacks

Greater progress was made in the domain of money (11) and its sub-domains in 2022 than in
previous years (Figure 9), reversing a COVID-19 setback (EIGE, 2023b, 2023c). Since 2021, there has
been an overall domain score increase of 0.8 points due to a 0.5-point rise in the financial resources
sub-domain and more substantial improvement – by 1.3 points – in the economic situation sub-
domain. The domain score of 83.4 points ensures that money keeps its ranking as second highest
among all of the Gender Equality Index domains.

Figure 9. Scores for the domain of money and its sub-domains, and changes over time
Range of money domain scores by country EU trend Change Change
since 2010 since 2010 since 2021

Domain
of money
+ 4.3 + 0.8
BG EU: 83.4 LU

Sub-domain:
financial + 7.4 + 0.5
resources

BG EU: 78.0 LU

Sub-domain:
economic + 0.5 + 1.3
situation

LT EU: 89.2
SK

50 60 70 80 90 100

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses 2022 data for the most part and traces progress over the short term (2021–2022) and
the longer term (2010–2022).
Source: Authors’ calculations based on the EU-SILC (2010, 2021, 2022) and Structure of Earnings Survey (SES) (2010, 2018); see
Annex 1.

The score jump in the economic situation sub-domain marks its largest annual improvement since
monitoring of gender equality in women’s and men’s economic situation began in 2010. It is even
more remarkable given that its point score had fallen by 0.4 in 2021. This progress is primarily
driven by a more equal distribution of equivalised household income in 2022, in line with narrowed
gender gaps in the at-risk-of-poverty (AROP) rate and the income inequality rate (the ratio of total
income received by the 20 % of the country’s population with the highest income (S80) to that

(11) The domain of money measures gender inequalities in access to financial resources and economic situation. The sub-domain
of financial resources includes women’s and men’s mean monthly earnings from work and mean equivalised net income (from
pensions, investments, benefits and any other source in addition to earnings from paid work). The sub-domain of economic
situation captures women’s and men’s risk of poverty and the income distribution among women and men, as measured by
the income quintile share ratio (the ratio of total income received by the 20 % of the country’s population with the highest
income (S80) to that received by the 20 % of people with the lowest income).

30 European Institute for Gender Equality


3. Domain of money

received by the 20 % of people with the lowest income (S20)) for women and men. That income-
equivalising effect is partly the result of the poverty-reducing effect of measures introduced
during the COVID-19 pandemic. These cushioned people from income loss from pandemic-induced
job losses or reduced hours (EIGE, 2023b). The fact that worsening income inequality was avoided
at the time indicates that social protection systems and specific support measures that were put in
place by Member States, with EU support, worked. These also mitigated the impact of the energy
crisis and the related inflationary spike (European Commission, 2023a).

However, gender gaps in income inequality could be wider, as neither the AROP rate nor the income
inequality rate (S80/S20) directly captures a drop in household purchasing power because of
inflation and higher living costs (European Commission, 2023a). Both income measures are also
assessed based on equivalised household income, assuming equal distribution of resources within
households. This too may mask the true extent of gender gaps in poverty and deprivation (EIGE,
2024a). For example, AROP figures may increase much more for women than men if estimates of
actual income pooling within households are included in calculations (EIGE, 2024a).

Although the yearly progress in the sub-domain of financial resources has been slight –
0.5 points – this sub-domain indicates a continued narrowing of gaps between women’s and men’s
average incomes, adjusted for household size and composition based on annual European Union
Statistics on Income and Living Conditions data (12). Ongoing progress in this sub-domain has
ensured that its score has improved by 7.4 points since 2010. In comparison, the economic situation
sub-domain score has risen by a mere 0.5 points since 2010.

Gender gaps in household disposable income largely decreased in the EU between 2021 and 2022.
Most progress was made in Romania and Greece, with respective score increases of 2.2 and
1.8 points. Latvia and Malta both improved their scores by 1.5 points. The two best-performing
countries in the domain of money – Luxembourg and Belgium – made minimal progress of
0.2 points. Meanwhile, the third-highest-ranking country, Denmark, has maintained the status quo
in terms of position and score (Figure 10).

While most countries made some headway in the money domain, several regressed. Countries with
relatively high scores, such as Sweden, Ireland and Finland, recorded falls of 1.5, 1.4 and 0.7 points,
respectively. Bulgaria, with the lowest money domain score in the EU at 66.6 points, also regressed,
by 0.4 points.

(12) The sub-domain of financial resources in this release of the Gender Equality Index does not capture changes in the gender gap
in mean monthly earnings, as this information is obtained from Structure of Earnings Survey data from 2018.

European Institute for Gender Equality 31


3. Domain of money

Figure 10. Scores for the domain of money and changes over time in the Member States
Score Change since 2010 Change since 2021
LU 94.1 2.3 0.2
BE 90.9 5.4 0.2
DK 89.5 5.9 0.0
DE 88.4 5.2 1.3
NL 87.9 1.3 – 0.2
AT 87.8 5.0 – 0.4
FI 86.7 2.6 – 0.7
IE 86.6 1.1 – 1.4
SE 85.7 0.4 – 1.5
SI 85.0 4.7 0.5
FR 84.8 1.3 – 0.1
MT 84.8 5.6 1.5
CY 84.1 3.4 0.8
EU 83.4 4.3 0.8
IT 80.6 1.7 0.3
PL 79.7 10.2 1.3
ES 79.5 2.4 1.2
CZ 79.5 5.7 0.1
HR 74.7 6.1 1.1
SK 74.5 4.3 0.3
PT 74.4 2.6 0.8
EE 74.0 8.5 0.7
HU 73.8 3.0 – 0.2
EL 73.5 – 1.8 1.8
RO 72.8 13.0 2.2
LT 70.9 10.1 – 0.3
LV 69.6 10.7 1.5
BG 66.6 5.8 – 0.4

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses 2022 data for the most part and traces progress over the short term (2021–2022) and
the longer term (2010–2022).
Source: Authors’ calculations based on the EU-SILC (2010, 2021, 2022) and SES (2010, 2018); see Annex 1.

3.2. Already large gender gaps in individual earnings in couples with children, the
older workforce and the highly educated are widening

Since 2014, the gap in mean monthly earnings between women and men has increased (Figure 11).
This shows that, despite overall positive trends in household equivalised income adjusted for size
and composition (see Section 3.1), there are widening gender inequalities in income from paid work
at the individual level. Particularly worrying are growing average monthly earning gaps between
women and men who are highly educated, in couples with children and aged 50–64 years. Women
in these groups earned less than 70 % of men’s earnings in the same groups in 2022. These gender
gaps indicate that there are income penalties that women endure from shouldering the bulk of
unpaid care and domestic work. They also point to enhanced negative income effects, especially
among highly educated women exposed to strong vertical gender segregation in the labour
market (i.e. men being more likely to be in higher-ranking and more prestigious positions with
more responsibilities and pay). The gender pay gap among highly qualified professionals may
hamper efforts to boost employment in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM)
jobs. Women may avoid such careers if gender stereotypes mean that positions and career
pathways with higher pay are allocated to men rather than women (Doseděl, 2022; EIGE, 2018a,
2019a; Zając et al., 2024).

32 European Institute for Gender Equality


3. Domain of money

Since 2014, gender gaps in mean monthly earnings have slightly closed among some groups of
people (e.g. 16- to 24-year-olds and people over 65 years). This could be because discretionary
COVID-19 measures and social protection safety nets more positively affected these groups.

Figure 11. Mean monthly earnings by sex, family composition, age, education level, country of
birth and disability (purchasing power standard, working population, EU, 2022)
Gender gap Gender gap Gap change
Women Men
(PPS) 2022 (PPS) 2014 since 2014
Family (a)
Single 2 527 2 839 – 312 – 323
Lone parent 2 318 3 214 – 896 – 1 137
Couple without children 2 419 3 340 – 921 – 798
Couple with children 2 293 3 495 – 1 202 – 1 015
Age (b)
16–24 1 570 1 659 – 89 – 134
25–49 2 212 2 862 – 650 – 631
50–64 2 309 3 482 – 1 173 – 918
65+ 2 095 2 989 – 894 – 1 394
Education (b)(c)
Low 1 392 1 924 – 532 – 528
Medium 1 854 2 461 – 607 – 568
High 2 804 4 242 – 1 438 – 1 101
Country of birth
Native born 2 230 3 001 – 771 – 648
Foreign born 1 996 2 742 – 746 – 786
Disability
With disabilities 2 018 2 570 – 552 – 659
Without disabilities 2 167 2 876 – 709 – 648
Overall
Working population 2 199 2 964 – 765 – 662

Gap decreased No change Gap increased

(a) Family types are defined based on the relationships between the members of households (i.e. a couple is defined as two
adults living in the same household and declaring themselves to be in a relationship, whether married or not). Children are those
household members who are economically dependent (and aged under 24 years) who are declared to be (adopted) children or
stepchildren of the couple or one parent (in one-parent households) and are not in employment or unemployment. For clarity of
interpretation, the family types indicated strictly account for the aforementioned types of relationships and the socioeconomic
status of children, excluding households with different compositions.
(b) Groups under the age and education dimensions sum to the overall ‘working population’. Groups under other dimensions
constitute partial coverage of the overall ‘working population’ due to missing data and/or excluded groups.
(c) Educational attainment includes people who have completed ISCED levels 0–2 (low), 3 or 4 (medium) and 5–8 (high).
NB: Gross earnings were calculated on the basis of the variable PY010G (> 0). In the EU, gender gaps in gross earnings are typically
larger than gender gaps in net earnings (due to redistributive effects of taxes and social contributions). Gap changes since 2014
are considered positive when they have decreased (in green, change of ≥ – 1), negative when they have increased (in red, change
of ≥ 1) or having not changed (in yellow, change of between – 1 and 1). PPS, purchasing power standard.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on the EU-SILC (2022).

European Institute for Gender Equality 33


3. Domain of money

3.3. Gender gaps and individual income are closely linked to experience of
violence, including economic violence

The relationship between income and economic violence (13) is two-sided. Economic violence can
make a person financially dependent on the perpetrator, while financial reliance on another makes
experiencing such violence more likely (EIGE, 2024a). For example, earning less than a partner can
mean having less power in decision-making in the home. Power imbalances can manifest through
reduced access to and/or control over one’s own resources – financial or otherwise – increasing the
risk of (economic) violence.

Emerging research is shedding light on the impact of rising living costs on violence against women
and more broadly on the operation of women’s organisations (European Parliament: Policy
Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs, 2024; Refuge, 2022; Scottish Women’s
Aid, 2022; Women’s Budget Group, 2022; Women’s Resource Centre, 2023). A survey of 32
specialised support services for women victims of violence – women’s helplines, women’s centres
and women’s shelters – in 16 Member States (14) highlights how the cost-of-living crisis has
affected these support services’ capacity to adjust salaries in line with inflation, to pay overtime or
even to cover operational costs. Most organisations – 88 % of respondents – reported an increase
in the demand for services, with helplines facing more calls and more complex cases. More than
half of the respondents – 53 % – also reported difficulties in covering operational costs.

(13) Economic violence refers to economic control (i.e. preventing, limiting or controlling finances), economic exploitation (i.e.
using the economic resources of the victim to one’s own advantage) and economic sabotage (i.e. preventing a victim from
pursuing, obtaining or maintaining employment and/or education) (EIGE, 2023a).
(14) The survey, which was entitled ‘Impact of cost-of-living crisis on specialised women’s support services (2020 to 2023)’, was
conducted online among specialised support services for women victims of violence in March 2024. For the questionnaire
used and the results, see EIGE (forthcoming).

34 European Institute for Gender Equality


4. Domain of knowledge
Education and training are essential for gender equality and for everyone’s ability to adapt to labour
market changes fuelled by the green and digital transitions. Tertiary education is vital for good-
quality job opportunities, while lifelong learning enhances social mobility and helps women and men
in all their diversity to adapt to workplace transformation. The domain of knowledge is marked by
women slightly surpassing men in both educational attainment and participation in adult learning.
Persistent gender segregation in education – with women significantly outnumbering men in
studying education, health and welfare, and humanities and the arts – remains a major challenge.

EU policy developments in the domain of knowledge focus on bringing more women into STEM
study fields and on upskilling and reskilling to enable citizens and the economy to adapt to the
twin transitions. The EU gender equality strategy for 2020–2025 (15), the EU digital education
action plan for 2021–2027 (16) and the new European strategy for universities (European
Commission, 2022a) seek to address the under-representation of women in STEM. The European
skills agenda (17) also recognises STEM skills as critical to transitions, highlighting the need for more
tertiary education graduates in STEM, particularly young women.

The European education area (18) prioritises developing gender sensitivity in the learning process,
challenging gender stereotypes in education and ensuring gender balance in leadership at
educational institutions. The digital education action plan is a key enabler of the European
education area and aims to make better use of digital technology for teaching and learning and to
develop relevant digital skills and competencies for digital transformation.

Violence against women – the thematic focus of the Gender Equality Index 2024 – is also pertinent
to this domain. Academic institutions are also affected, reflecting broader societal challenges.
Although comparable cross-country evidence is scarce, a recent survey of research organisations
and universities in 15 European countries suggests that such violence is common in academia.
Nearly two in three student and academic staff respondents have experienced at least one form of
gender-based violence – including physical, psychological, economic, cyber and sexual violence and
sexual harassment (Lipinsky et al., 2022).

(15) Commission communication – A union of equality: Gender equality strategy 2020–2025 (COM(2020) 152 final).
(16) https://education.ec.europa.eu/focus-topics/digital-education/action-plan.
(17) Commission communication – European skills agenda for sustainable competitiveness, social fairness and resilience (COM(2020) 274
final).
(18) Council Resolution on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training towards the European
Education Area and beyond (2021–2030) 2021/C 66/01 (OJ C 66, 26.2.2021, p. 1).

European Institute for Gender Equality 35


4. Domain of knowledge

4.1. More people are educated but gender segregation is here to stay

With an overall EU score of 64.2 points, the domain of knowledge (19) is the second-lowest-scoring
domain of the Gender Equality Index. Over the longer term, the domain trend shows a moderate
4.4-point boost between 2010 and 2022. Progress is similarly lethargic over the short term, with the
domain score rising by 0.6 points since 2021. This marginal change is mostly due to a 0.9-point
improvement in the sub-domain of attainment and participation in the same period (Figure 12).
However, a 0.3-point advance in the sub-domain of segregation between 2010 and 2021 underscores
the deep-rootedness of entrenched gender stereotypes and norms.

Figure 12. Scores for the domain of knowledge and its sub-domains, and changes over time
Range of knowledge domain scores by country EU trend Change Change
since 2010 since 2010 since 2021

Domain of
knowledge
+ 4.4 + 0.6

LV EU: 64.2 SE

Sub-domain:
attainment
+ 9.5 + 0.9
and participation
LU
RO
EU: 75.5

Sub-domain:
+ 0.3 + 0.3
segregation

LV SE
EU: 54.5

35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses 2022 data for the most part and traces progress over the short term (2021–2022) and
the longer term (2010–2022). There are breaks in the time series in the domain of knowledge due to methodological changes in
the source of data (EU-LFS); see Annex 4.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on the EU-LFS (2010, 2021, 2022) and Eurostat education statistics (2010, 2021, 2022); see
Annex 1.

Most Member States have registered minor changes to their overall domain scores since 2022, with
changes varying within a 2-point range. Slovakia is the exception, which has increased its score by
3.9 points since the 2023 edition. This positive trend is largely the result of more people –
especially women – graduating from universities and more women and men engaging in lifelong
learning since 2021 in nearly all countries. Sweden and Belgium continue to lead the rankings, with

(19) The domain of knowledge measures gender inequalities in educational attainment and in lifelong learning and gender
segregation in education. The sub-domain of educational attainment is measured using two indicators: the percentages of
women and men tertiary graduates and the participation of women and men in formal and non-formal education and
training over the life course. The second sub-domain targets gender segregation in tertiary education by looking at the
percentages of women and men students in the fields of education, health and welfare, and humanities and arts.

36 European Institute for Gender Equality


4. Domain of knowledge

76.1 and 73.4 points, respectively. Malta moved into third place, with 71.4 points. Latvia, Croatia
and Romania continue to rank the lowest in the domain of knowledge (Figure 13). The only country
whose score has fallen in the longer term is Denmark – by 3 points since 2010.

Figure 13. Scores for the domain of knowledge and changes over time in the Member States

Score Change since 2010 Change since 2021


SE 76.1 5.4 – 0.3
BE 73.4 2.8 – 0.7
MT 71.4 6.0 1.3
NL 70.3 3.4 1.2
DK 70.2 – 3.0 1.0
ES 70.1 6.6 0.1
LU 69.5 3.2 – 0.8
IE 68.6 3.3 – 0.9
CY 66.1 10.6 0.6
AT 66.1 7.2 0.5
SK 66.0 6.5 3.9
FR 65.9 3.9 0.7
EU 64.2 4.4 0.6
CZ 61.1 5.7 1.3
IT 61.0 7.2 0.2
SI 60.5 5.5 – 0.2
PL 60.3 2.5 0.9
EE 59.8 8.2 2.0
FI 59.7 1.1 – 0.8
PT 59.7 9.6 1.0
LT 59.3 5.0 0.0
HU 58.7 4.2 0.8
BG 57.8 7.4 0.0
EL 57.7 4.3 0.4
DE 57.1 0.8 1.0
RO 55.4 8.2 1.0
HR 53.9 4.0 – 0.3
LV 52.1 2.9 1.7

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses 2022 data for the most part and traces progress over the short term (2021–2022) and
the longer term (2010–2022). There are breaks in the time series in the domain of knowledge due to methodological changes in
the source of data (EU-LFS); see Annex 4.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on the EU-LFS (2010, 2021, 2022) and Eurostat education statistics (2010, 2021, 2022); see
Annex 1.

The EU average for the sub-domain of attainment and participation is 75.5 points (see Figure 12).
Luxembourg’s score of 93.8 points is highest, followed by the Netherlands’ 92.9 points and
Sweden’s 85.3 points. The lowest-scoring countries are Romania and Bulgaria at 58.8 and
58.9 points, respectively, with Croatia just above at 59.8 points, highlighting the great disparity
between the best- and worst-performing countries in gender equality in this area. Between 2021
and 2022, the most progress in this sub-domain was seen in Slovakia, which increased by
7.9 points. Luxembourg and Denmark followed, with respective score increases of 2.8 and
2.7 points. Belgium had the largest reverse, with its score dropping by 2.1 points.

The sub-domain of segregation in education, which has seen almost no change to its score since
2010 (see Figure 12), remains a critical block to progress in the knowledge domain and in gender
equality as a whole. The EU average score for this sub-domain is 54.5 points. Malta tops the
rankings with 71.1 points, followed by Sweden and Belgium at 67.9 and 67.6 points, respectively.
Latvia props up the bottom of the rankings table with 40.2 points; Finland and Slovenia follow suit,

European Institute for Gender Equality 37


4. Domain of knowledge

with 43.9 and 46.1 points, respectively. Breaking the progress impasse in this sub-domain is
essential for gender equality and for European socioeconomic development.

4.2. Variations emerge in accessing higher education

In 2022, 28 % of women and 26 % of men in the EU graduated from university. This confirms an
ongoing trend of higher numbers of women and men succeeding in tertiary education, with the
overall gender gap now to women’s advantage. The largest gender gaps favouring women
graduates nationally are 15 pp in Estonia, 13 pp in Latvia, 12 pp in Sweden and 11 pp in Lithuania.
Another eight Member States have gaps exceeding 5 pp: Bulgaria, Denmark, Ireland, Poland,
Portugal, Slovenia, Slovakia and Finland. Only in three countries are more university graduates men
than women: Germany’s gender gap of 7 pp is largest, in Austria it is 3.5 pp and it is 1 pp in the
Netherlands.

A closer look from an intersectional perspective reveals significant disparities in accessing higher
education among different population groups (Figure 14). For instance, 18 % of women and 19 %
of men with disabilities are university graduates. More women than men between the ages of 15
and 49 years have a degree, while the opposite is true for those aged over 65 years. Gender gaps
are particularly large among 25- to 49-year-olds and those over 65 years, with an 11-pp difference
favouring women in the former group and a 7-pp difference favouring men in the latter group.
Women and men living in couples with children are much more likely to have attained a tertiary
level of education (46 % and 38 %, respectively), and the same is true of lone parents (36 % and
37 %, respectively) compared with other family compositions and the general population.

The third EU-LGTBIQ Survey of the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) reveals
that lesbian and gay people, at 52 % and 60 %, respectively, have the largest shares of highly
educated individuals among sexual orientations (FRA, 2024). However, trans women and trans men
are significantly under-represented among university graduates. According to the survey, 55 % of
all cisgender women and 60 % of all cisgender men have a tertiary education in the EU, compared
with just 36 % of trans women and 28 % of trans men (20). It spotlights the significant barriers for
trans people to access higher education, such as discrimination, mental health challenges, a lack of
supportive policies and financial instability (Goldberg, 2018).

(20) EU LGBTIQ Survey (2023), calculations provided by FRA upon EIGE’s request.

38 European Institute for Gender Equality


4. Domain of knowledge

Figure 14. Graduates of tertiary education by sex, family composition, age, country of birth and
disability (%, aged 15–89, EU, 2022)

Gender gap Gender gap Gap change


Women Men
(pp) 2022 (pp) 2014 since 2014
Family (a)
Single 26 28 29 –3 –4
Lone parents 36 33 37 –1 1
Couple without children 27 28 29 –2 –4
Couple with children 46 36 38 8 5
Age (b)
15–24 11 8 3 4
25–49 44 35 9 6
50–64 26 26 0 –2
65+ 15 22 –7 –9
Country of birth
Native born 28 26 2 0
Foreign born 29 27 2 –1
Disability
With disabilities 18 19 –1 –4
Without disabilities 34 30 4 1
Overall
Population, aged 15–89 28 26 2 0

Gap decreased No change Gap increased

(a) Family types are defined based on the relationships between the members of households (i.e. a couple is defined as two
adults living in the same household and declaring themselves to be in a relationship, whether married or not). Children are those
household members who are economically dependent (and aged under 18 years, as of 2021; those aged 18–24 were included in
previous years) who are declared to be (adopted) children or stepchildren of the couple or one parent (in one-parent households)
and are not in employment or unemployment. For clarity of interpretation, the family types indicated strictly account for the
aforementioned types of relationships and the socioeconomic status of children, excluding households with different
compositions.
(b) Groups under the age dimension sum to the overall population. For other groups, missing data and/or excluded groups are not
fully comparable with the overall population.
NB: Gap changes since 2014 are considered positive when they have decreased (in green, change of ≥ – 1), negative when they
have increased (in red, change of ≥ 1) or having not changed (in yellow, change of between – 1 and 1).
Source: Authors’ calculations using microdata from the EU-LFS (2022); the EU-SILC (2022) was used for disability analysis.

4.3. Prevalent but overlooked: gender-based violence in academia

Gender-based violence in academia is often overlooked, despite its prevalence and its impact on
physical and mental well-being, scientific careers and educational performance. Staff in precarious
working conditions, such as early-career researchers, transnational researchers and those with
short-term contracts, are particularly vulnerable to gender-based violence (Sotirovic and Blažytė,
2024).

European Institute for Gender Equality 39


4. Domain of knowledge

A survey was undertaken on gender-based violence in academia in Europe by the Horizon-2020-


funded project Unisafe (21), which covered more than 42 000 staff and students from 46 research
organisations and universities in 15 countries and was the largest of its kind (Lipinsky et al., 2022).
The results of this survey show that 66 % of women and 56 % of men respondents had
experienced at least one form of gender-based violence (22). Non-binary people were especially
likely to disclose incidents of gender-based violence, with 74 % indicating such experiences. Among
all respondents, 3 % had suffered sexual violence, 6 % had suffered physical violence and almost a
third (31 %) had suffered sexual harassment. Psychological violence was reported by 57 % of
respondents, economic violence was reported by 10 % and cyber violence was reported by 8 %.
Women were most at risk of sexual violence and harassment, while men were most at risk of
physical violence and non-binary people were most at risk of sexual harassment, psychological
violence and economic violence (Unisafe consortium, 2022).

The impact on both staff and students of gender-based violence in universities and research
organisations is evident. It leads to job dissatisfaction and lower productivity for staff, often
prompting them to consider leaving academia. For students, such violence affects their academic
performance and satisfaction with their studies (Unisafe consortium, 2022). Gender-based violence
in universities is rarely reported, with only a small minority of victims coming forward. This is
largely due to uncertainty about its severity, failure to recognise it as violence at the time and
scepticism about any meaningful action being taken (Unisafe consortium, 2022).

(21) https://unisafe-gbv.eu/.
(22) The Unisafe survey, following the Istanbul Convention, considered the following types of gender-based violence: physical,
sexual, psychological and economic. It also investigated sexual harassment and online violence.

40 European Institute for Gender Equality


5. Domain of time
An equitable distribution of time is a critical issue for gender equality, as it affects many areas of
life. The time domain (23) grants insights into some work–life tensions, particularly as women more
than men adjust their careers for family life (EIGE, 2023c, 2023d). Caregiving responsibilities often
require significant time, making it difficult for carers to stay in jobs or advance their careers. This
also means that women and men do not enjoy the same quantity and quality of free time for
leisure and social activities. Opportunities for such pursuits are far more limited for women, as
mostly they are the ones who handle family and care duties.

To help redress this imbalance, the EU has introduced several policy initiatives to support informal
carers and tackle the unequal distribution of care between women and men. The gender equality
strategy for 2020–2025 makes closing the gender care gap a key priority. The work–life balance
directive (2019) aims to remove barriers for people combining work and care by setting legally
binding minimum standards for family leave and flexible working arrangements. Additionally, the
European care strategy set out an agenda to improve the situations of both care receivers and the
people caring for them, professionally and informally. This was accompanied by the adoption of two
Council recommendations. The first of these (24) encourages Member States to develop national
strategies for more accessible, affordable and high-quality early childhood education and care and to
increase public investment in these services. The second recommendation (25), on long-term care,
invites governments to ensure support for informal carers through training, counselling, psychological
and financial support and to increase professional long-term care service availability and affordability.
EIGE’s analysis has found that countries with a widespread availability and use of care services show
higher levels of gender equality. Statistical modelling has estimated that the use of care services
increases the probability of achieving greater gender equality by 13 % (26).

Although doing sport is good for health and self-development, and teaches values of fair play, non-
discrimination and teamwork, women and girls in sport are simultaneously at a high risk of gender-
based violence (EIGE, 2023b, p. 25; 2023e; European Commission, 2023b). Section 5.3 focuses on the
prevalence of such violence in sport and the interplay between sport, leisure and equality.

(23) The domain of time measures gender inequalities in the allocation of time for care and domestic work and social activities.
The first sub-domain of care activities measures gender gaps in women’s and men’s everyday involvement in the care and/or
education of their children, their grandchildren, older people or people with disabilities. It also measures their involvement in
cooking and housework. The second sub-domain of social activities explores gender gaps in women’s and men’s participation
in sport, cultural or leisure activities outside their home, combined with their engagement in voluntary and charitable
activities.
(24) Council Recommendation of 8 December 2022 on early childhood education and care: The Barcelona targets for 2030 2022/C
484/01 (OJ C 484, 20.12.2022, p. 1).
(25) Council Recommendation of 8 December 2022 on access to affordable high-quality long-term care 2022/C 476/01 (OJ C 476,
15.12.2022, p. 1).
(26) This estimation was made using a probit model that analysed how the use of care services affects the probability of
achieving a Gender Equality Index score above the median.

European Institute for Gender Equality 41


5. Domain of time

5.1. Care and housework still mark large gender disparities in time

Intransigent inequalities keep the domain of time as the third-lowest-scoring domain among all of the
Gender Equality Index domains in the 2024 Index. Its score of 68.5 points is primarily due to persistently
large gender disparities in the sub-domain of care activities (Figure 15). Time domain scores among
Member States differ greatly. The Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden fare best, with respective scores
of 76.9, 72.7 and 71.9 points. The lowest-scoring countries in this domain are well below the EU average,
with Croatia about 20 points behind, at 48.6 points. Czechia’s 57 points and Cyprus’ 58.4 points rank
them just above Croatia (Figure 16).

Figure 15. Scores for the domain of time and its sub-domains, and changes over time

Range of time domain scores by country EU trend Change Change


since 2010 since 2010 since 2022

Domain
of time + 3.3 0.0
HR
EU: 68.5 NL

Sub-domain:
care activites + 13.3 0.0

CZ EU: 78.7 SE

Sub-domain:
– 5.3 0.0
social activities

EU: 59.7 NL
HR

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

NB: There are breaks in the time series in the domain of time due to methodological changes in the source of data (EIGE’s CARE
Survey); see Annex 4.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on EIGE’s CARE Survey (2022); the sub-domain of care activities is based on the European
Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) (2007, 2016) and the sub-domain of social activities is based on the EWCS (2010, 2015). See
Annex 1.

There have been no short-term changes since the 2023 edition of the Gender Equality Index, as the
same data from EIGE’s 2022 Survey of Gender Gaps in Unpaid Care, Individual and Social Activities
(CARE Survey) (27) was used in the 2023 and 2024 editions. However, many countries have
registered sizeable improvements since 2010 in this domain. Greece’s score has jumped by a
remarkable 31.5 points, while progress in Portugal and Slovakia has led to 29.1- and 21.1-point
rises, respectively (Figure 16). These results have mainly been driven by narrowing gender gaps in

(27) EIGE’s CARE Survey was undertaken in 2022 and covered more than 60 000 respondents in all 27 Member States. More
information about the survey can be obtained in EIGE’s Gender Statistics Database online: https://eige.europa.eu/gender-
statistics/dgs/browse/eige/eige_gap.

42 European Institute for Gender Equality


5. Domain of time

care-related tasks such as cooking and housework. This is mainly because women are doing less
unpaid care and housework overall, rather than men doing more. This underscores the need to
consider changes in domain trends through a gendered lens.

Figure 16. Scores for the domain of time and changes over time in the Member States
Score Change since 2010 Change since 2022
NL 76.9 – 9.0 0.0
DK 72.7 – 7.7 0.0
SE 71.9 – 12.6 0.0
PL 71.5 17.3 0.0
ES 70.4 9.6 0.0
FI 69.7 – 10.4 0.0
SI 69.3 1.0 0.0
RO 69.2 18.6 0.0
FR 68.7 2.1 0.0
EU 68.5 3.3 0.0
AT 68.4 12.4 0.0
PT 67.8 29.1 0.0
IT 67.4 12.3 0.0
EL 67.1 31.5 0.0
DE 65.0 – 4.8 0.0
BE 64.7 – 5.6 0.0
EE 64.4 – 9.3 0.0
BG 63.8 19.9 0.0
LU 62.8 – 7.4 0.0
LV 62.6 0.6 0.0
LT 62.1 9.9 0.0
HU 61.2 7.1 0.0
SK 61.0 21.1 0.0
IE 59.5 – 11.3 0.0
MT 59.4 5.1 0.0
CY 58.4 12.5 0.0
CZ 57.0 3.2 0.0
HR 48.6 – 1.2 0.0

Source: Authors’ calculations based on EIGE’s CARE Survey (2022), the EQLS (2007, 2016) and the EWCS (2010, 2015); see
Annex 1.

The average score of the care activities sub-domain – reflecting women’s and men’s involvement in
unpaid housework, childcare and long-term care – is 78.7 points in the EU. This marks a 13.3-point
improvement since 2010. The Member States closest to achieving gender equality in this area are
Sweden, Estonia and Finland, with respective scores of 93.1, 92.2 and 89.9 points. Czechia ranks
the lowest in this sub-domain with a score of 62.8 points. Lithuania’s 68.2 points and Slovakia’s
69.3 points put them just above Czechia in the ranking. Every Member State except Latvia has
shown progress in this sub-domain since 2010. Latvia’s score drop of 8.3 points makes it the only
country where the gender gap in unpaid care and housework grew over time.

The second sub-domain of time measures women’s and men’s involvement in social activity (e.g.
sporting, cultural, leisure, voluntary or charitable activities). Its much lower average EU score of
59.7 points than the care activities sub-domain is mostly because of both women’s and men’s low
engagement in such activities. The Netherlands, Poland and Denmark are the best performers in
this sub-domain, scoring 69.7, 69 and 64.1 points, respectively. Croatia, Ireland and Estonia rank the
lowest, with corresponding scores of 32.5, 42.1 and 45 points. Although the overall EU score for
this sub-domain has fallen by 5.3 points since 2010, there is high variation in improvements and
setbacks between countries. Eight countries advanced their score by more than

European Institute for Gender Equality 43


5. Domain of time

10 points – Bulgaria, Greece, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Portugal, Romania and Slovakia – while
eight countries dropped by more than 15 points: Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Ireland, Luxembourg,
the Netherlands, Finland and Sweden.

5.2. Age and education affect equality in social engagement

Time for leisure and activities is critical for quality of life. However, there are significant
inequalities in how women and men in the EU balance paid and unpaid work with other aspects
of daily living. Data from EIGE’s 2022 CARE Survey shows that 29 % of working women and 34 %
of working men in the EU engage in sporting, cultural or leisure activities outside the home
several times a week (Figure 17). Nationally, the gender gap in nearly all Member States is to
women’s detriment and is greater than 10 pp in five countries: Ireland, Hungary, Malta, Finland
and Sweden. The exceptions are Greece, Lithuania and the Netherlands, where gender levels of
social engagement are about equal. More well-known gender inequalities, namely in the share of
unpaid care duties, income and gender stereotypes (e.g. in relation to sports), are limiting
women workers’ leisure and social activities.

An intersectional analysis reveals that women and men workers’ social engagement gradually falls
with age but rises with higher levels of education. Young people are most likely to do sporting,
cultural or leisure activities outside the home, although the highest gender gap among all age
groups (10 pp) is between working women and men aged 16–24 years. Social activity drops
sharply among 25- to 49-year-olds: 31 % among women and 37 % among men workers. It falls
even further among workers aged 50+ years: 21 % among women and 27 % among men. A similar
tendency is clear in the health domain’s physical activity indicator. The gender gap in this indicator
favours men and is also the highest among young people at 15 pp. With sporty habits often
established in youth, it appears that these habits remain relevant throughout life, although
physical activity gradually decreases with age.

Leisure activity is also connected to education for both women and men. Participation increases
with education levels, particularly for women. Among workers with low educational attainment,
only 22 % of women and 32 % of men engage in sporting, cultural or leisure activities outside the
home. Among the highly educated, the gender gap narrows, as more working women and men
take part: 35 % and 39 %, respectively.

44 European Institute for Gender Equality


5. Domain of time

Figure 17. Workers undertaking sporting, cultural or leisure activities outside the home, daily or
at least several times a week, by sex, family composition, age, education level, country of birth
and disability (%, aged 16–74, EU, 2022)
Gender gap Gender gap Gap change
Women Men
(pp) 2024 (pp) 2017 since 2017
Family (a)
Single 28 31 –3 –3
Lone parent 35 51 – 16 –9
Couple without children 25 28 –3 –1
Couple with children 29 37 –8 –4
Age
16–24 43 53 – 10 – 11
25–49 31 37 –6 –6
50–64 21 27 –6 1
65+ 21 26 –5 5
Education (b)
Low 22 32 – 10 –2
Medium 26 32 –6 –6
High 35 39 –4 –6
Country of birth
Native born 28 34 –6 –5
Foreign born 33 36 –3 0
Disability
With disabilities 32 40 –8 2
Without disabilities 27 32 –5 –5
Overall
Population, aged 16–74 29 34 –5 –4

Gap decreased No change Gap increased

(a) Family types are defined based on the relationships between the members of households (i.e. a couple is defined as two
adults living in the same household and declaring themselves to be in a relationship, whether married or not). Other adults in the
household are excluded from the definition. Children are all children in the household, not just those who are the respondent’s
own children. For clarity of interpretation, the family types indicated exclude households with a different composition.
(b) Educational attainment includes people who have completed ISCED levels 0–2 (low), 3 or 4 (medium) and 5–8 (high).
NB: Gap changes since 2014 are considered positive when they have decreased (in green, change of ≥ – 1), negative when they
have increased (in red, change of ≥ 1) or having not changed (in yellow, change of between – 1 and 1).
Source: Authors’ calculations based on EIGE’s CARE Survey (2022) and the EQLS (2016).

5.3. High prevalence of violence against women limits sport’s benefits for gender
equality

Women are still less likely than men to regularly take part in sporting activities, although more
women are doing sport now than before (European Commission: Directorate-General for
Communication, 2018). Socioeconomic factors such as a lack of time owing to care duties and
housework, lower average income and gender stereotypes play a part, as does the high prevalence
of violence against women in sport (European Commission, 2022b). Despite a lack of EU-wide
comparable data, evidence from individual Member States suggests that women and girls face
heightened risks of violence in sport compared with men and boys (European Commission, 2016).
In Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands, 42 % of women and 19 % of men engaged in organised
sport reported suffering sexual violence in that setting (Ohlert et al., 2021). In Finland, 23 % of

European Institute for Gender Equality 45


5. Domain of time

women athletes compared with 3 % of men athletes say they have faced gender-based
harassment (Lahti et al., 2020).

Psychological violence is the most common form of violence against women and is most often
reflected in verbal abuse and humiliation (EIGE, 2022b). For example, 87 % of abuse on Twitter
during the Tokyo Olympic Games in 2021 was targeted at women athletes (UNESCO, 2024). The risk
of abuse is especially high for those facing other forms of discrimination, such as discrimination as
regards race/ethnicity, (dis)ability, sexual orientation and/or low socioeconomic position (Menzel et
al., 2019; Vertommen et al., 2017). Perpetrators are primarily people in positions of power and
authority, followed by peer athletes and spectators, and are more often men than women (Fasting
et al., 2011; Vertommen et al., 2017).

However, sport can be an agent of change for gender equality. It has physical and mental health
benefits, develops teamwork and leadership skills, and boosts self-esteem and confidence. These
can positively translate into other areas of life, such as education and careers, especially for young
girls and women. Council conclusions on women and equality in the field of sport (28) call for
multiple initiatives to bring more women into sports and combat gender-based violence. Actions
include the placement of more women in sports leadership positions, wide promotion and
stereotype-free media coverage of women’s sports competitions, prevention of gender-based
violence in sports and better protection of witnesses and victims.

(28) Conclusions of the Council and of the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States meeting within the Council
on women and equality in the field of sport (OJ C, 2023/1362, 1.12.2023).

46 European Institute for Gender Equality


6. Domain of power
Governments have long committed to gender balance in decision-making and leadership across all
areas of life, acknowledging gender equality as crucial for democracy and fair governance. While
gender equality has progressed in many areas across the EU, there are still far too few women in
leading positions in Europe’s politics, business and industries, science, media and sports. The
European Commission called for a ‘new push for European democracy’ (29) in its priorities for 2019–
2024. Democracy needs to be constantly reaffirmed, especially when multiple crises and growing
populism put great pressure on social cohesion, gender equality and women’s rights across Europe.

Political, economic and social power shape and have an impact on societies, with far-reaching
implications for individual lives – from job creation to labour rights and civil liberties. The domain of
power provides valuable insights into women’s and men’s participation in the institutions and
processes governing society. It spotlights the enduring barriers and inequalities that are hindering
women’s advancement and full participation in public affairs.

Women still remain under-represented on the ballot. Ahead of French elections in 2024, Le Monde
found that women are more likely to be represented on ballots where they have little to no chance
of winning (Pateman, 2024). The Council of Europe has encouraged governments and political
parties to achieve gender balance – defined as a minimum of 40 % of both women and men in any
decision-making body in political or public life – by introducing gender quotas (EPRS, 2023). The
outgoing European Commission is the most gender balanced in history, and its president made
history by becoming the first woman president of the European Commission (EPRS, 2023).

Leading equally is a key priority of the EU gender equality strategy for 2020–2025, with the aim
being to achieve gender balance in decision-making and in politics (EIGE, 2024b, p. 48). In line with
this objective, the European Parliament (2019–2024) committed to improving gender
mainstreaming in legislative processes (EIGE, 2024b). The adoption of the directive on improving
gender balance on corporate boards of listed companies is an important milestone in ending
unequal representation in corporate management and the lack of transparency in selecting board
members. However, the EU’s ability to ensure gender balance in decision-making positions in
Member States is limited.

Many forces discourage women’s political participation. More recently, the increasing number of
incidences of violence against women active in politics is posing a challenge to their political and
social rights. Section 6.3 looks more closely at how gender-based violence is discouraging women
from entering or sustaining corporate or political careers (Daniele et al., 2023).

(29) https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/new-push-european-democracy_en.

European Institute for Gender Equality 47


6. Domain of power

6.1. Gender equality divergence is highest in the power domain

The EU score for the domain of power (30) has increased by 2.3 points since 2021, with a current
average of 61.4 points (Figure 18). Progress in gender equality since 2010 has been driven mainly
by this domain.

Figure 18. Scores for the domain of power and its sub-domains, and changes over time
Range of power domain scores by country EU trend Change Change
since 2010 since 2010 since 2021
Domain
of power
HU SE + 19.5 + 2.3
EU: 61.4

Sub-domain:
political + 15.1 + 1.2
HU SE
EU: 62.6

Sub-domain:
+ 28.6 + 2.9
economic
FR
EU: 57.6
EE
Sub-domain:
social + 10.8 + 2.5

EL EU: 64.0 SE

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses 2022 data for the most part and traces progress over the short term (2021–2022) and
the longer term (2010–2022). For the domain of power, the 3-year average for each indicator is used (see Annex 1).
Source: Authors’ calculations based on the data in the EIGE gender statistics database on women and men in decision-making
(2009–2011, 2020–2022, 2021–2023).

Despite advances made over time, significant gender gaps in decision-making remain. Sweden
continues to rank highest (85.8 points), closely followed by France, Spain, Denmark and Finland.
Hungary ranks lowest with 27.1 points, although its score has improved by 0.9 points since the
2023 Index. The other lowest-ranking countries are Cyprus, Slovakia and Estonia.

The sub-domain of economic power not only has seen the biggest score jump since 2010 – by
28.6 points – but also continues to make the biggest strides among the power sub-domains. Its
score has improved by 2.9 points since the 2023 Index. It is closely followed by the sub-domain of
social power, whose score has increased by 2.5 points since the 2023 Index and by 10.8 points
since 2010. While progress in the sub-domain of political power since the 2023 Index has been
slower, at 1.2 points, this sub-domain’s score has grown by 15.1 points since 2010.

(30) The domain of power measures gender equality in the highest decision-making positions across the political, economic and
social spheres. The sub-domain of political power looks at the representation of women and men in national parliaments,
governments and regional/local assemblies. The sub-domain of economic power examines the proportions of women and
men on the corporate boards of the largest nationally registered companies and national central banks. The sub-domain of
social power includes data on the boards of research-funding organisations, public broadcasters and the national sports
federations of the sample of the 10 most popular national sports in each country.

48 European Institute for Gender Equality


6. Domain of power

Figure 19. Scores for the domain of power and changes over time in the Member States

Score Change since 2010 Change since 2021


SE 85.8 8.0 0.7
FR 85.3 32.9 1.5
ES 82.0 29.4 0.9
DK 77.7 19.7 3.8
FI 75.8 6.7 1.9
NL 75.3 18.4 2.6
BE 72.3 24.4 0.7
DE 71.5 33.2 3.9
LU 68.0 42.4 3.6
IE 67.6 30.4 2.9
IT 66.5 41.3 3.8
EU 61.4 19.5 2.3
PT 61.3 26.4 3.9
SI 59.0 17.9 2.9
BG 58.8 13.0 – 3.9
AT 57.1 28.7 1.7
LT 55.5 22.6 6.9
MT 51.2 30.3 5.9
LV 50.5 15.7 1.4
HR 44.2 15.8 – 5.3
PL 39.6 9.0 3.2
CZ 34.9 3.9 4.7
EL 33.2 10.9 2.8
RO 32.8 2.0 2.1
EE 32.8 10.9 – 0.2
SK 30.4 0.9 – 0.7
CY 28.8 13.4 – 0.4
HU 27.1 3.6 0.9

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses 2022 data for the most part and traces progress over the short term (2021–2022) and
the longer term (2010–2022). For the domain of power, the 3-year average for each indicator is used (see Annex 1).
Source: Authors’ calculations based on the data in the EIGE gender statistics database on women and men in decision-making
(2009–2011, 2020–2022, 2021–2023).

Nationally, Lithuania, Malta and Czechia have progressed the most since the 2023 Index – by 6.9, 5.9
and 4.7 points, respectively. Scores have fallen since the previous edition in Estonia, Cyprus, Slovakia
and Bulgaria, but the biggest setback was in Croatia – with a decrease of 5.3 points (Figure 19).

Growing scores over time in the sub-domain of political power (62.6 points at present) show an
overall increase in women’s representation in national parliaments, governments and regional/local
assemblies across the EU. Sweden (96.3 points) leads this sub-domain, while the lowest-ranking
country (Hungary) has a score of only 24.9 points.

Most countries fare well in the sub-domain of economic power. The EU average score is 57.6 points,
with France (86.6 points) the highest-ranking country in this sub-domain and Estonia the lowest
(16.9 points).

The sub-domain of social power has the highest score of all of the power sub-domains
(64.0 points). Sweden has led the social power sub-domain since 2010 and reached 95.6 points in
2022. With a score of 26.0 points, Greece has the largest room for improvement in terms of the
gender balance on boards of research-funding organisations, public broadcasters and national
sports federations.

European Institute for Gender Equality 49


6. Domain of power

With remarkable levels of divergence between the highest- and lowest-ranking countries across all
power sub-domains, these differences underscore the challenges underlying the EU’s ambition to
lead equally throughout society and achieve a union of equality.

6.2. Both progress and setbacks are seen in gender representation in politics and
sports

The year 2024 marks an election year. Not only are national elections taking place in several
Member States, but also the EU elections took place in June 2024. Preliminary and partial data
shows that more than 40 % of candidates in the European 2024 elections were women. Of the 11
countries with legislative quotas applicable to national elections, 10 have also set a gender quota
for European elections. Other countries without quotas also reached the threshold of 40 % of
women candidates (Figure 20).

Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) have re-elected Roberta Metsola as President of the
European Parliament by a landslide, as she received 562 of the votes cast out of 699 (European
Parliament, 2024).

Figure 20. Share of women candidates in 2024 for the European Parliament elections of June
2024 and national binding quotas for gender balance among candidates by Member State
100

90

80

70

60
Gender balance zone
50
42
40

30

20

10

0
ES IT CY NL SE MT HU SK IE BG RO DE DK CZ LT EE LV EU LU EL AT FI SI PT HR PL BE FR

Women candidates in 2024 Binding quotas

NB: Data was not available for Spain, Italy, Cyprus, the Netherlands or Sweden. Binding gender balance quotas for candidates in
2024: Belgium and France, 50 %; Greece, Spain, Croatia, Luxembourg and Portugal, 40 %; Poland, 35 %; Italy, 50 % for European
elections and 40 % for national elections; Slovenia, 40 % for European elections and 35 % for national elections; and Ireland, no
quotas for European elections but 40 % for national elections.
Source: https://europeelects.eu/ep2024/.

50 European Institute for Gender Equality


6. Domain of power

Nevertheless, women candidates are not fully reflected in those actually elected in the new
European Parliament. For example, as seen in Figure 20, Greece, France, Croatia, Luxembourg,
Poland, Portugal and Slovenia reached their candidate quotas. However, only Spain, France and
Croatia reached their quotas of elected women officials (Figure 21). This indicates the greater
difficulty of women candidates getting elected than men candidates. Even in countries with
quotas, women being elected is not guaranteed. For example, Forman-Rabinovici and Nir (2021,
p. 11) found that, while gender quotas correlate with an increased number of women elected to
parliaments, the electoral system affects the significance of the effect of quotas. Even more
significantly, women who are elected following the implementation of quotas face further
discrimination and stigmatisation; thus, gender quotas have some positive effects on gender-equal
representation, but the glass ceiling for women in politics remains (Fernandes et al., 2023,
pp. 918–919).

Figure 21. Share of women elected to the constitutive session of the European Parliament in
2019 and 2024, and national binding quotas for gender balance among candidates, by Member
State

100

90

80

70

60
Gender balance zone
50
39
40

30

20

10

0
CY MT LT RO LV BG PL EE EL IT DK LU SI DE CZ PT EU AT BE HR IE SK HU NL ES FR FI SE
2024 2019 Binding quotas

NB: Binding gender balance quotas for candidates in 2024: Belgium and France, 50 %; Greece, Spain, Croatia, Luxembourg and
Portugal, 40 %; Poland, 35 %; Italy, 50 % for European elections and 40 % for national elections; Slovenia, 40 % for European
elections and 35 % for national elections; and Ireland, no quotas for European elections but 40 % for national elections.
Source: EIGE Gender Statistics Database.

Following the EU elections, the constitutive session of the new European Parliament included 278
women (39 %) and 441 men (61 %), which for the first time since the first EU elections represents
a slight decrease from the previous constitutive session (2019: 41 % women). In this election,
Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, France, Croatia, Hungary, the Netherlands, Austria, Slovakia,
Finland and Sweden all elected at least 40 % women parliamentarians. Sweden (62 %) and Finland

European Institute for Gender Equality 51


6. Domain of power

(60 %) even reached the upper end of the gender balance zone of 60 %, both having increased
their representation of women in the European Parliament since 2019 by over 6 pp.

In 15 Member States, the share of women parliamentarians decreased compared with the previous
constitutive session (i.e. in Bulgaria, Estonia, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the
Netherlands, Austria, Poland, Portugal, Romania and Slovenia). The countries with the greatest
decreases were Malta (– 33 pp), Latvia (– 28 pp), and Luxembourg and Slovenia (both – 17 pp).
Slovakia saw the highest increase in women’s representation, with an increase of 31 pp.

The year 2024 also marked an Olympics year. According to the International Olympic Committee
(2024), the summer 2024 Olympic games in Paris was the first time that an equal number of
women and men athletes competed. Unfortunately, gender parity on the boards of Olympic sport
organisations at the national level is far from being achieved (Figure 22).

As of 2023, Sweden is the only EU country to achieve gender balance on the boards of sport
organisations of the 10 most popular Olympic sports, with 51 % women on such boards. France
follows, with 39 % women on such boards, closely followed by Ireland, Finland and the Netherlands,
with 37 %, 36 % and 35 %, respectively. In comparison, the EU average is 22 %. Slovenia (7 %) and
Czechia and Poland (both 9 %) have the lowest share of women on such boards. Ireland and Italy
have seen the most improvement since 2015, with women’s representation increasing by 20 pp
and 19 pp, respectively. France and Spain have seen increases of 18 pp.

Figure 22. Share of women on the boards of the sport organisations of the 10 most popular
Olympic sports
100

90

80

70

60
Gender balance zone
50

40

30
22
20

10

0
SI CZ PL CY EL HU HR AT EE SK PT RO MT BG BE EU LT LU DK IT LV DE ES NL FI IE FR SE
2023 2015

NB: The 10 most popular Olympic sports differ from country to country (see https://eige.europa.eu/sites/default/files/wmid_
mapping_nat_fed_pop.pdf).
Source: EIGE Gender Statistics Database.

52 European Institute for Gender Equality


6. Domain of power

6.3. Violence is holding women back in power and decision-making

Violence faced by politicians, especially elected women officials and public figures, has a
detrimental impact on whether women actively participate in political life (Daniele et al., 2023;
Håkansson, 2021; Krook and Sanín, 2020). Similarly, working women are often deterred from
pursuing career opportunities and senior leadership roles because of workplace violence, among
other things (Salazar and Moline, 2023, p. 7).

Social media use is increasing in all areas, data shows a rise in cyber harassment and abuse directly
targeting politicians (Erikson et al., 2023, p. 896), and women in politics are affected more than
men. While women and men often face similar levels of online harassment and abuse, women
politicians face a different type of abuse from men in similar roles (Every-Palmer et al., 2024).
Women politicians are often targeted as women, not as politicians, which means that they are
subjected to more sexualised and gendered harassment (Erikson et al., 2023, p. 897). This
intersects with other forms of discrimination, disproportionately affecting minority communities
such as ethnic and racialised minorities, religious minorities, and sexual and gender minorities
(Reuters, 2023; Sarikakis et al., 2023; UNESCO, 2021).

Violence also exists within the European Parliament. During an interview with a socialist MEP, the
existence of a notebook documenting harassment within the European Parliament became known.
It led to the emergence of the MeTooEP campaign (Berthet, 2022, p. 334). The campaign was
developed by ‘several [European Parliament] workers, such as parliamentary assistants, policy
advisors, trainees and civil servants’ (Berthet, 2022, p. 334). Although some changes were
implemented among certain political groups – such as ‘mandatory training for MEPs belonging to
the Greens’ or safe reporting mechanisms via confidential counsellors newly introduced by both
the Socialist group and the Left – the campaign was severely restricted by the ‘rigid institutional
settings of the [European Parliament]’ overall, leading to ‘weak outcomes for internal institutional
reforms’ (Berthet, 2022, p. 343).

Abuse against journalists is also common (Konow-Lund and Høiby, 2023; Miranda et al., 2023). A
study in Portugal found that men journalists are mostly criticised online for their professional
capacities, while the abuse suffered by women journalists is ‘usually more vicious, more personal,
and frequently sexual in nature’ (Miranda et al., 2023, p. 5129). The United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2021) found that sexualised and gendered violence
often intersects with other forms of discrimination, such as racism, religious bigotry and
homophobia, affecting women journalists more than men (Li et al., 2021; Sarikakis et al., 2023).

European Institute for Gender Equality 53


7. Domain of health
Women and men in Europe are living longer and healthier lives than they have ever done, but
global health concerns are growing. Scientific advances and improved living standards have
reduced infectious diseases, but unhealthy lifestyles, environmental pollution and demographic
imbalances have become health burdens (European Commission, 2022c). An ageing Europe has
created new healthcare demands and mounting long-term care needs, especially for women, who
have a longer life expectancy than men. However, the widespread shortage of skilled healthcare
professionals is hampering efforts to ramp up treatment and care to meet unmet health needs
(OECD and European Union, 2022; WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2023). Therefore, the informal
burden of unpaid care, which is mostly borne by women, will become heavier.

The EU is still grappling with various effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, including deteriorating
mental health (European Commission, 2023b) in parallel with growing numbers of people unable to
access mental health services (OECD and European Union, 2022). A myriad of ongoing crises – such
as Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, climate change, rising living costs and economic hardship – are
further affecting people’s physical and mental health, particularly that of children, young people
and older people (European Commission, n.d.).

Crisis situations also exacerbate the risk of violence against women and girls (EIGE, 2021a, 2024c),
creating a major public health issue. Violence negatively affects women’s physical, mental, sexual
and reproductive health, often with lasting health consequences (WHO, 2024). Although the health
sector plays a key role in providing comprehensive healthcare to violence survivors, health
professionals themselves are at a much higher risk of violence than other professionals (European
Nursing Research Foundation, 2022).

The European Pillar of Social Rights establishes access to timely, affordable and good-quality
healthcare as a social right. The EU gender equality strategy for 2020–2025 acknowledges gender-
specific health risks, including that women with a health problem or disability are more likely to
suffer various forms of violence than women in general. It also recognises health services as
integral to the effective prevention of violence (31) and promotes a multidisciplinary approach
among professionals and services. These services include the criminal justice system, victim
support services, perpetrator programmes and social and health services.

(31) Commission communication – A union of equality: Gender equality strategy 2020–2025 (COM(2020) 152 final).

54 European Institute for Gender Equality


7. Domain of health

7.1. Gender equality in health is stagnating

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is still being felt, as reflected by the overall score for the
domain of health (32), which has been virtually at a standstill since the 2023 Gender Equality Index.
The 0.1-point increase in this domain since 2021 is in stark contrast to the, albeit slow, progress
made in other domains, indicating that the pandemic may have enduring health consequences.

Even over the longer term, progress in terms of gender equality in health has been the slowest of
all of the Gender Equality Index domains – its score having risen by just 1.9 points since 2010.
Gender gaps and EU average scores for women’s and men’s health status and access to health
services have essentially remained unchanged since 2010, improving by only 1.1 and 1.4 points,
respectively. Changes in healthy and/or risky health behaviour are slightly more promising, with a
3-point increase in the sub-domain of health behaviour over the same period, highlighting greater
gender equality in this area (Figure 23).

Figure 23. Scores for the domain of health and its sub-domains, and changes over time
Range of health domain scores by country EU trend Change Change
since 2010 since 2010 since 2021

Domain
of health RO IE + 1.9 + 0.1
EU: 88.6

Sub-domain:
+ 1.1 – 0.2
status LV IE
EU: 91.5

Sub-domain: + 3.0 0.0


behaviour SE
RO
EU: 77.8

Sub-domain: + 1.4 + 0.3


access EL MT
EU: 97.6

40 50 60 70 80 90 100

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses 2022 data for the most part and traces progress over the short term (2021–2022) and
the longer term (2010–2022).
Source: Authors’ calculations based on the EU-SILC (2010, 2021, 2022), the European Health Interview Survey (EHIS) (2014, 2019)
and Eurostat data (life expectancy at birth [demo_mlexpec] and healthy life years [hlth_hlye] – 2010, 2020, 2022); see Annex 1.

(32) The domain of health measures three health-related aspects of gender equality: health status, health behaviour and access
to health services. Health status looks at the gender differences in life expectancy, self-perceived health and healthy life
years (also called disability-free life expectancy). This is complemented by a set of health behaviour factors based on World
Health Organization recommendations: fruit and vegetable consumption, engagement in physical activity, smoking and
excessive alcohol consumption. Access to health services looks at the percentage of people who report unmet medical and/or
dental needs.

European Institute for Gender Equality 55


7. Domain of health

Since 2010, Ireland and Croatia have progressed the fastest in the domain of health, with
respective gains of 3.9 and 3.7 points (Figure 24). Ireland’s and the Netherlands’ improvements in
health behaviour since 2010 (of 10.7 and 10.6 points, respectively) highlight their big push towards
equality in this sub-domain. Meanwhile, Bulgaria has made the most headway in access to health
services, with a 6.2-point increase since 2010. However, overall health scores for Malta, Denmark,
Czechia and Austria fell over the same period (Figure 24). Malta’s reverse – by 2.7 points – is due to
widening gender inequalities in health behaviour.

Figure 24. Scores for the domain of health and changes over time in the Member States
Score Change since 2010 Change since 2020
IE 94.6 3.9 – 0.2
SE 93.8 0.6 – 0.7
NL 93.4 3.1 – 0.8
FI 91.7 2.2 – 1.4
AT 91.0 – 0.1 – 0.4
ES 91.0 2.4 – 0.2
LU 90.0 0.2 – 0.4
DE 89.7 0.4 – 0.1
IT 89.3 3.0 0.1
EU 88.6 1.9 0.1
BE 88.5 2.0 0.0
FR 88.0 1.3 – 0.3
DK 87.9 – 2.4 – 0.7
MT 87.9 – 2.7 0.5
HU 87.5 2.1 0.3
CY 87.4 1.0 0.3
SI 86.9 0.1 0.4
EE 85.7 3.0 0.6
SK 85.5 0.7 0.4
EL 85.2 0.9 – 0.3
HR 85.2 3.7 0.4
CZ 85.1 – 0.6 0.3
PL 84.8 3.2 0.4
PT 84.6 0.3 0.5
LT 83.4 3.0 0.5
LV 79.0 1.7 0.1
BG 78.3 3.0 0.5
RO 70.4 0.5 0.4

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses 2022 data for the most part and traces progress over the short term (2020–2022) and
the longer term (2010–2022).
Source: Authors’ calculations based on the EU-SILC (2010, 2021, 2022), the EHIS (2014, 2019) and Eurostat data (life expectancy
at birth and healthy life years – 2010, 2020, 2022); see Annex 1.

Across the EU, the health status of women and men is deteriorating. Between 2021 and 2022, the
percentage of women and men who perceived their health as good or very good declined in two
thirds of the Member States, falling most in Finland and Sweden. In 2022, 65 % of women and
70 % of men in the EU thought that their own health was ‘very good’ or ‘good’, compared with
67 % of women and 72 % of men in 2021.

Ireland has the best self-reported health status, with 80 % of women and men perceiving their
health as very good or good, while Lithuania has the lowest self-reported health status, with 44 %
of women and 54 % of men perceiving their health as very good or good. The largest gender gap
(to women’s disadvantage) is in Latvia (10.4 pp), followed by 9.4 pp in Lithuania and 8.4 pp in
Romania.

56 European Institute for Gender Equality


7. Domain of health

The sub-domain of health behaviour has the largest and most diverse gender inequalities among
all of the health sub-domains. In the EU, 38 % of women and 43 % of men are engaged in regular
physical activities and/or consume fruit and vegetables as recommended by the World Health
Organization (WHO). The gender gap reverses in risky health behaviour – 73 % of women
compared with 56 % of men do not smoke or drink excessively.

Gender gaps in physical activities and healthy eating vary from 6.4 pp to women’s advantage in
Denmark to 9.6 pp to men’s advantage in Slovakia. In most countries, except for Denmark, Finland
and Sweden, more men than women engage in health-enhancing behaviour. Variations in men’s
healthy behaviour between countries are significant, ranging from 73 % of men engaging in
health-enhancing behaviour in Finland to 14 % of men in Romania. The same applies to women:
75 % of women in Finland consume healthy food and do physical activities in line with WHO
recommendations, whereas just 6 % of women do so in Romania.

National gender gaps among populations who do not smoke or drink excessively vary from 9.2 pp
in Spain to 37.8 pp in Romania, both to men’s disadvantage. Cyprus has the highest share of
women not smoking or drinking excessively (84 %), while Germany has the lowest (61 %). For men
in this group, Spain has the highest share – 69 % – and Romania the lowest at 35 %.

In the access to health sub-domain, unmet medical service needs rose in Finland between 2021
and 2022. In Denmark, Greece and Finland, both women and men (but the latter in particular)
found it more difficult to access dental services in 2022 than in 2021, whereas most people in
Belgium, Portugal and Slovenia had their dental needs met. Poland had the greatest improvement
in access to medical services between 2021 and 2022.

7.2. Intersectional analysis shows wider self-perceived health inequalities

Gender inequalities manifest differently across societal groups. Gender, age, education, migration,
disability or type of family are important markers in shaping individual health status. They
intersect in multidirectional ways, act simultaneously and can create multiple dangers and
precariousness.

The population groups with the lowest self-perceived good health are women who are single, as
well as women and men over 65 years of age, those with low education levels and those with
disabilities (Figure 25). However, across all groups, fewer women than men perceive their health as
‘very good’ or ‘good’. In the EU, 48 % of single women report good health, compared with 62 % of
single men. Between countries, variations are sizeable – from 66 % of single women in Ireland to
24 % of those in Croatia. The widest gender gaps (to single women’s disadvantage) are in Cyprus at
26 pp and Malta at 25 pp. Both Greece and Romania have a gap of 24 pp between single women
and single men.

Education is widely recognised as an important determinant of health. It affects access to medical


treatment, housing, food and knowledge on health and healthcare systems, all of which directly

European Institute for Gender Equality 57


7. Domain of health

influence health (EIGE, 2021b). In the EU, among those with low education levels, 50 % of women
and 60 % of men perceive their health positively. Among this group, gender gaps to women’s
detriment are large in Czechia, Lithuania and Slovakia at 23 pp. Research shows a strong link
between gender gaps in employment, education and self-perceived health (Boerma et al., 2016).
For example, Gumà et al. (2019) found that the biggest gender differences in self-perceived health
were among individuals with relatively low levels of education in countries with the largest gender
employment gaps.

Although country of birth does not generally seem to be a significant factor in health perception at
the EU level, in some EU countries far fewer foreign-born women and men perceive their health as
good than native-born people. Such differences are particularly stark in Estonia, Latvia and
Lithuania, varying from 20 to 30 pp. Among foreign-born communities across the EU, it is again
women who perceive their health more negatively than men. The largest gender gaps among
foreign-born people are 15 pp in Poland, 13 pp in Slovakia, 12 pp in Bulgaria and Sweden and
11 pp in Estonia. Migrant women can encounter specific barriers to accessing health services, such
as language and cultural differences, which are further exacerbated by their gender, socioeconomic
status and migration status (EIGE, 2021b).

In all of the Member States, only a fraction of people with disabilities perceive their health status
positively. On average, positive perceptions about health status are between four and five times
lower in people with disabilities than in people without disabilities.

58 European Institute for Gender Equality


7. Domain of health

Figure 25. Self-perceived health as ‘very good’ or ‘good’ by sex, family composition, age,
education level, country of birth and disability (%, aged 16+, EU, 2022)

Gender gap Gender gap Gap change


Women Men
(pp) 2022 (pp) 2014 since 2014
Family (a)
Single 48 62 – 14 – 15
Lone parent 70 74 –4 –7
Couple without children 58 57 1 –2
Couple with children 83 83 0 0
Age (b)
15–24 91 93 –2 –1
25–49 82 84 –2 –3
50–64 62 64 –2 –3
65+ 36 41 –5 –8
Education (b) (c)
Low 50 60 – 10 – 13
Medium 67 70 –3 –3
High 79 80 –1 1
Country of birth
Native born 65 70 –5 –6
Foreign born 65 70 –5 –6
Disability
With disabilities 20 22 –2 –3
Without disabilities 84 85 –1 –3
Overall
Population, aged 16+ 65 70 –5 –6
Gap decreased No change Gap increased

(a) Family types are defined based on the relationships between the members of households (i.e. a couple is defined as two
adults living in the same household and declaring themselves to be in a relationship, whether married or not. Children are those
household members who are economically dependent (and aged under 24 years) who are declared to be (adopted) children or
stepchildren of the couple or one parent (in one-parent households) and are not in employment or unemployment. For clarity of
interpretation, the family types indicated strictly account for the aforementioned types of relationships and the socioeconomic
status of children, excluding households with different compositions.
(b) Groups under the age and education dimensions sum to the overall ‘working population’; groups under other dimensions
constitute partial coverage of the overall ‘working population’ due to missing data and/or excluded groups.
(c) Educational attainment includes people who have completed ISCED levels 0–2 (low), 3 or 4 (medium) and 5–8 (high).
NB: Gap changes since 2014 are considered positive when they have decreased (in green, change of ≥ – 1), negative when they
have increased (in red, change of ≥ 1) or having not changed (in yellow, change of between – 1 and 1).
Source: Authors’ calculations based on the EU-SILC (2022).

FRA’s Roma Survey of 2021, covering 10 European countries, reveals important gender differences
in self-perceived health status among this minority: 63 % of Roma women and 72 % of Roma men
think their health is ‘very good’ or ‘good’. The survey also showed that, among this minority, health
levels start declining from the age of 45 years and are lowest among women and men with severe
limitations in daily activities due to health. In 2021, 14 % of Roma felt discriminated against for
being Roma when accessing health services over the previous 12 months, which was nearly double
the 2016 figure of 8 % (FRA, 2023).

FRA’s third EU LGBTIQ Survey (2023) shows that 71 % of the LGBTIQ community consider their health
to be good or very good. The survey found that LGBTIQ people are facing severe difficulties in
accessing healthcare, leading to 5 % of people forgoing treatment, 6 % not seeking necessary

European Institute for Gender Equality 59


7. Domain of health

healthcare and 5 % having to change their general practitioner because of negative reactions
(FRA, 2024).

7.3. Violence against women is a major public health threat

Violence against women is a global issue affecting all communities. The WHO (2024) estimates that
one in three women globally have experienced violence in their lifetime. Intimate partner violence
is considered a major public health threat, as it ‘increases physical and mental health problems,
including injuries, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and poor sexual and reproductive
health’ (Namatovu et al., 2024, p. 623). More longitudinal studies on this issue would be useful,
particularly to understand the interconnected health effects of violence (Temmerman, 2015,
p. e38).

Healthcare systems play a key role in preventing violence against women (Lewis et al., 2022).
Nevertheless, support services are often overwhelmed and have insufficient resources to help
survivors of violence. This is particularly pertinent to women with disabilities. Not only are they
more affected by intimate partner violence than women without disabilities, but they also report
greater difficulties in accessing support services due to infrastructural barriers and a lack of
services adapted to the specific needs of people with disabilities (Namatovu et al., 2024, p. 623).
Women with disabilities also have increased difficulties seeking help when their carer is both their
partner and an abuser, and when communication and intellectual disabilities affect their ability to
disclose abuse and seek help (Namatovu et al., 2024, p. 623).

Healthcare workers also suffer from violence. Considering that most of the healthcare workforce is
composed of women, violence in healthcare is not a gender-neutral threat (Kuhlmann et al., 2023,
p. 5). Healthcare workers are at an increased risk of experiencing violence in the workplace. High-
stress situations, long working hours and patients’ dissatisfaction with the healthcare system can
lead to more violence in the workplace (Rossi et al., 2023, pp. 50–51), evidenced by the sharp rise
in violence against healthcare professionals during the COVID-19 pandemic (Kuhlmann et al., 2023,
p. 4). In the Flash Barometer – OSH Pulse survey (2021), health and social care workers reported the
greatest levels of exposure to key psychosocial risk factors among all workers. About 30 % of
health and social care workers have been exposed to violence or verbal abuse from customers and
patients compared with the EU average of 16 % of workers (EU-OSHA, 2022). In addition,
healthcare workers can face violence from colleagues, leaving many care providers vulnerable
(Rossi et al., 2023, p. 51).

60 European Institute for Gender Equality


8. Domain of violence
Violence has been part of the Gender Equality Index since its inception. It departs conceptually
from the other domains due to focusing solely on women, rather than on gender gaps. As a result,
the domain of violence does not contribute to the Gender Equality Index score. The 2017 edition of
the Gender Equality Index further developed the domain of violence into a more comprehensive
measurement framework to serve as a foundation for a reliable and comparable statistical
assessment of the extent of violence against women in the EU (EIGE, 2017c, 2017d).

The domain of violence contains three sets of indicators, allowing an assessment to be made of the
extent and nature of violence against women at the EU level and in the Member States (EIGE,
2017c, 2017d).

1. The first set includes indicators brought together into one single measure, also called a
composite measure (33). Indicators included in the composite measure capture the prevalence,
severity and disclosure of the most common and widely criminalised forms of violence against
women: physical violence, sexual violence and femicide. The higher the score of the composite
measure, the greater the extent of the violence against women. The composite measure was
populated only once, in 2017, based on data from an EU-wide survey on gender-based violence
(FRA, 2014). At that time, the EU score was 27.5 out of 100 (EIGE, 2017c).

The updated scores for the EU and the Member States for the composite measure of the domain
of violence will be released in the Gender Equality Index Thematic Focus, which will be published
as a stand-alone publication in early 2025. This publication will also include an analysis of
contextual factors, such as national laws and policies, societal norms and the availability of
support services for victims of violence at both the EU and the Member State levels.

2. Additional indicators measure seven forms of violence against women, such as psychological
violence or sexual harassment. The limited availability of reliable and comparable data does not
allow robust comparisons across Member States.

3. Indicators for contextual factors cover some of the root causes of violence against women (e.g.
gender attitudes) and contain information on governments’ efforts in the prevention of,
protection against and prosecution of violence against women.

(33) A composite measure can be defined as a combination of multiple individual indicators that result in a single score.

European Institute for Gender Equality 61


Conclusions
The EU average 2024 Gender Equality Index score stands at 71 points. This represents just a 0.8-
point improvement since the 2023 edition and a mere 7.9-point improvement since 2010. Although
the EU average score is slowly heading upwards and towards convergence, score variations
between countries remain large – ranging from 82 points in Sweden to 57.5 points in Romania.
Gender balance in decision-making has the greatest room for improvement, despite making the
most progress in gender equality in recent years. Achievements in other domains and their overall
impact on gender equality are much lower.

While still grappling with the fallout of the COVID-19 pandemic, the EU is confronting new
challenges. A more volatile political situation and shifting political priorities in the face of growing
populism and extremism are increasing the pressure on hard-fought equality gains and social
cohesion. Geopolitical uncertainty, the green and digital transitions and the changing nature of
work are also having profound effects on social, economic and environmental well-being. These
changes are taking place while established challenges to gender equality remain as valid as ever.
The previous European Commission made a firm pledge to promote gender equality and put
forward ambitious gender equality commitments. As the EU enters a new legislative cycle, it is
critical that the momentum in promoting gender equality and protecting women’s rights stays the
course.

Closing employment gender gaps is pivotal to economic prosperity

Employment rates for women across all Member States have steadily grown in recent decades,
although they still lag behind those of men. Gender employment gaps cost the EU economy
EUR 370 billion per year (EIGE, 2017b). While more women than men now hold degrees, many feel
constrained in their job choices, have fewer job opportunities and face discrimination largely
because they are also carers.

The impact of unpaid care duties means that fewer women are employed than men. It also keeps a
substantial share of working women in part-time jobs or other non-standard forms of employment.
Nearly 1 in 3 women who were outside the labour force but wanting to work in 2023 – compared
with 1 in 10 men – said it was because of care responsibilities (34). While the employment rate for
women aged 25–49 years with children is 75 %, it is 92 % for men in this group (i.e. there is a
gender employment gap of 17 pp among workers with children). Among workers without children,
the gap is 3 pp (35). Among working women with children, 32 % are in part-time jobs, as opposed
to 6 % of men with children (36).

(34) Eurostat, lfsa_igar, ‘Inactive population not seeking employment by sex, age and main reason’.
(35) Eurostat, lfst_hheredty, ‘Employment rate by sex, age groups, educational attainment level and household composition,
2023’.
(36) Eurostat, lfst_hhptety, ‘Part-time employment by sex, age groups and household composition, 2023’.

62 European Institute for Gender Equality


Conclusions

Nearly half of part-time workers in the EU say they would be willing to move to full-time jobs if
care services and more flexible working arrangements were available (European Commission,
2018). Of various measures aimed at improving work–life balance, the provision of subsidised care
services is estimated to have the most significant impact on reducing employment gender gaps
(Olivetti and Petrongolo, 2017). EIGE’s modelling estimates that closing the gender gaps in
economic activity rates (37) could create between 3.5 million and 6 million new jobs by 2050 as a
result of more women entering the labour force, potentially generating an increase in gross
domestic product of EUR 1.49 billion at the same time (EIGE, 2017b).

Economic violence: another manifestation of gender inequality

In addition to there being fewer women than men in paid work, women earn less than men and are
more likely to be secondary earners when in a couple. Progress in closing these gender gaps
remains painfully slow. Gender differences in unpaid care and domestic work are key to
understanding gender gaps in earnings (EIGE, 2021c). Between people who have extensive unpaid
care responsibilities and those who have none or few, the earnings gap is enormous. In 2022,
women in couples with children, along with highly educated women and women between 50 and
64 years of age, earned less than 70 % of the equivalent men’s earnings (EIGE, 2022a). The
ramifications of such inequalities include a 26 % gender pension gap in 2022 and the feminisation
of poverty in older age. To mobilise progress, national and workplace policies need to address
gender care gaps, work–life balance and gender segregation in the labour market – and these
policies need to be implemented.

Sufficient income, and access to and control of one’s own, is essential for financial and economic
independence in life and equality in relationships. Women’s usually lower degree of access to and
power over their own income not only affects their accumulation of wealth and their individual and
family material well-being, but also increases their risk of experiencing various types of violence,
including economic.

As presented in the domain of money, new research and data on economic violence show that the
link between income and economic violence works both ways: financial dependence can lead to
economic violence, while economic violence can result in financial dependence. Examples of such
violence include prohibiting a partner from getting or staying in a job and/or entering or staying in
education, to prevent improved career prospects and financial independence. It can also entail
limiting access to and control over finances, ensuring financial dependence on the perpetrator.
Combating economic violence within partnerships is essential for narrowing employment gender
gaps and improving women’s career prospects. The benefits of this include women’s economic
empowerment, greater economic growth and prosperity in the EU, and combating harmful gender
stereotypes.

(37) Activity rate refers to the percentage of people who are either working or looking for work in relation to the total population.

European Institute for Gender Equality 63


Conclusions

Disaggregating gendered labour is key to new labour demands

The continuous incremental growth in numbers of university graduates and adult learners is in line
with the goals of the European Pillar of Social Rights and the gender equality strategy for 2020–
2025. However, horizontal and vertical gender segregation in education prevails. This segregation
in education lays the foundation for segregation in the labour market, which is a key barrier to
economic growth. Women’s disproportionate representation in sectors that are characterised by
lower pay, status and perceived value limits career opportunities. Even in these sectors, higher-level
positions are predominantly occupied by men.

There are sizeable and entrenched EU labour market shortages in ICT, healthcare and STEM at the
medium and high skill levels (Cedefop, 2024). Rapidly evolving technological innovations and
developments in artificial intelligence (AI) preserve strongly embedded pre-existing gender
inequalities and stereotypes. Too few women are in high-technology industries, research and
innovation. Despite promising career prospects in ICT, women hold only 2 in 10 ICT jobs in the
EU (38). The World Economic Forum, in collaboration with LinkedIn, found women make up only 7 %
of the 40 % of professionals in software and information technology services globally who possess
some AI skills. In 2022, only 30 % of AI professionals globally were women (World Economic Forum,
2023).

Most Member States have severe shortages in nearly all groups of healthcare workers. As the WHO
highlights, the healthcare workforce crisis is also a gender equality crisis (Kluge and Azzopardi-
Muscat, 2023). Gender inequalities contribute significantly to these shortages. Although women
constitute 75 % of the health workforce in Europe (WHO, 2022), they earn 24 % less than men (ILO
and WHO, 2022). Women also report having poorer working conditions and high rates of workplace
violence and sexual harassment, and they occupy fewer leadership positions than men.

Policies to reduce gender segregation in the labour market – sectoral and occupational – need to
address gender disparities. These include disparities in knowledge and skills stemming from
education and training, barriers to entering the labour market, organisational cultures and
practices, and stereotypical assumptions about gender-based capabilities and preferences. In the
care sector, urgent investment in working conditions, decent remuneration and prevention of
workplace harassment is critical for retaining staff and attracting more workers – men in
particular. With an ageing population and a lack of carers to meet demand, the sector has a high
potential for job creation. At least 1.6 million more long-term care workers will be needed by 2050
just to keep long-term care coverage at its current level (39).

Women’s under-representation and working conditions in the field of research and development
and among scientists in high-technology manufacturing and knowledge-intensive services also
need to remain high on policy agendas. For instance, gender pay gaps among highly qualified
professionals and exposure to sexual harassment in sectors dominated by men hamper wider

(38) Eurostat, isoc_sks_itsps, ‘Employed ICT specialists by sex, 2022’.


(39) Commission communication on the European care strategy (COM(2022) 440 final).

64 European Institute for Gender Equality


Conclusions

efforts to attract more women into STEM jobs and boost sectoral growth. EIGE estimates that
cutting the gender gap in STEM education could help reduce the skills gap and increase women’s
employment. This would contribute to an increase in the EU’s gross domestic product of EUR 610–
820 billion by 2050 (EIGE, 2017b).

Resolving care challenges is critical for an ageing EU

Gender inequalities in care have received unprecedented policy attention in recent years, resulting
in the adoption of the European care strategy, the work–life balance directive and many national
initiatives. The gender care gap underpins inequalities in employment, working conditions, earnings
and overall gender relations. Social norms and gender stereotypes ensure that the unequal
distribution of care work persists, despite there being more women in the labour market. Women
spending much more time on care and domestic work not only limits their work opportunities, but
also creates enormous work–life strains.

The double burden of work and care severely limits a carer’s time for leisure and self-care.
Consequently, women face a greater risk of parental burnout from the pressure of this double
burden, even in a two-parent family. EIGE’s CARE Survey (2022) shows that fathers undertake more
leisure activities than mothers. This is true whether they are lone parents or in a couple. Some
research suggests that fathers appear to be more vulnerable to parental demands and so may
need more resources than mothers to compensate for the accumulation of such demands, despite
being generally less involved in childcare and less exposed to parenting stress (Roskam and
Mikolajczak, 2020). Mothers see leisure time more as an opportunity to spend quality time with
their children than as an opportunity to spend time ‘on themselves’ (Merelas-Iglesias and Sánchez-
Bello, 2019).

Caregiving is an important factor influencing the physical and mental health of carers. They often
suffer accumulated and enduring stress and neglect their own health (Young et al., 2020). The
European Commission acknowledges that inequalities, including in families, work–life balance, and
violence and hate, cause poor mental health (40). Therefore, promoting equality is important for
better mental health. The Commission also calls for a comprehensive approach to health
determinants and for the integration of mental health across different policy areas, such as
employment, social protection and work–life balance.

Demand for formal and informal care will increase with growing demographic imbalances and
enduring crises. An ageing population directly affects informal care. Extreme weather events are
likely to have the greatest impact on the most disadvantaged groups – that is, children, people
with limitations in their daily activities and older people requiring more intense and extensive
informal care – putting more pressure on already overburdened formal care systems and public
finances.

(40) Commission communication on a comprehensive approach to mental health (COM(2023) 298 final).

European Institute for Gender Equality 65


Conclusions

Increasing the availability of care services is key to reducing the strain on time-intensive informal
care. This would ensure a healthier work–life balance for carers and help close employment gender
gaps. High-quality and affordable long-term care services also empower older people by helping to
maintain their autonomy and allowing them to live with dignity. More available care services would
need to work in tandem with improving the quality, affordability and accessibility of these services,
with particular attention paid to the most vulnerable communities. High costs are a key barrier to
parents enrolling children in early childhood education and care. Affordability is also a major
challenge for long-term care, as social protection coverage for such care is patchy and generally
limited. Member States’ commitments in two Council recommendations on long-term care and
early childhood education and care provide promising bases for improved well-being among carers
and care receivers, and better working conditions in the care sector. Strengthening health,
socioeconomic and institutional resilience to enhance crisis preparedness and crisis response
capacity, among other things, is a key EU response to COVID-19 through the Recovery and
Resilience Facility.

Redressing the gender power imbalance to renew democracy

As the first woman president of the European Commission, Ursula von der Leyen made gender
equality a pillar of her political agenda for the future of the EU. This has led to greater integration
of gender equality into EU governance, which has been made visible in particular by the nomination
of the first Equality Commissioner. The 2019–2024 Commission and European Parliament were the
most gender balanced ever. However, the new European Parliament is made up of 39 % women,
down from 41 % in the previous political term. This represents the first-ever decline in the
proportion of women MEPs, which had been consistently growing since 1979 (41).

While the gender gap in the domain of power is narrowing, the domain still has the lowest gender
equality score in the 2024 Index. Parliamentary and government composition at all territorial levels
too often fails to reflect the gender diversity of the population represented, with women
significantly in the minority in many cases. This is particularly relevant at times of multiple crises.
The gender imbalance in setting the security and defence agenda in an ongoing security crisis has
been glaring. In national governments across the EU, men hold three in four senior ministerial posts
covering defence issues (EIGE, 2023f). As the impact of climate change mounts and the need to
transition to a low-carbon economy increases, fewer than 2 in 10 ministries across the EU with
responsibilities for agriculture and transport are led by women – 15 % and 14 %, respectively (EIGE,
2023g). Such disparity undermines efforts to achieve a union of equality in every area for a real
green transition to occur.

In recognition of the fact that women face barriers in accessing leadership and decision-making
roles, specific policy measures are in place to boost gender equality, such as national quotas. So far,
11 Member States have adopted legislated gender quotas that apply to the lists of candidates for
national elections. Nevertheless, these quotas are not fully translating into gender-balanced

(41) https://results.elections.europa.eu/en/mep-gender-balance/2024-2029/.

66 European Institute for Gender Equality


Conclusions

representation (EIGE, 2024b). This suggests that quotas alone are not enough to translate
compliant candidate lists into electoral results. Additional rules to accompany these quotas are
needed to ensure equal visibility of women and men candidates within electoral systems, such as
on zipped lists and access to funding.

A decade after the directive on gender balance on company boards was first proposed, the
proportion of women on the boards of the largest companies listed in the Member States has
reached an all-time high of 33 %. Countries applying binding quotas or soft measures have seen
women’s representation on company boards reach double that in countries where no action has
been taken at all.

While these steps are necessary to shift the power balance and give meaning to democracy,
violence against women in decision-making roles, gender stereotypes and discrimination
compound the power imbalance by discouraging women from pursuing or maintaining political
careers (National Democratic Institute, 2021). Women’s limited presence in political arenas provides
a fertile ground for such violence to thrive, perpetuating the vicious cycle (EPRS, 2024). Social
media platforms have become a powerful source of violence, targeting women parliamentarians,
journalists and activists, mainly because of their political views and advocacy on women’s rights.
Not only does this deter young women from political office, it also inhibits their engagement in
public discourse (EIGE, 2019b). The EU’s accession to the Istanbul Convention and the recently
adopted EU directive on combating violence against women and domestic violence are landmark
efforts to end such violence. Success is a prerequisite for women’s enjoyment of political and social
rights. This includes playing their full part in power and decision-making to renew democracy in
uncertain times.

Gender-based violence is holding women back in most sectors

Women are disproportionately affected by violence and harassment in the workplace, particularly
in sectors dominated by men or involving precarious work arrangements. According to the ILO,
more than one in five people experience workplace violence, with women being particularly
vulnerable to sexual harassment and abuse. Insecure contracts, poor work–life balance and gender
stereotypes exacerbate the risk, with both paid and unpaid work environments posing threats.
Workplace segregation contributes to the issue, as women are often discouraged from entering
certain fields due to fear of harassment, which perpetuates the gender pay gap. Additionally,
violence, including economic abuse, is closely linked to income disparities, and financial dependence
on a partner can increase the risk of abuse. Governments and organisations can play a pivotal role
in addressing these issues, offering support and fostering a culture in which employees feel safe to
report incidents.

Beyond the workplace, gender-based violence permeates academia, politics and sports, further
hindering women’s participation and equality. In universities, women, non-binary individuals and
staff in precarious positions face high levels of violence, with serious impacts on their careers and
academic performance. Similarly, in sports, women are more at risk of sexual and psychological

European Institute for Gender Equality 67


Conclusions

violence, often perpetrated by those in power. Despite these challenges, initiatives such as those
focused on increasing women’s representation in sports leadership and creating safe reporting
mechanisms in politics aim to combat violence and promote gender equality across these sectors.

From that perspective, the EU’s accession to the Istanbul Convention in June 2023 and the approval
of the directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on combating violence against
women and domestic violence in May 2024 are long-awaited achievements. These are likely to
improve the prevention of and response to violence against women and better address the needs
of victims.

68 European Institute for Gender Equality


References
Berthet, V. (2022), ‘Mobilization against sexual harassment in the European Parliament: The
MeTooEP campaign’, European Journal of Women’s Studies, Vol. 29, No 2, pp. 331–346.

Boerma, T., Hosseinpoor, A. R., Verdes, E. and Chatterji, S. (2016), ‘A global assessment of the gender
gap in self-reported health with survey data from 59 countries’, BMC Public Health, Vol. 16, pp. 1–9.

Cedefop (European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training) (2024), Untangling Labour
Shortages in Europe – Unmet skill demand or bad jobs?, Publications Office of the European Union,
Luxembourg, https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/ebfe35ce-1333-11ef-a251-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en.

Daniele, G., Dipoppa, G. and Pulejo, M. (2023), ‘Attacking women or their policies? Understanding
violence against women in politics’, BAFFI CAREFIN Centre Research Papers, 29 September, No 207,
http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4587677.

Doseděl, T. (2022), ‘Poorly paid jobs or study fields? Gender pay gap of tertiary-educated
employees in contemporary European labour markets’, Population Review, Vol. 61, No 2, pp. 55–71.

EIGE (European Institute for Gender Equality) (2013), Gender Equality Index – Main findings, https://
eige.europa.eu/publications/gender-equality-index-main-findings.

EIGE (2017a), ‘Economic benefits of gender equality in the European Union’, EIGE Newsroom accessed
5 November 2024, https://eige.europa.eu/newsroom/economic-benefits-gender-equality?language_
content_entity=en#:~:text=GDP%20Per%20capita,1.95%20to%20%E2%82%AC3.15%20trillion.

EIGE (2017b), Economic benefits of gender equality in the European Union – Literature review:
Existing evidence and methodological approaches, Publications Office of the European Union,
Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/
economic-benefits-gender-equality-european-union-literature-review-existing-evidence-and-
methodological-approaches?language_content_entity=en.

EIGE (2017c), Gender Equality Index 2017 – Measurement framework of violence against women,
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications/
gender-equality-index-2017-measurement-framework-of-violence-against-women.

EIGE (2017d), Gender Equality Index 2017 – Methodological report, Publications Office of the
European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/
gender-equality-index-2017-methodological-report?language_content_entity=en.

EIGE (2018a), Women and Men in ICT – A chance for better work–life balance. Research note,
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications/
women-and-men-ict-chance-better-work-life-balance-research-note.

European Institute for Gender Equality 69


References

EIGE (2018b), Study and Work in the EU – Set apart by gender, Publications Office of the European
Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications/
study-and-work-eu-set-apart-gender-report.

EIGE (2019a), Tackling the Gender Pay Gap – Not without a better work–life balance, Publications
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications/
tackling-gender-pay-gap-not-without-better-work-life-balance.

EIGE (2019b), Gender Equality and Youth – Opportunities and risks of digitalisation, Publications
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications/
gender-equality-and-youth-opportunities-and-risks-digitalisation.

EIGE (2021a), The Covid-19 pandemic and intimate partner violence against women in the EU,
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications/
covid-19-pandemic-and-intimate-partner-violence-against-women-eu.

EIGE (2021b), Gender Equality Index 2021 – Health, Publications Office of the European Union,
Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/
gender-equality-index-2021-health?language_content_entity=en.

EIGE (2021c), Gender inequalities in care and consequences for the labour market, Publications
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/
publications/
gender-inequalities-care-and-consequences-labour-market?language_content_entity=en.

EIGE (2022a), Gender Equality Index 2022 – The COVID-19 pandemic and care, Publications Office of
the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/
gender-equality-index-2022-covid-19-pandemic-and-care.

EIGE (2022b), Combating coercive control and psychological violence against women in the EU
Member States, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/
publications/
combating-coercive-control-and-psychological-violence-against-women-eu-member-states.

EIGE (2023a), Understanding Economic Violence against Women – The need for harmonised
definitions and data in the EU, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.
europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/
understanding-economic-violence-against-women-need-harmonised-definitions-and-data-
eu?language_content_entity=en.

EIGE (2023b), Evidence to Action – Gender equality and gender mainstreaming in the COVID-19
recovery, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/
publications-resources/publications/
evidence-action-gender-equality-and-gender-mainstreaming-covid-19-recovery?language_
content_entity=en.

70 European Institute for Gender Equality


References

EIGE (2023c), Gender Equality Index 2023 – Towards a green transition in transport and energy,
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications-
resources/publications/
gender-equality-index-2023-towards-green-transition-transport-and-energy.

EIGE (2023d), A Better Work–Life Balance – Bridging the gender care gap, Publications Office of the
European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/
better-work-life-balance-bridging-gender-care-gap?language_content_entity=en.

EIGE (2023e), Improving legal responses to counter femicide in the European Union – Perspectives
from victims and professionals, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://
eige.europa.eu/publications/
improving-legal-responses-counter-femicide-european-union-perspectives-victims-and-
professionals.

EIGE (2023f), Gender Balance in the Security Sector, Publications Office of the European Union,
Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/
gender-balance-security-sector?language_content_entity=en.

EIGE (2023g), Gender Balance in the European Green Deal, Publications Office of the European
Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/
gender-balance-european-green-deal.

EIGE (2024a), Financial Independence and Gender Equality – Joining the dots between income,
wealth, and power, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/
publications-resources/publications/
financial-independence-and-gender-equality-joining-dots-between-income-wealth-and-power.

EIGE (2024b), Gender equality in the European Parliament and in national parliaments in the
European Union – 2023 state of play, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg,
https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/
gender-equality-european-parliament-and-national-parliaments-european-union-2023-state-play.

EIGE (2024c), Women Fleeing the War – Access to sexual and reproductive healthcare in the EU
under the temporary protection directive, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg,
https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/publications/
women-fleeing-war-access-sexual-and-reproductive-healthcare-eu-under-temporary-protection-
directive?language_content_entity=en.

EIGE (forthcoming), Gender Equality Index 2024: Violence against women, Publications Office of the
European Union, Luxembourg.

EPRS (European Parliamentary Research Service) (2023), Towards Gender Balance in the European
Elections – Electoral quotas: What can they achieve?, briefing, European Parliament, https://www.
europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023/751447/​EPRS_BRI(2023)751447_EN.pdf.

European Institute for Gender Equality 71


References

EPRS (2024), Violence against women active in politics in the EU – A serious obstacle to political
participation, briefing, European Parliament, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/
BRIE/2024/759600/EPRS_BRI(2024)759600_EN.pdf.

Erikson, J., Håkansson, S. and Josefsson, C. (2023), ‘Three dimensions of gendered online abuse:
Analysing Swedish MPs’ experiences of social media’, Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 21, No 3,
pp. 896–912.

EU-OSHA (European Agency for Safety and Health at Work) (2022), Psychosocial risks in the health
and social care sector, discussion paper, Bilbao, https://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/
psychosocial-risks-health-and-social-care-sector.

Eurofound (European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions) (2017),
‘Segregation’, European Industrial Relations Dictionary, 8 February, accessed 5 November 2024,
https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/en/european-industrial-relations-dictionary/segregation.

Eurofound (2023), ‘Violence in the workplace: Women and frontline workers face higher risks’,
Eurofound website, 27 February, accessed 5 November 2024, https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/
en/blog/2023/violence-workplace-women-and-frontline-workers-face-higher-
risks#:~:text=Violence%20in%20the%20workplace%3A%20Women%20and%20frontline%20
workers%20face%20higher%20risks,-27%20February%202023&text=Women%20and%20
frontline%20workers%20are,%2C%20exhaustion%2C%20anxiety%20and%20depression.

Eurofound (2024), Living and Working in Europe 2023, Publications Office of the European Union,
Luxembourg, https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/en/publications/2024/
living-and-working-europe-2023.

Eurofound and EIGE (2021), Upward Convergence in Gender Equality – How close is the union of
equality?, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eige.europa.eu/
publications/upward-convergence-gender-equality-how-close-union-equality?lang=sk.

European Commission (n.d.), ‘EU comprehensive approach to mental health’, European Commission
website accessed 5 November 2024, https://health.ec.europa.eu/non-communicable-diseases/
mental-health_en#a-comprehensive-approach-to-mental-health.

European Commission (2016), Study on Gender-based Violence in Sport, Publications Office of the
European Union, Luxembourg, https://sport.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/
gender-based-violence-sport-study-2016_en.pdf.

European Commission (2018), Flash Eurobarometer 470 – Report: Work–life balance, https://
europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2185.

European Commission (2019), ‘The European Pillar of Social Rights in 20 principles’, European
Commission website, accessed 5 November 2024, https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/

72 European Institute for Gender Equality


References

priorities-2019-2024/economy-works-people/jobs-growth-and-investment/european-pillar-social-
rights/european-pillar-social-rights-20-principles_en.

European Commission (2022a), Communication from the Commission on a European strategy for
universities, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://education.ec.europa.
eu/sites/default/files/2022-01/communication-european-strategy-for-universities-graphic-version.
pdf.

European Commission (2022b), Towards More Gender Equality in Sport – Recommendations and
action plan from the High Level Group on Gender Equality in Sport (2022), Publications Office of the
European Union, Luxembourg, https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/
publication/684ab3af-9f57-11ec-83e1-01aa75ed71a1.

European Commission (2022c), ‘Shifting health challenges’, European Commission website,


19 September, accessed 5 November 2024, https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/
shifting-health-challenges_en.

European Commission (2023a), Employment and Social Developments in Europe – Addressing


labour shortages and skills gaps in the EU, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg,
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/089698.

European Commission (2023b), Flash Eurobarometer 530 – Mental health: Report, Publications
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/3032.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Communication (2018), ‘Special Eurobarometer 472:


Sport and physical activity’, 22 March, accessed 5 November 2024, https://data.europa.eu/data/
datasets/s2164_88_4_472_eng?locale=en.

European Nursing Research Foundation (2022), Workplace Violence against Nurses in the European
Union, policy brief, Brussels, https://www.enrf.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/ENRF-Policy-Brief-
Violence-Against-Nurses-November-2022.pdf.

European Parliament (2024), ‘Roberta Metsola re-elected as President of the European Parliament’,
press release, European Parliament website, 16 July, accessed 5 November 2024, https://www.
europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20240710IPR22805/roberta-metsola-re-elected-as-
president-of-the-european-parliament#:~:text=On%20Tuesday%2C%20MEPs%20
re%2Delected,paper%20ballot%2C%20among%20two%20candidates.

European Parliament: Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs (2024),
Gender aspects of the rising cost of living and the impact of the energy crisis, Brussels, https://
www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2024/754488/IPOL_STU(2024)754488_EN.pdf.

Every-Palmer, S., Hansby, O. and Barry-Walsh, J. (2024), ‘Stalking, harassment, gendered abuse, and
violence towards politicians in the COVID-19 pandemic and recovery era’, Frontiers in Psychiatry,
Vol. 15, pp. 1–11.

European Institute for Gender Equality 73


References

Fasting, K., Chroni, S., Hervik, S. E. and Knorre, N. (2011), ‘Sexual harassment in sport toward
females in three European countries’, International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Vol. 46, No 1,
pp. 76–89.

Fernandes, J. M., Lopes da Fonseca, M. and Won, M. (2023), ‘Closing the gender gap in legislative
debates: The role of gender quotas’, Political Behavior, Vol. 45, No 3, pp. 897–921.

Forman-Rabinovici, A. and Nir, L. (2021), ‘Personalism or party platform? Gender quotas and
women’s representation under different electoral system orientations’, PLOS One, Vol. 16, No 9,
e0257665.

FRA (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights) (2014), Violence against Women – An
EU-wide survey. Main results, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://fra.
europa.eu/en/publication/2014/violence-against-women-eu-wide-survey-main-results-report.

FRA (2023), Roma in 10 European Countries – Main results, Publications Office of the European
Union, Luxembourg, https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/
fra-2022-roma-survey-2021-main-results2_en.pdf.

FRA (2024), LGBTIQ Equality at a Crossroads – Progress and challenges, Publications Office of the
European Union, Luxembourg, https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/
fra-2024-lgbtiq-equality_en.pdf.

Goldberg, A. E. (2018), Transgender Students in Higher Education, University of California, Los


Angeles: Williams Institute, Los Angeles, https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/
trans-students-higher-education/.

Gumà, J., Solé-Auró, A. and Arpino, B. (2019), ‘Examining social determinants of health: The role of
education, household arrangements and country groups by gender’, BMC Public Health, Vol. 19,
pp. 1–9.

Håkansson, S. (2021), ‘Do women pay a higher price for power? Gender bias in political violence in
Sweden’, Journal of Politics, Vol. 83, No 2, pp. 515–531.

ILO (2017), ‘The gender gap in employment: What’s holding women back?’, ILO website, updated,
accessed 5 November 2024, https://webapps.ilo.org/infostories/en-GB/Stories/Employment/
barriers-women#intro.

ILO (2019), ‘C190 – Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190)’, ILO website, accessed
5 November 2024, https://normlex.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/
en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C190.

ILO (2024), Preventing and addressing violence and harassment in the world of work through
occupational safety and health measures, Geneva, https://www.ilo.org/publications/major-
publications/preventing-and-addressing-violence-and-harassment-world-work-through.

74 European Institute for Gender Equality


References

ILO and WHO (2022), The gender pay gap in the health and care sector – A global analysis in the time
of COVID-19, Geneva, https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240052895#:~:text=The%20
results%20of%20this%20groundbreaking,the%20health%20and%20care%20sector.

International Olympic Committee (2024), ‘#GenderEqualOlympics: Paris 2024 making history on the
field of play’, International Olympic Committee website, 28 July, accessed 5 November 2024,
https://olympics.com/ioc/news/
genderequalolympics-paris-2024-making-history-on-the-field-of-play.

Kluge, H. and Azzopardi-Muscat, N. (2023), ‘The health workforce crisis in Europe is also a gender
equality crisis’, British Medical Journal, Vol. 380, p. 554.

Konow-Lund, M. and Høiby, M. (2023), ‘Female investigative journalists: Overcoming threats,


intimidation, and violence with gendered strategies’, Journalism Practice, Vol. 17, No 8,
pp. 1591–1606.

Krook, M. L. and Sanín, J. R. (2020), ‘The cost of doing politics? Analyzing violence and harassment
against female politicians’, Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 18, No 3, pp. 740–755.

Kuhlmann, E., Brînzac, M. G., Czabanowska, K., Falkenbach, M., Ungureanu, M.-I. et al. (2023),
‘Violence against healthcare workers is a political problem and a public health issue: A call to
action’, European Journal of Public Health, Vol. 33, No 1, pp. 4–5.

Lahti, A., Kyllönen, M., Pusa, S., Tolvanen, A. and Laakso, N. (2020), Häirintä suomalaisessa
kilpaurheilussa, Suomen urheilun eettinen keskus SUEK ry, Helsinki, https://suek.fi/wp-content/
uploads/2020/09/Ha%CC%88irinta%CC%88-suomalaisessa-kilpaurheilussa.pdf.

Lee, S. Y., Hanson, M. D. and Cheung, H. K. (2019), ‘Incorporating bystander intervention into sexual
harassment training’, Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 12, No 1, pp. 52–57.

Lewis, N. V., Munas, M., Colombini, M., d’Oliveira, A. F., Pereira, S. et al. (2022), ‘Interventions in sexual
and reproductive health services addressing violence against women in low-income and middle-
income countries: A mixed-methods systematic review’, BMJ Open, Vol. 12, No 2, e051924.

Li, M., Turki, N., Izaguirre, C. R., DeMahy, C., Thibodeaux, B. L. et al. (2021), ‘Twitter as a tool for social
movement: An analysis of feminist activism on social media communities’, Journal of Community
Psychology, Vol. 49, No 3, pp. 854–868.

Lipinsky, A., Schredl, C., Baumann, H., Humbert, A. and Tanwar, J. (2022), Gender-based Violence and
Its Consequences in European Academia – Summary results from the UniSAFE survey, Unisafe
project No 101006261, https://unisafe-gbv.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/UniSAFE-survey_
prevalence-results_2022.pdf.

Menzel, T., Braumüller, B. and Hartmann-Tews, I. (2019), The relevance of sexual orientation and
gender identity in sport in Europe – Findings from the Outsport survey, German Sport University

European Institute for Gender Equality 75


References

Cologne, Institute of Sociology and Gender Studies, Cologne, https://fis.dshs-koeln.de/en/


publications/the-relevance-of-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity-in-sport-/publications/.

Merelas-Iglesias, T. and Sánchez-Bello, A. (2019), ‘Benefits of leisure in overcoming gender violence


experiences: A case study’, Leisure Studies, Vol. 38, No 1, pp. 15–27.

Miranda, J., Silveirinha, M. J., Sampaio-Dias, S., Dias, B., Garcez, B. et al. (2023), ‘ ‘It comes with the
job”: How journalists navigate experiences and perceptions of gendered online harassment’,
International Journal of Communication, Vol. 17, p. 21.

Namatovu, F., Ineland, J. and Lövgren, V. (2024), ‘Exploring the perspectives of professionals on
providing intimate partner violence services to women with disabilities’, Violence against Women,
Vol. 30, No 2, pp. 622–640.

National Democratic Institute (2021), Political participation and violence against women in politics
in southeastern Europe, Sarajevo, https://www.ndi.org/sites/default/files/NDI%20Violence%20
Against%20Women%20in%20Politics%20in%20SE%20Europe.pdf.

OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) and European Union (2022),
Health at a Glance: Europe 2022 – State of health in the EU cycle, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://
www.oecd.org/en/publications/health-at-a-glance-europe-2022_507433b0-en.html.

OECD, European Union and European Commission: Joint Research Centre (2008), Handbook on
Constructing Composite Indicators: Methodology and user guide, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.
org/10.1787/9789264043466-en.

Ohlert, J., Vertommen, T., Rulofs, B., Rau, T. and Allroggen, M. (2021), ‘Elite athletes’ experiences of
interpersonal violence in organized sport in Germany, the Netherlands, and Belgium’, European
Journal of Sport Science, Vol. 21, No 4, pp. 604–613.

Olivetti, C. and Petrongolo, B. (2017), ‘The economic consequences of family policies: Lessons from a
century of legislation in high-income countries’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 31, No 1,
pp. 205–230.

Pateman, L. (2024), ‘Législatives 2024: les femmes sont-elles investies dans les circonscriptions les
moins favorables?’, Le Monde, 26 June, accessed 5 November 2024, https://www.lemonde.fr/
les-decodeurs/article/2024/06/26/legislatives-2024-les-femmes-sont-elles-investies-dans-les-
circonscriptions-les-moins-favorables_6243813_4355770.html.

Powell, A., Sandy, L. and Findling, J. (2015), Promising practices in workplace and organisational
approaches for the prevention of violence against women, Our Watch, RMIT University, Melbourne,
https://researchrepository.rmit.edu.au/esploro/outputs/report/Promising-practices-in-workplace-
and-organisational/9921862627001341.

76 European Institute for Gender Equality


References

Refuge (2022), ‘New data from Refuge warns that cost of living crisis is forcing survivors of domestic
abuse to stay with abusive partners’, press release, Refuge website, accessed 5 November 2024,
10 November, accessed 5 November 2024, https://refuge.org.uk/news/
new-data-from-refuge-warns-that-cost-of-living-crisis-is-forcing-survivors-of-domestic-abuse-to-
stay-with-abusive-partners/.

Reuters (2023), ‘Most online hate targets women, says EU report’, Reuters website, 29 November,
accessed 5 November 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/
most-online-hate-targets-women-says-eu-report-2023-11-29/.

Roskam, I. and Mikolajczak, M. (2020), ‘Gender differences in the nature, antecedents and
consequences of parental burnout’, Sex Roles, Vol. 83, No 7, pp. 485–498.

Rossi, M. F., Beccia, F., Cittadini, F., Amantea, C., Aulino, G. et al. (2023), ‘Workplace violence against
healthcare workers: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses’, Public Health,
Vol. 221, pp. 50–59.

Salazar, L. and Moline, A. (2023), Increasing Women’s Representation in Business Leadership, World
Bank, Washington DC, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/39870.

Sarikakis, K., Kassa, B. E., Fenz, N., Goldschmitt, S., Kasser, J. et al. (2023), ‘ “My haters and I”:
Personal and political responses to hate speech against female journalists in Austria’, Feminist
Media Studies, Vol. 23, No 1, pp. 67–82.

Scottish Women’s Aid (2022), SWA Briefing – The cost of living crisis the impact on women
experiencing domestic abuse, Edinburgh, https://womensaid.scot/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/
SWA-Briefing-the-cost-of-living-crisis-Sept-22.pdf.

Sotirovic, P. and Blažytė, G. (2024), ‘What makes academia (un)safe: Experiences, observations, and
consequences of gender-based violence in different stages of individual researchers’ careers’, in:
Limantė, A., Tereškinas, A. and Vaičiūnienė, R. (eds), Gender-based Violence and the Law, Taylor &
Francis, London, pp. 206–232.

Temmerman, M. (2015), ‘Research priorities to address violence against women and girls’, The
Lancet, Vol. 385, No 9978, e38–e40.

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) (2021), The Chilling:
Global trends in online violence against women journalists, Paris, https://www.researchgate.net/
profile/Nabeelah-Shabbir/publication/352561848_The_Chilling_Global_trends_in_online_
violence_against_women_journalists/links/60d07b5492851ca3acb83d2e/The-Chilling-Global-
trends-in-online-violence-against-women-journalists.pdf.

UNESCO (2024), ‘Towards a safer playing field: Tackling violence against women and girls in sport’,
UNESCO website, 18 April (updated 24 April), accessed 5 November 2024, https://www.unesco.org/
en/articles/towards-safer-playing-field-tackling-violence-against-women-and-girls-sport.

European Institute for Gender Equality 77


References

Unisafe consortium (2022), Unisafe Policy Brief 1 – Findings on gender-based violence in higher
education and research to inform policy makers, https://zenodo.org/records/7333222.

Vertommen, T., Kampen, J., Schipper-van Veldhoven, N., Wouters, K., Uzieblo, K. et al. (2017),
‘Profiling perpetrators of interpersonal violence against children in sport based on a victim survey’,
Child Abuse & Neglect, Vol. 63, pp. 172–182.

WHO (2022), Health and Care Workforce in Europe – Time to act, Copenhagen, https://www.who.
int/europe/publications/i/item/9789289058339.

WHO (2024), ‘Violence against women’, WHO website, 25 March, accessed 5 November 2024,
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women.

WHO Regional Office for Europe (2023), ‘The health workforce crisis in Europe is no longer a
looming threat – it is here and now. The Bucharest Declaration charts a way forward’, press release,
WHO website, 22 March, accessed 5 November 2024, https://www.who.int/europe/news/
item/22-03-2023-the-health-workforce-crisis-in-europe-is-no-longer-a-looming-threat---it-is-here-
and-now.-the-bucharest-declaration-charts-a-way-forward.

Women’s Budget Group (2022), The Gendered Impact of the Cost-of-living Crisis, London, https://
wbg.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/The-gendered-impact-of-the-cost-of-living-crisis.pdf.

Women’s Resource Centre (2023), The impacts of the cost-of-living crisis on the women’s sector,
London, https://www.wrc.org.uk/Handlers/Download.
ashx?IDMF=549ce278-7616-4b1b-9b16-12f749d2bb21.

World Economic Forum (2023), Global Gender Gap Report 2023, Geneva, https://www3.weforum.
org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2023.pdf.

Young, H. M., Bell, J. F., Whitney, R. L., Ridberg, R. A., Reed, S. C. et al. (2020), ‘Social determinants of
health: Underreported heterogeneity in systematic reviews of caregiver interventions’, The
Gerontologist, Vol. 60, Supplement 1, S14–S28.

Zając, T., Magda, I., Bożykowski, M., Chłoń-Domińczak, A. and Jasiński, M. (2024), ‘Gender pay gaps
across STEM fields of study’, Studies in Higher Education, pp. 1–14.

78 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes
Annex 1. List of indicators of the Gender Equality Index
Index edition
Sub- Indicator and reference
Domain No Description Source 2013 2015 2017 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
domain population
Data used
The FTE employment rate is a unit
to measure employed people in a
way that makes them comparable Eurostat,
2021 (break in
even though they may work a EU-LFS, EIGE’s 2022,
FTE employment rate (%, time series),
1 different number of hours per calculations 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 population
population aged 15+) population
PARTICIPATION

week. A full-time worker is counted using aged 15–89


aged 15–89
as one FTE, while a part-time worker microdata
gets a score in proportion to the
hours he or she works
The ‘duration of working life’
Duration of working life indicator measures the number of Eurostat
2 (years, population aged years a person aged 15 is expected (lfsi_dwl_a), 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
15+) to be active in the labour market EU-LFS
throughout his or her life
Percentage of people employed in
Employed people in NACE sections P (education) and Q 2021 (break in
Eurostat 2022,
education, human health (human health and social work) time series),
3 (lfsa_egan2), 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 population
and social work activities economic activities among the total population
EU-LFS aged 15–89
WORK

(%, aged 15+) employed population (based on aged 15–89


NACE revision 2)
SEGREGATION AND QUALITY OF WORK

Eurofound,
Ability to take an hour or
Percentage of people who consider EWCS, EWCTS,
two off during working 2021 (break in 2021 (break in
it ‘very easy’ to take an hour or two EIGE’s
4 hours to take care of 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 time series), time series),
off during working hours to take calculations
personal or family matters EWCTS EWCTS
care of personal or family matters using
(%, workers aged 15+)
microdata
The Career Prospects Index
combines the indicators of
employment status (self-employed
or employed), type of contract,
Eurofound,
prospects for career advancement
EWCS, EIGE’s
Career Prospects Index as perceived by the worker,
5 calculations 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015
(points, 0–100) perceived likelihood of losing one’s
using
job and experience of downsizing in
microdata
the organisation. It is measured on
a scale from 0 to 100, where the
higher the score, the higher the job
quality

European Institute for Gender Equality 79


Annexes

Index edition
Sub- Indicator and reference
Domain No Description Source 2013 2015 2017 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
domain population
Data used
Mean monthly earnings in PPS, in Eurostat
the sectors of industry, (earn_
construction and services (except ses10_20),
Mean monthly earnings public administration, defence, (earn_ 2014 (EL, 2018 (EL:
6 2010 2010 2014 2014 2018 2018 2018
FINANCIAL RESOURCES

(PPS, working population) compulsory social security) (NACE ses14_20), HR: 2010) 2014)
revision 2 sections B–S, excluding O; (earn_
all ages, working in companies of 10 ses18_20);
employees or more) SES
Equivalised disposable income in
PPS is the total income of a
Mean equivalised net household, after tax and other Eurostat 2021 (LU: 2022 (FR, LU:
7 income (PPS, population deductions, that is available for (ilc_di03), 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 break in time break in time
MONEY

aged 16+) spending or saving, divided by the EU-SILC series) series)


number of household members and
converted into equalised adults
Not-at-risk-of-poverty
Eurostat 2021 (LU: 2022 (FR, LU:
rate, ≥ 60 % of median
ECONOMIC SITUATION

8 Reverse indicator of the AROP rate (ilc_li02), 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 break in time break in time
income (%, population
EU-SILC series) series)
aged 16+)
Eurostat,
EU-SILC,
S80/S20 income quintile 2021 (LU: 2022 (FR, LU:
Calculated as S80/S20 income Eurostat 2015 (IE:
9 share (population aged 2010 2012 2017 2018 2019 2020 break in time break in time
quintile share ratio × 100 calculations 2014)
16+) series) series)
on EIGE’s
request

80 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Index edition
Sub- Indicator and reference
Domain No Description Source 2013 2015 2017 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
domain population
Data used
Educational attainment measures
ATTAINMENT AND PARTICIPATION

the share of highly educated people


Eurostat,
among men and women, that is, the 2021 (break in
Graduates of tertiary EU-LFS, EIGE’s 2022,
percentage of people with a tertiary time series),
10 education (%, population calculations 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 population
education as their highest level population
aged 15+) using aged 15–89
successfully completed (ISCED levels aged 15–89
microdata
5–8) among the total population
aged 15+
Eurostat,
People participating in Percentage of people participating 2021 (break in
EU-LFS, EIGE’s 2022,
KNOWLEDGE

formal or non-formal in formal or non-formal education time series),


11 calculations 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 population
education and training (%, and training among the total population
using aged 15–74
population aged 15+) population aged 15+ aged 15–74
microdata
2017 (BG,
CZ, IE, EL, FR,
Eurostat: HR, IT, CY,
Tertiary students in the Percentage of people who are 2017 (SI
SEGREGATION

education HU, MT, PT,


fields of education, health studying in F01 (education), F02 (ED7 –
statistics 2010 (LU: 2015 (IE, EL: RO, SK, FI, SE,
12 and welfare, and (arts and humanities) and F09 2012 master’s or 2018 2020 2021 2022
(educ_enrl5), 2011) 2014) UK: 2016. SI
humanities and arts (%, (health and welfare) in ISCED levels equivalent),
(educ_uoe_ (ED7 –
population aged 15+) 5–8 n/a: 2016)
enrt03) master’s or
equivalent),
n/a*: 2016

European Institute for Gender Equality 81


Annexes

Index edition
Sub- Indicator and reference
Domain No Description Source 2013 2015 2017 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
domain population
Data used
Eurofound,
People caring for and EQLS, EIGE’s 2022 (break in
Percentage of people involved in 2022,
educating their children or survey on time series),
caring for at least one of the population
grandchildren, older people unpaid care, population
13 following groups outside paid work 2007 2012 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 aged 18–74,
or people with disabilities EIGE’s aged 18–74,
every day: children, grandchildren, EIGE’s survey
every day (%, population calculations EIGE’s survey
CARE ACTIVITIES

older people and disabled people on unpaid care


aged 18+) using on unpaid care
microdata
Eurofound,
EQLS, EIGE’s 2022 (break in
2022,
survey on time series),
People doing cooking and/ Percentage of people involved in population
unpaid care, population
14 or housework every day cooking and/or housework outside 2007 2012 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 aged 18–74,
EIGE’s aged 18–74,
(%, population aged 18+) paid work every day EIGE’s survey
calculations EIGE’s survey
on unpaid care
using on unpaid care
microdata
TIME

Eurofound,
Workers doing sporting, EWCS, EIGE’s 2022 (break in 2022 (break in
cultural or leisure activities Percentage of working people doing survey on time series), time series),
outside their home daily or sporting, cultural or leisure unpaid care, population population
15 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015
at least several times a activities daily or at least several EIGE’s aged 16–74, aged 16–74,
SOCIAL ACTIVITIES

week (%, workers aged times a week calculations EIGE’s survey EIGE’s survey
15+) using on unpaid care on unpaid care
microdata
Eurofound,
EWCS, EIGE’s 2022 (break in 2022 (break in
Workers involved in
survey on time series), time series,
voluntary or charitable Percentage of working people
unpaid care, population population
16 activities at least once a involved in voluntary or charitable 2010 2010 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015
EIGE’s aged 16–74, aged 16–74,
month (%, workers aged activities at least once a month
calculations EIGE’s survey EIGE’s survey
15+)
using on unpaid care on unpaid care
microdata

82 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Index edition
Sub- Indicator and reference
Domain No Description Source 2013 2015 2017 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
domain population
Data used
EIGE gender
Share of women and men statistics 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2017, 2018, 2018, 2019, 2019, 2020, 2020, 2021, 2021, 2022,
17 Share of women and men ministers
ministers (%) database on 2011 2013 2016 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
WMID
EIGE gender
Share of women and men
Share of women and men members statistics 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2017, 2018, 2018, 2019, 2019, 2020, 2020, 2021, 2021, 2022,
18 members of parliament
POLITICAL

of parliament database on 2011 2013 2016 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
(%)
WMID
Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional
Regional Regional
assembly: assembly: assembly: assembly: assembly: assembly: assembly:
EIGE gender assembly: assembly:
Share of women and men 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2017, 2018, 2018, 2019, 2019, 2020,
Share of women and men members statistics 2020, 2021, 2021, 2022,
19 members of regional 2011. 2013. 2016. 2018. 2019. 2020. 2021.
of regional assemblies database on 2022. 2023.
assemblies (%) Local-level Local-level Local-level Local-level Local-level Local-level Local-level
WMID Local-level Local-level
politics: politics: politics: politics: politics: politics: politics:
politics: 2022 politics: 2023
2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2020 2021
Share of women and men
EIGE gender
board members of the Share of women and men board
statistics 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2017, 2018, 2018, 2019, 2019, 2020, 2020, 2021, 2021, 2022,
20 largest listed companies – members of the largest listed
database on 2011 2013 2016 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
ECONOMIC

supervisory boards or companies


POWER

WMID
boards of directors (%)
EIGE gender
Share of women and men
Share of women and men board statistics 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2017, 2018, 2018, 2019, 2019, 2020, 2020, 2021, 2021, 2022,
21 board members of central
members of central banks database on 2011 2013 2016 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
banks (%)
WMID
2018, 2019, 2019, 2020,
2017, 2018, 2020, 2021, 2021, 2022,
Share of women and men Share of women and men board EIGE gender 2020 (IT, 2021 (IT,
2017 and 2019 (IT, RO: 2022 (IT, RO: 2023 (IT, RO:
board members of members of the highest decision- statistics RO: only RO: only
22 2017 2017 2017 2018 (IT: only 2018, only 2018, only 2018,
research-funding making bodies of research-funding database on 2018, break 2018, break
only 2017) break in break in time break in time
organisations (%) organisations WMID in time in time
time series) series) series)
series) series)
Share of women and men EIGE gender
SOCIAL

Share of women and men board


board members of publicly statistics 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2017, 2018, 2018, 2019, 2019, 2020, 2020, 2021, 2021, 2022,
23 members of publicly owned 2014 2014
owned broadcasting database on 2016 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
broadcasting organisations
organisations (%) WMID
Share of women and men Share of women and men members
EIGE gender
members of the highest of the highest decision-making
statistics 2015 and 2015, 2018 2018, 2019, 2019, 2020, 2020, 2021, 2021, 2022,
24 decision-making bodies of bodies of the sport organisations of 2015 2015 2015
database on 2018 and 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
the national Olympic sport the 10 most popular national
WMID
organisations (%) Olympic sports

European Institute for Gender Equality 83


Annexes

Index edition
Sub- Indicator and reference
Domain No Description Source 2013 2015 2017 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
domain population
Data used
2020 (IT:
Eurostat
Self-perceived health – 2019. DE, IE, 2021 (LU: 2022 (FR, LU:
Percentage of people assessing (hlth_ 2012 (HR:
25 good or very good (%, 2010 2015 2017 2018 2019 FR, LU: break in time break in time
their health as ‘very good’ or ‘good’ silc_01), 2011 (M))
population aged 16+) break in series) series)
EU-SILC
time series)
2010 (IT: 2012 (SE:
2015. 2016.
Life expectancy at a certain age is 2009). 2011). 2022 (EU, BG,
Total: Total: 2021 (EU, CZ,
Life expectancy in absolute the mean additional number of Eurostat Total: Total: HR, HU, PL, PT:
26 average of average of 2018 2019 2020 HR, PT: break
STATUS

value at birth (years) years that a person of that age can (hlth_hlye) average of average of break in time
women and women and in time series)
expect to live women and women and series)
men men
men men
2022 (EU, BG,
2010 (IT: 2012 (SE:
Healthy life years measures the 2015. 2016. DE, FR, HR, LU,
2009). 2011). 2020 (DK,
Healthy life years in number of remaining years that a Total: Total: 2019 (BE: 2021 (LU: HU, PL, PT:
Eurostat Total: Total: DE, IE, FR,
HEALTH

27 absolute value at birth person of a specific age is expected average of average of 2018 break in break in time break in time
(hlth_hlye) average of average of LU: break in
(years) to live without any severe or women and women and time series) series) series. FR, NL,
women and women and time series)
moderate health problems men men PT: provisional.
men men
RO: estimated)
2014 (EU: 2014 (EU: 2014 (EU: 2014 (EU: 2014 (EU: 2014 (EU:
Eurostat,
People who do not smoke Percentage of people who are not non- non- non- non- non- non-
EHIS, Eurostat 2019 (EU, FI: 2019 (EU, FI: 2019 (EU, FI:
and are not involved in involved in risky behaviour (i.e. do weighted weighted weighted weighted weighted weighted
28 calculations EIGE EIGE EIGE
harmful drinking (%, not smoke and are not involved in average. FR, average. FR, average. FR, average. FR, average. FR, average. FR,
at EIGE’s estimation) estimation) estimation)
population aged 16+) heavy episodic drinking) NL: EIGE NL: EIGE NL: EIGE NL: EIGE NL: EIGE NL: EIGE
BEHAVIOUR

request
estimation) estimation estimation) estimation) estimation) estimation)
2014 (EU: 2014 (EU: 2014 (EU: 2014 (EU: 2014 (EU: 2014 (EU:
People doing physical Percentage of people who are Eurostat,
non- non- non- non- non- non-
activities and/or physically active for at least EHIS, Eurostat
weighted weighted weighted weighted weighted weighted
29 consuming fruits and 150 minutes per week and/or calculations 2019 2019 2019
average. BE, average. BE, average. BE, average. BE, average. BE, average. BE,
vegetables (%, population consume at least five portions of at EIGE’s
NL: EIGE NL: EIGE NL: EIGE NL: EIGE NL: EIGE NL: EIGE
aged 16+) fruit and vegetables per day request
estimation) estimation) estimation) estimation) estimation) estimation)

84 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Index edition
Sub- Indicator and reference
Domain No Description Source 2013 2015 2017 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
domain population
Data used
2020 (IT:
Population without unmet Eurostat
2019. DE, IE, 2021 (LU: 2022 (FR, LU:
needs for medical Self-reported unmet needs for (hlth_
30 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 FR, LU: break in time break in time
examination (%, medical examination silc_08),
break in series) series)
population aged 16+) EU-SILC
HEALTH

ACCESS

time series)
2020 (IT:
People without unmet Eurostat
2019. DE, IE, 2021 (LU: 2022 (FR, LU:
needs for dental Self-reported unmet needs for (hlth_
31 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 FR, LU: break in time break in time
examination (%, dental examination silc_09),
break in series) series)
population aged 16+) EU-SILC
time series)
Eurostat:
ADDITIONAL

population
VARIABLE

Population aged 18 and Number of people aged 18 and statistics 2009 and 2011 and 2014 and 2016 and 2017 and 2018 and 2019 and 2020 and 2021 and
older older in the country (demo_ 2011 2013 2016 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
pjanbroad),
(demo_pjan)

NB: Eurofound, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions; NACE, general industrial classification of economic activities within the EU; PPS, purchasing power standard; WMID, women and men in
decision-making.
* n/a - not available.

European Institute for Gender Equality 85


Annexes

Annex 2. Gender Equality Index scores

Table 2. Gender Equality Index scores, ranks and changes in score by Member State

Member Score (points) Change in score Rank


State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010–2022 2021–2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU 63.1 64.4 65.7 66.9 67.4 68.0 68.6 70.2 71.0 7.9 0.8 — — — — — — — — —
BE 69.3 70.2 70.5 71.1 71.4 72.7 74.2 76.0 76.1 6.8 0.1 5 5 6 7 8 8 8 5 5
BG 55.0 56.9 58.0 58.8 59.6 59.9 60.7 65.1 64.5 9.5 – 0.6 16 14 15 18 18 18 18 16 17
CZ 55.6 56.7 53.6 55.7 56.2 56.7 57.2 57.9 59.9 4.3 2.0 13 16 22 20 22 22 23 25 23
DK 75.2 75.6 76.8 77.5 77.4 77.8 77.8 77.8 78.8 3.6 1.0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
DE 62.6 64.9 65.5 66.9 67.5 68.6 68.7 70.8 72.0 9.4 1.2 10 11 11 11 11 10 11 11 10
EE 53.4 53.5 56.7 59.8 60.7 61.6 61.0 60.2 60.8 7.4 0.6 20 21 19 16 17 17 17 22 21
IE 65.4 67.7 69.5 71.3 72.2 73.1 74.3 73.0 73.4 8.0 0.4 8 7 7 6 6 7 7 9 9
EL 48.6 50.1 50.0 51.2 52.2 52.5 53.4 58.0 59.3 10.7 1.3 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 24 25
ES 66.4 67.4 68.3 70.1 72.0 73.7 74.6 76.4 76.7 10.3 0.3 7 8 10 8 7 6 6 4 4
FR 67.5 68.9 72.6 74.6 75.1 75.5 75.1 75.7 76.1 8.6 0.4 6 6 5 3 3 4 5 6 6
HR 52.3 52.6 53.1 55.6 57.9 59.2 60.7 60.7 59.7 7.4 – 1.0 24 22 23 21 19 19 19 20 24
IT 53.3 56.5 62.1 63.0 63.5 63.8 65.0 68.2 69.2 15.9 1.0 21 17 13 13 13 14 14 13 14
CY 49.0 50.6 55.1 56.3 56.9 57.0 57.3 60.7 60.9 11.9 0.2 26 26 21 19 20 21 22 21 20
LV 55.2 56.2 57.9 59.7 60.8 62.1 61.4 61.5 62.6 7.4 1.1 15 18 16 17 16 16 16 19 19
LT 54.9 54.2 56.8 55.5 56.3 58.4 60.6 64.1 65.8 10.9 1.7 17 20 18 22 21 20 20 17 16
LU 61.2 65.9 69.0 69.2 70.3 72.4 73.5 74.7 75.4 14.2 0.7 11 10 8 9 9 9 9 7 7
HU 52.4 51.8 50.8 51.9 53.0 53.4 54.2 57.3 57.8 5.4 0.5 23 24 26 26 26 26 25 26 26
MT 54.4 57.8 60.1 62.5 63.4 65.0 65.6 67.8 70.1 15.7 2.3 18 13 14 14 14 13 13 14 13
NL 74.0 74.0 72.9 72.1 74.1 75.9 77.3 77.9 78.8 4.8 0.9 3 4 4 5 5 3 3 2 3
AT 58.7 61.3 63.3 65.3 66.5 68.0 68.8 71.2 71.7 13.0 0.5 12 12 12 12 12 11 10 10 11
PL 55.5 56.9 56.8 55.2 55.8 56.6 57.7 61.9 63.4 7.9 1.5 14 15 17 23 23 23 21 18 18
PT 53.7 54.4 56.0 59.9 61.3 62.2 62.8 67.4 68.6 14.9 1.2 19 19 20 15 15 15 15 15 15
RO 50.8 51.2 52.4 54.5 54.4 54.5 53.7 56.1 57.5 6.7 1.4 25 25 24 24 25 25 26 27 27
SI 62.7 66.1 68.4 68.3 67.7 67.6 67.5 69.4 70.1 7.4 0.7 9 9 9 10 10 12 12 12 12
SK 53.0 52.4 52.4 54.1 55.5 56.0 56.0 59.2 59.9 6.9 0.7 22 23 25 25 24 24 24 23 22
FI 73.1 74.4 73.0 73.4 74.7 75.3 75.4 74.4 74.5 1.4 0.1 4 3 3 4 4 5 4 8 8
SE 80.1 79.7 82.6 83.6 83.8 83.9 83.9 82.2 82.0 1.9 – 0.2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses data from 2022 for the most part and traces progress over the short term (2021–2022) and the longer term (2010–2022).

86 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Table 3. Gender Equality Index 2024 scores and ranks by domain and Member State
Member Score (points) Rank
State Index Work Money Knowledge Time Power Health Index Work Money Knowledge Time Power Health
EU 71.0 74.2 83.4 64.2 68.5 61.4 88.6 — — — — — — —
BE 76.1 75.7 90.9 73.4 64.7 72.3 88.5 5 17 2 2 15 7 10
BG 64.5 70.9 66.6 57.8 63.8 58.8 78.3 17 22 27 22 17 14 26
CZ 59.9 69.1 79.5 61.1 57.0 34.9 85.1 23 25 17 13 26 21 21
DK 78.8 82.8 89.5 70.2 72.7 77.7 87.9 2 2 3 5 2 4 12
DE 72.0 77.0 88.4 57.1 65.0 71.5 89.7 10 11 4 24 14 8 8
EE 60.8 78.5 74.0 59.8 64.4 32.8 85.7 21 7 21 17 16 24 17
IE 73.4 77.2 86.6 68.6 59.5 67.6 94.6 9 10 8 8 23 10 1
EL 59.3 69.4 73.5 57.7 67.1 33.2 85.2 25 24 23 23 13 22 19
ES 76.7 75.6 79.5 70.1 70.4 82.0 91.0 4 18 16 6 5 3 6
FR 76.1 73.4 84.8 65.9 68.7 85.3 88.0 6 19 11 12 9 2 11
HR 59.7 73.3 74.7 53.9 48.6 44.2 85.2 24 20 18 26 27 19 20
IT 69.2 65.5 80.6 61.0 67.4 66.5 89.3 14 27 14 14 12 11 9
CY 60.9 77.3 84.1 66.1 58.4 28.8 87.4 20 9 13 9 25 26 15
LV 62.6 77.5 69.6 52.1 62.6 50.5 79.0 19 8 26 27 19 18 25
LT 65.8 76.2 70.9 59.3 62.1 55.5 83.4 16 15 25 20 20 16 24
LU 75.4 80.1 94.1 69.5 62.8 68.0 90.0 7 4 1 7 18 9 7
HU 57.8 76.6 73.8 58.7 61.2 27.1 87.5 26 13 22 21 21 27 14
MT 70.1 81.0 84.8 71.4 59.4 51.2 87.9 13 3 12 3 24 17 13
NL 78.8 79.8 87.9 70.3 76.9 75.3 93.4 3 5 5 4 1 6 3
AT 71.7 77.0 87.8 66.1 68.4 57.1 91.0 11 12 6 10 10 15 5
PL 63.4 69.9 79.7 60.3 71.5 39.6 84.8 18 23 15 16 4 20 22
PT 68.6 76.3 74.4 59.7 67.8 61.3 84.6 15 14 20 19 11 12 23
RO 57.5 67.5 72.8 55.4 69.2 32.8 70.4 27 26 24 25 8 23 27
SI 70.1 76.1 85.0 60.5 69.3 59.0 86.9 12 16 10 15 7 13 16
SK 59.9 72.5 74.5 66.0 61.0 30.4 85.5 22 21 19 11 22 25 18
FI 74.5 78.6 86.7 59.7 69.7 75.8 91.7 8 6 7 18 6 5 4
SE 82.0 85.0 85.7 76.1 71.9 85.8 93.8 1 1 9 1 3 1 2

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2024 uses data from 2022 for the most part.

European Institute for Gender Equality 87


Annexes

Table 4. Gender Equality Index 2023 scores and ranks by domain and Member State
Member Score (points) Rank
State Index Work Money Knowledge Time Power Health Index Work Money Knowledge Time Power Health
EU 70.2 73.8 82.6 63.6 68.5 59.1 88.5 — — — — — — —
BE 76.0 75.4 90.7 74.1 64.7 71.6 88.5 5 18 2 2 15 7 11
BG 65.1 70.0 67.0 57.8 63.8 62.7 77.8 16 22 27 21 17 11 26
CZ 57.9 68.9 79.4 59.8 57.0 30.2 84.8 25 24 15 16 26 25 21
DK 77.8 82.1 89.5 69.2 72.7 73.9 88.6 3 2 3 7 2 4 10
DE 70.8 76.8 87.1 56.1 65.0 67.6 89.8 11 8 9 24 14 8 8
EE 60.2 77.5 73.3 57.8 64.4 33.0 85.1 22 7 22 22 16 21 18
IE 73.0 76.4 88.0 69.5 59.5 64.7 94.8 9 12 6 6 23 9 1
EL 58.0 68.7 71.7 57.3 67.1 30.4 85.5 24 25 23 23 13 24 17
ES 76.4 75.4 78.3 70.0 70.4 81.1 91.2 4 17 17 5 5 3 6
FR 75.7 73.2 84.9 65.2 68.7 83.8 88.3 6 19 10 11 9 2 12
HR 60.7 72.1 73.6 54.2 48.6 49.5 84.8 20 20 20 26 27 16 20
IT 68.2 65.0 80.3 60.8 67.4 62.7 89.2 13 27 14 13 12 12 9
CY 60.7 76.5 83.3 65.5 58.4 29.2 87.1 21 10 13 10 25 26 15
LV 61.5 76.4 68.1 50.4 62.6 49.1 78.9 19 14 26 27 19 17 25
LT 64.1 75.7 71.2 59.3 62.1 48.6 82.9 17 16 24 18 20 18 24
LU 74.7 79.6 93.9 70.3 62.8 64.4 90.4 7 4 1 3 18 10 7
HU 57.3 76.5 74.0 57.9 61.2 26.2 87.2 26 11 19 20 21 27 14
MT 67.8 80.0 83.3 70.1 59.4 45.3 87.4 14 3 12 4 24 19 13
NL 77.9 79.3 88.1 69.1 76.9 72.7 94.2 2 5 5 8 1 6 3
AT 71.2 76.4 88.2 65.6 68.4 55.4 91.4 10 13 4 9 10 15 5
PL 61.9 69.6 78.4 59.4 71.5 36.4 84.4 18 23 16 17 4 20 22
PT 67.4 76.5 73.6 58.7 67.8 57.4 84.1 15 9 21 19 11 13 23
RO 56.1 67.0 70.6 54.4 69.2 30.7 70.0 27 26 25 25 8 23 27
SI 69.4 75.8 84.5 60.7 69.3 56.1 86.5 12 15 11 14 7 14 16
SK 59.2 71.9 74.2 62.1 61.0 31.1 85.1 23 21 18 12 22 22 19
FI 74.4 78.0 87.4 60.5 69.7 73.9 93.1 8 6 7 15 6 5 4
SE 82.2 84.8 87.2 76.4 71.9 85.1 94.5 1 1 8 1 3 1 2

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2023 used data from 2021 for the most part.

88 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Table 5. Gender Equality Index 2013 scores and ranks by domain and Member State
Member Score (points) Rank
State Index Work Money Knowledge Time Power Health Index Work Money Knowledge Time Power Health
EU 63.1 69.7 79.1 59.8 65.2 41.9 86.7 — — — — — — —
BE 69.3 72.7 85.5 70.6 70.3 47.9 86.5 5 7 4 3 7 7 13
BG 55.0 67.9 60.8 50.4 43.9 45.8 75.3 16 19 24 23 24 8 26
CZ 55.6 64.9 73.8 55.4 53.8 31.0 85.7 13 24 17 16 19 15 16
DK 75.2 79.8 83.6 73.2 80.4 58.0 90.3 2 2 7 1 3 3 5
DE 62.6 70.0 83.2 56.3 69.8 38.3 89.3 10 17 9 14 9 10 9
EE 53.4 71.2 65.5 51.6 73.7 21.9 82.7 20 14 23 22 5 25 21
IE 65.4 73.5 85.5 65.3 70.8 37.2 90.7 8 6 3 7 6 11 3
EL 48.6 63.6 75.3 53.4 35.6 22.3 84.3 27 26 16 21 27 24 19
ES 66.4 71.8 77.1 63.5 60.8 52.6 88.6 7 11 15 8 13 5 10
FR 67.5 71.5 83.5 62.0 66.6 52.4 86.7 6 12 8 9 11 6 12
HR 52.3 67.2 68.6 49.9 49.8 28.4 81.5 24 20 22 25 22 20 23
IT 53.3 61.3 78.9 53.8 55.1 25.2 86.3 21 27 14 20 15 22 15
CY 49.0 70.5 80.7 55.5 45.9 15.4 86.4 26 16 11 15 23 27 14
LV 55.2 72.6 58.9 49.2 62.0 34.8 77.3 15 8 27 26 12 13 25
LT 54.9 72.6 60.8 54.3 52.2 32.9 80.4 17 9 25 19 20 14 24
LU 61.2 70.9 91.8 66.3 70.2 25.6 89.8 11 15 1 5 8 21 7
HU 52.4 66.0 70.8 54.5 54.1 23.5 85.4 23 22 19 18 18 23 17
MT 54.4 65.1 79.2 65.4 54.3 20.9 90.6 18 23 13 6 16 26 4
NL 74.0 76.3 86.6 66.9 85.9 56.9 90.3 3 3 2 4 1 4 6
AT 58.7 75.3 82.8 58.9 56.0 28.4 91.1 12 4 10 11 14 19 2
PL 55.5 66.3 69.5 57.8 54.2 30.6 81.6 14 21 21 13 17 17 22
PT 53.7 71.4 71.8 50.1 38.7 34.9 84.3 19 13 18 24 26 12 20
RO 50.8 67.9 59.8 47.2 50.6 30.8 69.9 25 18 26 27 21 16 27
SI 62.7 71.9 80.3 55.0 68.3 41.1 86.8 9 10 12 17 10 9 11
SK 53.0 64.8 70.2 59.5 39.9 29.5 84.8 22 25 20 10 25 18 18
FI 73.1 74.5 84.1 58.6 80.1 69.1 89.5 4 5 6 12 4 2 8
SE 80.1 80.4 85.3 70.7 84.5 77.8 93.2 1 1 5 2 2 1 1

NB: The Gender Equality Index 2013 used data from 2010 for the most part.

European Institute for Gender Equality 89


Annexes

Table 6. Gender Equality Index scores and ranks for the domain of work and its sub-domains
Score (points)
Member
Domain of work Participation Segregation and quality of work
State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU 69.7 70.2 70.6 71.1 71.4 71.6 71.7 73.8 74.2 77.6 78.3 79.2 80.4 80.9 81.3 81.1 82.3 83.3 62.6 62.9 62.9 62.9 62.9 63.1 63.3 66.2 66.1
BE 72.7 72.8 73.8 74.1 74.7 74.9 75.5 75.4 75.7 75.7 75.4 77.5 78.2 79.5 80.2 80.4 81.2 82.3 69.8 70.4 70.2 70.2 70.1 69.9 70.9 69.9 69.7
BG 67.9 68.7 68.6 69.0 69.0 69.6 69.3 70.0 70.9 81.3 82.0 82.7 83.5 83.5 84.6 83.6 83.6 85.6 56.7 57.6 56.9 57.0 57.0 57.3 57.4 58.6 58.7
CZ 64.9 65.3 66.1 67.0 67.0 67.4 67.1 68.9 69.1 78.9 79.9 81.8 83.5 84.3 84.5 83.5 83.6 84.5 53.3 53.3 53.5 53.7 53.3 53.8 53.8 56.8 56.5
DK 79.8 79.7 79.2 79.6 79.7 79.4 79.5 82.1 82.8 88.5 88.3 87.2 88.3 88.7 88.4 88.4 89.9 91.4 71.9 72.1 72.0 71.8 71.5 71.4 71.5 75.0 75.0
DE 70.0 70.6 71.4 72.1 72.1 72.4 72.9 76.8 77.0 79.0 80.2 81.9 83.3 83.6 84.2 84.9 84.6 85.2 62.1 62.1 62.2 62.3 62.2 62.3 62.5 69.6 69.6
EE 71.2 71.4 72.1 71.5 72.1 72.5 72.7 77.5 78.5 87.3 87.7 88.6 89.8 90.6 90.8 90.4 92.3 94.2 58.1 58.1 58.7 57.0 57.5 57.9 58.5 65.0 65.4
IE 73.5 73.7 73.9 75.5 75.9 76.5 76.5 76.4 77.2 77.4 77.3 78.3 81.7 82.4 82.8 82.5 85.4 87.1 69.8 70.2 69.7 69.8 69.9 70.6 70.9 68.4 68.5
EL 63.6 63.6 64.2 64.2 64.4 65.3 65.6 68.7 69.4 71.1 69.4 71.0 71.4 71.6 72.7 72.8 73.0 74.9 57.0 58.4 58.0 57.7 58.0 58.7 59.1 64.6 64.3
ES 71.8 72.3 72.4 72.9 73.2 73.7 73.6 75.4 75.6 77.0 77.5 78.0 79.1 79.3 80.2 79.4 82.3 83.1 66.9 67.4 67.3 67.1 67.5 67.8 68.2 69.0 68.8
FR 71.5 71.9 72.1 72.4 72.8 73.2 73.2 73.2 73.4 81.1 81.4 82.3 82.4 83.5 83.7 83.5 85.6 86.4 63.1 63.5 63.2 63.5 63.5 63.9 64.2 62.6 62.4
HR 67.2 68.3 69.4 69.2 69.9 70.1 69.7 72.1 73.3 75.0 75.5 78.5 78.9 79.6 79.7 79.1 80.7 82.2 60.3 61.8 61.4 60.7 61.4 61.6 61.3 64.4 65.3
IT 61.3 62.4 62.4 63.1 63.3 63.7 63.2 65.0 65.5 64.9 66.7 66.7 68.2 68.6 69.1 68.1 68.9 70.0 57.8 58.5 58.4 58.5 58.5 58.6 58.7 61.4 61.4
CY 70.5 68.9 70.7 70.7 70.8 70.6 69.9 76.5 77.3 85.2 83.4 84.7 84.9 86.2 86.0 85.0 86.1 88.2 58.3 56.9 59.0 58.8 58.2 57.9 57.5 67.9 67.8
LV 72.6 74.3 73.6 74.2 74.0 74.3 74.2 76.4 77.5 86.9 86.9 87.8 89.3 90.1 89.9 89.9 89.1 91.2 60.7 63.5 61.8 61.7 60.8 61.4 61.3 65.5 65.8
LT 72.6 72.6 73.2 73.6 74.1 74.2 73.9 75.7 76.2 86.0 86.8 88.2 89.7 90.7 91.1 90.8 91.7 92.8 61.3 60.8 60.7 60.4 60.4 60.4 60.1 62.5 62.5
LU 70.9 72.5 74.0 74.1 75.2 76.3 76.3 79.6 80.1 74.8 77.7 81.3 82.4 83.5 83.3 84.7 87.0 87.8 67.3 67.7 67.4 66.7 67.6 69.8 68.7 72.9 73.1
HU 66.0 66.4 67.2 67.4 68.0 68.0 67.5 76.5 76.6 75.8 76.9 79.6 81.0 81.3 81.1 80.7 86.4 87.5 57.5 57.4 56.7 56.0 56.9 57.0 56.4 67.7 67.1
MT 65.1 68.2 71.0 73.3 75.4 76.8 77.0 80.0 81.0 58.6 63.2 68.9 73.1 76.9 79.8 81.2 83.7 86.6 72.3 73.7 73.1 73.5 74.0 73.9 73.0 76.5 75.8
NL 76.3 76.2 76.7 77.4 77.8 78.3 78.7 79.3 79.8 78.5 78.6 79.2 80.7 81.7 82.8 83.0 87.2 87.8 74.1 73.9 74.3 74.2 74.2 73.9 74.5 72.1 72.5
AT 75.3 75.6 76.1 76.6 76.4 76.8 77.2 76.4 77.0 80.3 80.9 81.4 82.4 82.4 82.7 83.0 82.8 83.6 70.6 70.6 71.2 71.2 70.7 71.4 71.7 70.5 70.8
PL 66.3 66.6 66.8 67.0 67.3 67.2 67.3 69.6 69.9 77.9 78.3 79.5 80.2 80.8 80.6 80.4 82.6 83.6 56.5 56.5 56.2 56.0 56.1 56.0 56.4 58.6 58.5
PT 71.4 71.4 72.0 72.5 72.9 73.2 73.4 76.5 76.3 85.6 84.1 85.4 86.6 87.8 88.2 87.8 90.0 91.0 59.5 60.6 60.8 60.7 60.6 60.8 61.4 65.1 63.9
RO 67.9 67.8 67.1 67.7 67.6 67.5 67.3 67.0 67.5 78.8 78.5 77.5 79.0 78.8 78.8 78.4 74.1 75.7 58.6 58.5 58.1 58.0 58.0 57.9 57.7 60.6 60.2
SI 71.9 71.3 71.8 73.3 73.1 73.0 73.4 75.8 76.1 84.4 83.7 83.5 86.5 86.7 87.2 87.3 88.0 88.5 61.3 60.7 61.7 62.1 61.6 61.1 61.7 65.3 65.5
SK 64.8 64.9 65.5 66.5 66.6 66.8 66.5 71.9 72.5 79.0 78.8 80.6 82.6 82.7 83.2 82.7 87.4 88.6 53.1 53.4 53.2 53.5 53.7 53.7 53.5 59.1 59.4
FI 74.5 74.8 74.7 74.9 75.4 75.5 75.4 78.0 78.6 88.9 89.2 89.2 88.9 90.0 90.1 89.7 90.8 92.5 62.4 62.7 62.6 63.1 63.2 63.3 63.4 66.9 66.8
SE 80.4 81.4 82.6 83.0 82.9 83.1 83.0 84.8 85.0 91.9 93.8 95.4 95.7 95.8 95.9 95.4 93.3 93.9 70.4 70.6 71.5 71.9 71.7 72.0 72.2 77.1 76.9

90 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Rank
Member
Domain of work Participation Segregation and quality of work
State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
BE 7 8 8 9 9 9 8 18 17 22 24 23 24 22 22 22 23 23 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7
BG 19 18 20 20 20 20 20 22 22 10 10 10 10 13 10 12 18 17 24 22 23 23 23 23 23 26 25
CZ 24 24 24 24 24 23 24 24 25 15 14 13 11 10 11 13 19 19 26 27 26 26 27 26 26 27 27
DK 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 3 3
DE 17 16 16 16 17 17 16 8 11 14 13 12 12 11 12 10 16 18 12 13 12 12 12 12 12 8 8
EE 14 14 12 17 16 16 17 7 7 4 4 3 2 3 3 3 2 1 20 21 19 22 22 21 20 17 16
IE 6 7 7 5 5 6 6 12 10 19 21 21 17 17 17 18 15 14 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 10 10
EL 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 25 24 25 25 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 23 20 22 21 21 18 18 18 18
ES 11 11 11 13 12 12 12 17 18 20 20 22 21 23 21 23 22 22 9 9 9 8 9 9 9 9 9
FR 12 12 13 15 15 14 15 19 19 11 11 11 14 14 13 14 14 16 10 11 10 10 10 10 10 20 21
HR 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 23 23 20 23 21 24 24 24 24 16 14 15 16 14 13 15 19 17
IT 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 26 26 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 21 19 20 19 18 19 19 22 22
CY 16 17 18 18 18 18 18 10 9 8 9 8 9 9 9 9 13 10 19 24 18 18 19 20 22 11 11
LV 8 6 9 7 11 10 10 14 8 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 7 6 15 10 13 14 15 14 16 14 14
LT 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 16 15 6 6 4 3 2 2 2 3 3 13 15 17 17 17 17 17 21 20
LU 15 10 6 8 8 7 7 4 4 24 19 15 16 12 14 11 11 11 8 8 8 9 8 8 8 4 4
HU 22 23 21 22 21 21 21 11 13 21 22 17 18 19 19 20 12 13 22 23 24 24 24 24 24 12 12
MT 23 20 17 11 6 5 5 3 3 27 27 26 25 25 23 19 17 15 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
NL 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 5 17 16 19 19 18 16 15 10 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5
AT 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 13 12 12 12 14 15 16 18 16 20 21 4 4 5 5 5 4 4 6 6
PL 21 22 23 23 23 24 22 23 23 18 18 18 20 20 20 21 21 20 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 26
PT 13 13 14 14 14 13 13 9 14 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 5 7 17 17 16 15 16 16 14 16 19
RO 18 21 22 21 22 22 23 26 26 16 17 24 22 24 25 25 25 25 18 18 21 20 20 22 21 23 23
SI 10 15 15 12 13 15 14 15 16 9 8 9 8 8 8 8 8 9 14 16 14 13 13 15 13 15 15
SK 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 21 21 13 15 16 13 15 15 17 9 8 27 26 27 27 26 27 27 24 24
FI 5 5 5 6 7 8 9 6 6 2 2 2 5 5 4 5 4 4 11 12 11 11 11 11 11 13 13
SE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 5 5 4 3 3 3 3 1 1

European Institute for Gender Equality 91


Annexes

Table 7. Gender Equality Index scores and ranks for the domain of money and its sub-domains
Score (points)
Member
Domain of money Financial resources Economic situation
State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU 79.1 79.1 80.1 81.1 81.6 82.4 82.6 82.6 83.4 70.6 71.2 73.9 74.9 75.5 76.9 77.2 77.5 78.0 88.7 88.0 86.7 88.0 88.1 88.3 88.3 87.9 89.2
BE 85.5 85.6 87.5 88.3 88.7 89.9 89.8 90.7 90.9 77.9 78.6 82.7 83.3 83.8 84.6 84.9 85.2 86.9 94.0 93.3 92.6 93.6 93.8 95.0 95.0 96. 95.0
BG 60.8 60.5 61.9 61.8 62.3 64.5 65.0 67.0 66.6 44.7 44.2 48.2 50.2 49.6 54.6 55.3 56.9 56.4 82.8 82.7 79.5 76.1 78.2 76.1 76.5 78.9 78.7
CZ 73.8 74.0 75.9 76.7 76.8 78.9 79.0 79.4 79.5 55.1 55.8 58.8 59.8 60.4 63.8 64.2 64.1 65.5 98.7 98.1 98.1 98.2 97.6 97.5 97.1 98.3 96.5
DK 83.6 85.7 86.6 87.1 86.8 89.1 88.5 89.5 89.5 78.3 80.4 82.4 83.2 83.3 85.8 84.9 85.6 86.6 89.3 91.4 91.1 91.2 90.5 92.4 92.3 93.5 92.6
DE 83.2 84.0 84.2 86.0 84.9 86.0 83.5 87.1 88.4 77.1 78.1 81.2 82.1 82.9 84.5 85.2 86.5 86.0 89.8 90.2 87.4 90.1 86.9 87.5 81.8 87.7 90.9
EE 65.5 64.9 66.7 69.4 70.0 73.2 73.6 73.3 74.0 49.5 50.2 56.4 58.3 59.3 63.6 64.0 64.3 67.1 86.7 84.0 79.0 82.5 82.7 84.1 84.7 83.6 81.6
IE 85.5 84.4 84.7 85.5 86.5 87.8 87.5 88.0 86.6 81.1 80.7 81.0 81.7 83.3 82.6 82.3 82.2 82.1 90.2 88.2 88.6 89.5 89.8 93.3 93.1 94.1 91.3
EL 75.3 71.1 70.7 71.4 72.5 73.7 72.8 71.7 73.5 66.7 62.7 61.4 61.3 61.4 62.2 61.2 60.8 62.1 84.9 80.7 81.4 83.2 85.6 87.3 86.7 84.5 86.9
ES 77.1 76.0 75.9 76.7 77.8 78.4 78.7 78.3 79.5 70.4 69.6 71.0 72.2 72.3 73.5 73.5 73.4 74.2 84.4 82.9 81.2 81.4 83.6 83.7 84.3 83.6 85.2
FR 83.5 83.7 86.1 86.4 87.0 86.3 84.7 84.9 84.8 75.9 77.2 80.4 81.0 80.9 80.8 78.5 79.2 79.5 91.8 90.6 92.3 92.1 93.5 92.1 91.4 91.0 90.5
HR 68.6 68.9 69.9 72.2 72.6 74.0 74.1 73.6 74.7 56.2 55.7 57.1 60.1 60.6 62.1 62.3 62.8 63.7 83.8 85.2 85.6 86.9 86.9 88.1 88.3 86.4 87.5
IT 78.9 78.7 78.6 78.8 79.0 79.4 80.5 80.3 80.6 72.5 72.8 73.0 74.4 74.8 75.8 76.6 76.7 77.3 86.0 85.1 84.6 83.5 83.4 83.1 84.6 84.0 84.0
CY 80.7 81.7 79.2 80.8 81.7 82.6 83.1 83.3 84.1 74.8 76.4 72.1 72.8 72.8 76.0 75.2 75.5 76.6 87.1 87.4 87.1 89.7 91.6 89.8 91.7 91.8 92.2
LV 58.9 59.6 64.3 65.5 65.2 68.7 69.4 68.1 69.6 43.5 43.5 51.9 53.7 54.6 59.4 60.0 60.1 61.0 79.8 81.5 79.5 80.0 78.0 79.4 80.3 77.3 79.4
LT 60.8 64.3 65.6 64.7 66.1 69.9 70.4 71.2 70.9 47.8 48.4 53.5 55.0 56.0 60.9 61.6 63.2 63.9 77.3 85.5 80.4 76.1 78.0 80.4 80.4 80.3 78.7
LU 91.8 92.1 94.4 91.8 90.0 92.4 92.6 93.9 94.1 91.2 91.6 97.0 96.8 97.3 98.0 98.0 98.0 97.9 92.5 92.7 92.0 87.2 83.2 87.2 87.5 90.1 90.5
HU 70.8 69.8 70.7 71.6 72.0 73.3 73.8 74.0 73.8 51.0 52.5 55.2 55.5 56.2 58.2 58.8 59.1 59.2 98.3 92.9 90.5 92.5 92.2 92.2 92.6 92.6 92.0
MT 79.2 80.6 82.4 82.5 82.6 84.2 83.6 83.3 84.8 68.6 69.5 73.3 74.4 74.8 77.6 78.8 78.9 80.9 91.3 93.3 92.8 91.4 91.1 91.4 88.6 88.1 89.0
NL 86.6 87.0 86.8 86.7 86.2 87.0 86.6 88.1 87.9 77.7 77.6 79.1 80.4 80.4 80.9 81.4 82.5 83.2 96.5 97.5 95.4 93.5 92.4 93.5 92.1 94.0 92.9
AT 82.8 83.6 85.9 86.4 86.7 87.7 87.5 88.2 87.8 74.7 75.8 79.8 81.4 80.9 82.8 82.5 83.3 84.0 91.8 92.2 92.5 91.7 93.1 92.9 92.8 93.4 91.7
PL 69.5 70.3 73.3 75.1 75.5 76.7 78.1 78.4 79.7 54.6 56.2 61.4 62.8 63.0 65.1 65.9 66.6 68.1 88.5 88.0 87.5 89.9 90.5 90.4 92.6 92.3 93.3
PT 71.8 71.7 70.9 72.1 72.8 73.6 74.7 73.6 74.4 60.4 60.7 60.3 61.2 61.2 62.3 63.1 63.3 63.5 85.3 84.8 83.5 84.8 86.8 87.0 88.4 85.5 87.0
RO 59.8 59.2 59.4 62.0 63.0 69.1 70.2 70.6 72.8 42.5 42.7 45.7 47.2 49.3 60.1 60.8 62.3 64.1 84.2 82.1 77.3 81.6 80.4 79.5 80.9 80.1 82.6
SI 80.3 81.3 81.6 82.4 83.0 83.7 83.9 84.5 85.0 67.3 68.3 69.8 70.0 70.7 71.6 71.8 72.7 73.8 95.8 96.7 95.5 97.1 97.4 97.9 98.0 98.3 97.9
SK 70.2 72.1 74.0 74.2 75.1 75.1 74.8 74.2 74.5 51.9 53.9 56.4 56.8 57.1 57.5 56.8 55.9 56.5 95.1 96.4 97.2 96.9 98.8 98.2 98.6 98.4 98.1
FI 84.1 84.8 86.4 87.6 87.1 87.9 87.5 87.4 86.7 74.6 76.2 78.5 79.2 79.4 80.4 80.2 79.8 80.3 94.9 94.4 95.2 96.9 95.5 96.1 95.4 95.6 93.7
SE 85.3 85.3 87.5 86.8 86.8 85.4 85.9 87.2 85.7 75.9 77.4 82.3 82.1 82.0 81.9 81.4 82.6 82.1 95.8 93.9 93.1 91.9 91.9 88.9 90.7 92.1 89.4

92 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Rank
Member
Domain of money Financial resources Economic situation
State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
BE 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 3 4 4 2 8 8 8 5 5 5 5 4 4
BG 24 25 26 27 27 27 27 27 27 25 25 26 26 26 27 27 26 27 25 24 24 26 25 27 27 26 26
CZ 17 16 15 15 16 15 15 15 17 19 19 19 20 20 17 17 18 18 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 3
DK 7 3 5 4 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 2 3 3 3 15 12 12 12 14 9 10 8 8
DE 9 8 10 9 10 9 12 9 4 6 5 5 4 5 4 2 2 4 14 14 16 13 17 17 23 17 13
EE 23 23 23 23 23 23 22 22 21 23 23 22 21 21 18 18 17 17 18 22 26 22 23 21 20 22 24
IE 3 7 9 10 8 5 4 6 8 2 2 6 6 3 6 6 8 7 13 15 14 16 15 7 6 6 12
EL 16 19 20 22 21 20 23 23 23 16 16 16 17 17 20 22 23 23 21 27 21 21 19 18 19 20 20
ES 15 15 16 16 15 16 16 17 16 13 13 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 22 23 22 24 20 22 22 23 21
FR 8 9 7 7 4 8 9 10 11 7 8 7 8 7 9 11 10 11 10 13 10 8 6 11 13 14 14
HR 22 22 22 19 20 19 20 20 18 18 20 20 19 19 21 20 21 21 24 19 18 18 16 16 17 18 18
IT 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 12 12 12 12 11 13 12 12 12 19 20 19 20 21 23 21 21 22
CY 11 11 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 9 9 13 13 13 12 13 13 13 17 17 17 15 11 14 12 13 9
LV 27 26 25 24 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 25 25 25 24 24 24 24 26 26 25 25 27 26 26 27 25
LT 25 24 24 25 24 24 24 24 25 24 24 24 24 24 22 21 20 20 27 18 23 27 26 24 25 24 27
LU 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 10 11 17 22 19 18 15 15
HU 19 21 21 21 22 22 21 19 22 22 22 23 23 23 25 25 25 25 2 9 13 7 9 10 8 10 10
MT 13 13 11 11 12 11 11 12 12 14 14 11 11 12 11 10 11 9 12 7 7 11 12 12 15 16 17
NL 2 2 4 6 9 7 7 5 5 5 6 9 9 9 8 7 7 6 3 2 4 6 8 6 11 7 7
AT 10 10 8 8 7 6 6 4 6 10 11 8 7 8 5 5 5 5 11 11 9 10 7 8 7 9 11
PL 21 20 18 17 17 17 17 16 15 20 18 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 15 14 13 13 9 11 6
PT 18 18 19 20 19 21 19 21 20 17 17 18 18 18 19 19 19 22 20 21 20 19 18 20 16 19 19
RO 26 27 27 26 26 25 25 25 24 27 27 27 27 27 23 23 22 19 23 25 27 23 24 25 24 25 23
SI 12 12 12 12 11 12 10 11 10 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 5 3 3 2 3 2 2 3 2
SK 20 17 17 18 18 18 18 18 19 21 21 21 22 22 26 26 27 26 6 4 2 3 1 1 1 1 1
FI 6 6 6 3 3 4 5 7 7 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 10 7 5 5 4 4 4 4 5 5
SE 5 5 3 5 6 10 8 8 9 8 7 4 5 6 7 8 6 8 4 6 6 9 10 15 14 12 16

European Institute for Gender Equality 93


Annexes

Table 8. Gender Equality Index scores and ranks for the domain of knowledge and its sub-domains
Score (points)
Member
Domain of knowledge Attainment and participation Segregation
State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU 59.8 61.1 62.4 62.6 62.8 62.7 62.5 63.6 64.2 66.0 68.2 71.2 71.8 72.2 72.5 72.1 74.6 75.5 54.2 54.7 54.7 54.5 54.5 54.1 54.1 54.2 54.5
BE 70.6 70.6 71.1 71.3 71.4 70.8 70.1 74.1 73.4 73.3 72.5 73.3 74.3 73.8 74.0 73.8 81.9 79.8 68.1 68.8 68.9 68.4 69.0 67.7 66.6 67.0 67.6
BG 50.4 51.9 53.3 53.2 54.9 55.2 56.2 57.8 57.8 53.9 54.6 56.1 55.4 57.3 56.3 57.0 59.7 58.9 47.1 49.3 50.7 51.0 52.7 54.1 55.4 56.1 56.7
CZ 55.4 57.7 57.3 59.0 58.4 58.5 58.9 59.8 61.1 61.4 66.3 66.9 69.9 67.7 66.4 65.3 66.5 68.0 50.0 50.2 49.2 49.8 50.3 51.6 53.1 53.8 54.8
DK 73.2 71.3 73.6 72.3 71.3 71.0 69.3 69.2 70.2 81.7 80.5 82.1 81.8 79.5 80.7 79.3 80.0 82.7 65.6 63.1 66.0 64.0 64.0 62.5 60.6 60.0 59.5
DE 56.3 57.1 52.9 53.7 54.0 54.7 54.7 56.1 57.1 59.9 62.7 61.0 62.4 63.2 64.3 64.8 67.9 69.6 53.0 51.9 45.9 46.2 46.2 46.6 46.1 46.4 46.8
EE 51.6 53.8 53.2 55.5 56.3 57.3 57.4 57.8 59.8 67.4 70.5 67.9 70.1 72.1 73.7 71.9 72.1 74.2 39.5 41.1 41.7 44.0 44.0 44.5 45.8 46.3 48.2
IE 65.3 67.7 66.4 66.9 67.3 67.4 68.1 69.5 68.6 72.7 74.0 74.1 77.8 79.3 80.2 79.7 84.2 83.5 58.6 62.0 59.6 57.6 57.2 56.7 58.2 57.4 56.4
EL 53.4 54.3 55.6 55.7 54.8 54.9 55.8 57.3 57.7 59.8 60.7 63.9 66.3 66.8 67.3 67.1 71.5 71.1 47.7 48.5 48.4 46.8 45.0 44.8 46.4 46.0 46.7
ES 63.5 64.2 65.3 67.4 67.6 67.9 68.3 70.0 70.1 71.8 73.0 73.3 76.0 76.6 76.4 77.0 81.2 81.0 56.2 56.6 58.1 59.7 59.7 60.3 60.6 60.4 60.7
FR 62.0 62.4 66.1 66.0 66.3 67.0 65.5 65.2 65.9 67.9 69.7 77.5 78.5 79.6 80.3 78.8 79.1 80.7 56.6 55.8 56.4 55.6 55.2 55.9 54.5 53.7 53.8
HR 49.9 48.5 49.8 50.4 51.6 51.8 53.4 54.2 53.9 57.5 58.7 59.3 59.2 60.6 60.1 59.0 60.4 59.8 43.3 40.0 41.8 42.9 43.9 44.7 48.4 48.6 48.5
IT 53.8 56.7 61.4 61.2 61.9 59.0 59.5 60.8 61.0 53.7 54.4 56.1 57.0 58.0 58.3 57.7 60.8 60.8 53.9 59.2 67.1 65.8 66.0 59.7 61.4 60.7 61.2
CY 55.5 58.2 58.5 56.5 56.2 56.0 57.8 65.5 66.1 73.6 73.2 73.3 73.2 73.1 71.1 71.6 78.9 79.9 41.9 46.2 46.6 43.5 43.3 44.1 46.7 54.4 54.7
LV 49.2 48.8 48.9 49.7 49.3 50.9 47.7 50.4 52.1 60.5 62.2 59.1 62.3 61.1 65.6 61.1 66.1 67.6 40.0 38.3 40.5 39.7 39.7 39.4 37.2 38.5 40.2
LT 54.3 54.7 55.8 55.9 56.2 56.1 57.6 59.3 59.3 65.0 66.2 68.4 69.4 70.0 71.0 71.6 73.4 72.7 45.4 45.3 45.4 45.0 45.0 44.3 46.3 47.9 48.4
LU 66.3 68.7 69.4 69.5 70.0 70.8 68.9 70.3 69.5 74.8 78.6 84.1 84.5 85.9 88.7 86.1 91.0 93.8 58.7 60.1 57.2 57.1 57.1 56.5 55.2 54.3 51.5
HU 54.5 54.3 56.9 56.9 57.4 57.2 57.1 57.9 58.7 59.2 59.6 64.6 63.4 64.1 63.2 63.7 65.0 66.7 50.1 49.5 50.0 51.0 51.5 51.8 51.1 51.5 51.8
MT 65.4 66.3 65.2 65.8 67.1 65.2 65.2 70.1 71.4 59.2 60.2 61.3 65.9 67.0 67.3 68.2 72.3 71.8 72.3 73.0 69.5 65.8 67.3 63.2 62.3 68.0 71.1
NL 66.9 66.9 67.3 67.1 67.3 67.4 67.0 69.1 70.3 77.1 78.0 80.9 83.4 84.1 85.5 86.7 91.9 92.9 58.1 57.5 56.0 53.9 53.9 53.1 51.7 52.0 53.3
AT 58.9 59.9 63.2 64.1 63.8 64.3 64.0 65.6 66.1 61.2 61.8 72.0 74.1 73.3 73.6 72.7 75.8 76.6 56.6 58.1 55.5 55.5 55.5 56.2 56.4 56.8 57.0
PL 57.8 56.5 56.0 56.5 57.2 57.6 57.5 59.4 60.3 62.3 61.5 61.3 61.5 63.0 62.8 61.9 63.8 65.8 53.6 51.9 51.1 51.9 51.9 52.9 53.4 55.3 55.3
PT 50.1 54.9 54.8 55.1 55.7 56.5 56.7 58.7 59.7 50.8 59.1 59.5 60.4 61.3 62.6 63.2 68.8 70.6 49.5 51.0 50.6 50.3 50.7 51.0 50.9 50.1 50.5
RO 47.2 50.2 51.8 51.5 52.4 52.8 52.2 54.4 55.4 50.1 52.7 52.9 52.4 52.6 53.4 53.1 57.6 58.8 44.4 47.9 50.7 50.7 52.2 52.1 51.3 51.4 52.1
SI 55.0 54.9 55.0 56.0 55.9 56.6 56.0 60.7 60.5 68.4 67.1 67.4 66.9 66.6 67.5 68.2 78.3 79.5 44.2 45.0 44.9 46.9 46.9 47.4 46.0 47.1 46.1
SK 59.5 59.6 60.0 60.4 61.2 61.6 60.9 62.1 66.0 59.1 58.8 58.8 59.7 60.9 60.9 59.5 62.3 70.2 59.9 60.3 61.2 61.1 61.5 62.4 62.3 61.9 62.1
FI 58.6 59.5 61.3 61.1 61.6 61.9 61.5 60.5 59.7 78.3 79.5 81.4 83.0 83.6 84.2 83.8 82.1 81.2 43.9 44.6 46.1 45.0 45.5 45.5 45.1 44.6 43.9
SE 70.7 70.9 72.8 73.8 74.2 75.2 74.6 76.4 76.1 74.4 75.6 78.5 80.2 80.5 82.6 80.5 85.4 85.3 67.1 66.6 67.5 67.9 68.4 68.4 69.1 68.4 67.9

94 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Rank
Member
Domain of knowledge Attainment and participation Segregation
State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
BE 3 3 3 3 2 4 2 2 2 7 9 10 9 9 9 9 6 10 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 3 3
BG 23 24 22 24 22 22 21 21 22 24 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 19 18 14 14 13 12 10 10 9
CZ 16 14 15 14 14 14 14 16 13 15 13 15 13 14 17 17 19 20 16 16 18 18 18 17 14 14 12
DK 1 1 1 2 3 2 3 7 5 1 1 2 4 6 5 6 8 5 4 4 5 5 5 4 6 7 7
DE 14 15 24 23 24 24 24 24 24 18 15 20 19 19 19 18 18 19 14 14 22 21 20 20 23 23 23
EE 22 23 23 21 17 16 18 22 17 12 10 13 12 12 10 11 15 13 27 25 26 24 24 24 25 24 22
IE 7 5 6 7 7 6 6 6 8 8 6 7 7 7 7 5 4 4 7 5 7 8 8 8 8 8 10
EL 21 22 19 20 23 23 23 23 23 19 19 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 18 19 19 20 23 22 21 25 24
ES 8 8 8 5 5 5 5 5 6 9 8 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 11 11 8 7 7 6 7 6 6
FR 9 9 7 8 9 8 8 11 12 11 11 6 6 5 6 7 9 8 9 12 10 10 11 11 12 15 14
HR 25 27 26 26 26 26 25 26 26 23 24 22 24 24 24 24 25 25 24 26 25 26 25 23 19 20 20
IT 20 16 11 11 11 13 13 13 14 25 26 25 25 25 25 25 24 24 12 8 4 3 4 7 5 5 5
CY 15 13 14 17 18 21 15 10 9 6 7 8 11 11 12 13 10 9 25 21 20 25 26 26 20 12 13
LV 26 26 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 17 16 23 20 22 18 22 20 21 26 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27
LT 19 20 18 19 19 20 16 18 20 13 14 12 14 13 13 12 13 14 20 22 23 22 22 25 22 21 21
LU 5 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 7 4 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 6 7 9 9 9 9 11 13 18
HU 18 21 16 15 15 17 19 20 21 20 21 16 18 18 20 19 21 22 15 17 17 15 16 16 17 17 17
MT 6 7 9 9 8 9 9 4 3 21 20 19 17 15 15 14 14 15 1 1 1 4 3 3 4 2 1
NL 4 6 5 6 6 7 7 8 4 3 4 4 2 2 2 1 1 2 8 10 11 12 12 13 15 16 15
AT 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 10 16 17 11 10 10 11 10 12 12 10 9 12 11 10 10 9 9 8
PL 13 17 17 16 16 15 17 17 16 14 18 18 21 20 21 21 22 23 13 13 13 13 15 14 13 11 11
PT 24 19 21 22 21 19 20 19 19 26 22 21 22 21 22 20 17 17 17 15 16 17 17 18 18 19 19
RO 27 25 25 25 25 25 26 25 25 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 21 20 15 16 14 15 16 18 16
SI 17 18 20 18 20 18 22 14 15 10 12 14 15 17 14 15 11 11 22 23 24 19 19 19 24 22 25
SK 10 11 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 22 23 24 23 23 23 23 23 18 5 6 6 6 6 5 3 4 4
FI 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 15 18 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 5 6 23 24 21 23 21 21 26 26 26
SE 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 2

European Institute for Gender Equality 95


Annexes

Table 9. Gender Equality Index scores and ranks for the domain of time and its sub-domains
Score (points)
Member
Domain of time Care activities Social activities
State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU 65.2 68.1 64.9 64.9 64.9 64.9 64.9 68.5 68.5 65.4 71.3 69.1 69.1 69.1 69.1 69.1 78.7 78.7 65.0 65.0 61.0 61.0 61.0 61.0 61.0 59.7 59.7
BE 70.3 71.8 65.3 65.3 65.3 65.3 65.3 64.7 64.7 72.6 75.7 68.9 68.9 68.9 68.9 68.9 82.8 82.8 68.1 68.1 61.9 61.9 61.9 61.9 61.9 50.5 50.5
BG 43.9 47.4 42.7 42.7 42.7 42.7 42.7 63.8 63.8 48.6 56.6 55.7 55.7 55.7 55.7 55.7 76.5 76.5 39.7 39.7 32.6 32.6 32.6 32.6 32.6 53.2 53.2
CZ 53.8 55.5 57.3 57.3 57.3 57.3 57.3 57.0 57.0 55.8 59.4 56.8 56.8 56.8 56.8 56.8 62.8 62.8 51.9 51.9 57.7 57.7 57.7 57.7 57.7 51.9 51.9
DK 80.4 85.4 83.1 83.1 83.1 83.1 83.1 72.7 72.7 75.8 85.5 86.1 86.1 86.1 86.1 86.1 82.4 82.4 85.3 85.3 80.2 80.2 80.2 80.2 80.2 64.1 64.1
DE 69.8 67.8 65.0 65.0 65.0 65.0 65.0 65.0 65.0 70.1 66.1 71.3 71.3 71.3 71.3 71.3 74.1 74.1 69.6 69.6 59.3 59.3 59.3 59.3 59.3 57.1 57.1
EE 73.7 70.1 74.7 74.7 74.7 74.7 74.7 64.4 64.4 80.7 73.0 85.9 85.9 85.9 85.9 85.9 92.2 92.2 67.2 67.2 65.0 65.0 65.0 65.0 65.0 45.0 45.0
IE 70.8 76.5 74.2 74.2 74.2 74.2 74.2 59.5 59.5 69.9 81.6 76.2 76.2 76.2 76.2 76.2 84.0 84.0 71.8 71.8 72.1 72.1 72.1 72.1 72.1 42.1 42.1
EL 35.6 45.2 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 67.1 67.1 34.2 55.1 50.9 50.9 50.9 50.9 50.9 74.8 74.8 37.1 37.1 39.3 39.3 39.3 39.3 39.3 60.2 60.2
ES 60.8 65.8 64.0 64.0 64.0 64.0 64.0 70.4 70.4 60.9 71.4 74.5 74.5 74.5 74.5 74.5 85.6 85.6 60.6 60.6 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 57.9 57.9
FR 66.6 70.3 67.3 67.3 67.3 67.3 67.3 68.7 68.7 70.3 78.5 70.4 70.4 70.4 70.4 70.4 81.7 81.7 63.0 63.0 64.4 64.4 64.4 64.4 64.4 57.7 57.7
HR 49.8 54.7 51.0 51.0 51.0 51.0 51.0 48.6 48.6 53.0 63.9 54.4 54.4 54.4 54.4 54.4 72.7 72.7 46.7 46.7 47.9 47.9 47.9 47.9 47.9 32.5 32.5
IT 55.1 61.4 59.3 59.3 59.3 59.3 59.3 67.4 67.4 54.5 67.6 61.2 61.2 61.2 61.2 61.2 74.2 74.2 55.7 55.7 57.4 57.4 57.4 57.4 57.4 61.2 61.2
CY 45.9 45.9 51.3 51.3 51.3 51.3 51.3 58.4 58.4 52.6 52.7 65.7 65.7 65.7 65.7 65.7 73.3 73.3 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 46.5 46.5
LV 62.0 60.8 65.8 65.8 65.8 65.8 65.8 62.6 62.6 78.2 75.1 89.8 89.8 89.8 89.8 89.8 69.9 69.9 49.2 49.2 48.2 48.2 48.2 48.2 48.2 56.1 56.1
LT 52.2 55.7 50.6 50.6 50.6 50.6 50.6 62.1 62.1 65.4 74.5 64.0 64.0 64.0 64.0 64.0 68.2 68.2 41.7 41.7 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 56.6 56.6
LU 70.2 71.5 69.1 69.1 69.1 69.1 69.1 62.8 62.8 72.1 74.8 79.4 79.4 79.4 79.4 79.4 86.4 86.4 68.3 68.3 60.2 60.2 60.2 60.2 60.2 45.6 45.6
HU 54.1 55.2 54.3 54.3 54.3 54.3 54.3 61.2 61.2 68.7 71.6 65.0 65.0 65.0 65.0 65.0 68.7 68.7 42.6 42.6 45.4 45.4 45.4 45.4 45.4 54.5 54.5
MT 54.3 58.7 64.2 64.2 64.2 64.2 64.2 59.4 59.4 49.7 57.9 69.0 69.0 69.0 69.0 69.0 77.6 77.6 59.4 59.4 59.8 59.8 59.8 59.8 59.8 45.5 45.5
NL 85.9 86.7 83.9 83.9 83.9 83.9 83.9 76.9 76.9 76.5 78.0 79.3 79.3 79.3 79.3 79.3 85.0 85.0 96.4 96.4 88.7 88.7 88.7 88.7 88.7 69.7 69.7
AT 56.0 65.3 61.2 61.2 61.2 61.2 61.2 68.4 68.4 44.9 61.0 62.7 62.7 62.7 62.7 62.7 76.9 76.9 69.8 69.8 59.7 59.7 59.7 59.7 59.7 60.8 60.8
PL 54.2 55.3 52.5 52.5 52.5 52.5 52.5 71.5 71.5 63.0 65.6 64.1 64.1 64.1 64.1 64.1 74.0 74.0 46.5 46.5 43.0 43.0 43.0 43.0 43.0 69.0 69.0
PT 38.7 46.0 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 47.5 67.8 67.8 49.3 69.5 63.3 63.3 63.3 63.3 63.3 80.3 80.3 30.4 30.4 35.7 35.7 35.7 35.7 35.7 57.3 57.3
RO 50.6 53.2 50.3 50.3 50.3 50.3 50.3 69.2 69.2 70.9 78.1 70.7 70.7 70.7 70.7 70.7 80.7 80.7 36.2 36.2 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 59.4 59.4
SI 68.3 72.4 72.9 72.9 72.9 72.9 72.9 69.3 69.3 64.5 72.3 69.5 69.5 69.5 69.5 69.5 77.1 77.1 72.4 72.4 76.4 76.4 76.4 76.4 76.4 62.3 62.3
SK 39.9 43.4 46.3 46.3 46.3 46.3 46.3 61.0 61.0 52.7 62.5 56.5 56.5 56.5 56.5 56.5 69.3 69.3 30.2 30.2 37.9 37.9 37.9 37.9 37.9 53.7 53.7
FI 80.1 81.0 77.4 77.4 77.4 77.4 77.4 69.7 69.7 84.2 86.0 82.2 82.2 82.2 82.2 82.2 89.9 89.9 76.3 76.3 72.9 72.9 72.9 72.9 72.9 54.0 54.0
SE 84.5 83.5 90.1 90.1 90.1 90.1 90.1 71.9 71.9 84.6 82.6 90.9 90.9 90.9 90.9 90.9 93.1 93.1 84.3 84.3 89.3 89.3 89.3 89.3 89.3 55.6 55.6

96 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Rank
Member
Domain of time Care activities Social activities
State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
BE 7 7 11 11 11 11 11 15 15 7 8 15 15 15 15 15 8 8 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 21 21
BG 24 23 27 27 27 27 27 17 17 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 16 16 23 23 27 27 27 27 27 19 19
CZ 19 18 17 17 17 17 17 26 26 18 23 23 23 23 23 23 27 27 16 16 14 14 14 14 14 20 20
DK 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 6 2 3 3 3 3 3 9 9 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
DE 9 11 12 12 12 12 12 14 14 11 18 10 10 10 10 10 19 19 8 8 13 13 13 13 13 12 12
EE 5 10 5 5 5 5 5 16 16 3 12 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 11 11 7 7 7 7 7 25 25
IE 6 5 6 6 6 6 6 23 23 12 4 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 26 26
EL 27 26 26 26 26 26 26 13 13 27 26 27 27 27 27 27 17 17 24 24 23 23 23 23 23 7 7
ES 13 12 14 14 14 14 14 5 5 17 15 9 9 9 9 9 5 5 13 13 16 16 16 16 16 9 9
FR 11 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 5 12 12 12 12 12 10 10 12 12 8 8 8 8 8 10 10
HR 22 21 21 21 21 21 21 27 27 20 20 26 26 26 26 26 22 22 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 27 27
IT 15 14 16 16 16 16 16 12 12 19 17 22 22 22 22 22 18 18 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 5 5
CY 23 25 20 20 20 20 20 25 25 22 27 16 16 16 16 16 21 21 22 22 21 21 21 21 21 22 22
LV 12 15 10 10 10 10 10 19 19 4 9 2 2 2 2 2 23 23 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 14 14
LT 20 17 22 22 22 22 22 20 20 14 11 19 19 19 19 19 26 26 21 21 22 22 22 22 22 13 13
LU 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 18 18 8 10 6 6 6 6 6 4 4 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 23 23
HU 18 20 18 18 18 18 18 21 21 13 14 17 17 17 17 17 25 25 20 20 19 19 19 19 19 16 16
MT 16 16 13 13 13 13 13 24 24 23 24 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 14 14 11 11 11 11 11 24 24
NL 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 5 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
AT 14 13 15 15 15 15 15 10 10 26 22 21 21 21 21 21 15 15 7 7 12 12 12 12 12 6 6
PL 17 19 19 19 19 19 19 4 4 16 19 18 18 18 18 18 20 20 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 2 2
PT 26 24 24 24 24 24 24 11 11 24 16 20 20 20 20 20 12 12 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 11 11
RO 21 22 23 23 23 23 23 8 8 9 6 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 8 8
SI 10 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 15 13 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
SK 25 27 25 25 25 25 25 22 22 21 21 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 27 27 24 24 24 24 24 18 18
FI 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 2 1 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 17 17
SE 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 15 15

European Institute for Gender Equality 97


Annexes

Table 10. Gender Equality Index scores and ranks for the domain of power and its sub-domains
Score (points)
Member
Domain of power Political Economic Social
State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU 41.9 43.6 48.4 51.6 53.1 55.0 57.2 59.1 61.4 47.5 49.0 53.0 55.0 56.8 58.5 60.2 61.4 62.6 29.0 31.9 39.2 43.0 45.9 48.8 52.1 54.7 57.6 53.2 53.2 54.5 58.2 57.4 58.2 59.9 61.5 64.0
BE 47.9 50.5 53.4 55.2 55.7 61.0 67.0 71.6 72.3 65.8 70.0 70.2 67.8 68.1 72.0 80.9 87.0 88.6 32.8 36.0 38.0 40.2 41.8 53.3 63.6 72.8 73.5 50.9 51.0 57.1 61.7 60.8 59.2 58.6 58.0 58.0
BG 45.8 49.4 56.0 59.9 61.5 60.2 63.0 62.7 58.8 50.3 53.4 49.2 53.8 56.5 58.8 58.4 57.5 55.9 27.6 32.7 53.2 59.9 60.0 60.2 65.6 60.9 52.5 69.3 69.3 67.0 66.8 68.5 61.8 65.2 70.6 69.4
CZ 31.0 32.0 22.6 26.1 27.7 28.1 29.7 30.2 34.9 30.7 31.7 36.6 37.8 40.0 43.2 45.4 43.4 40.8 27.4 29.0 9.2 13.6 16.4 17.1 19.1 20.0 30.6 35.6 35.6 34.2 34.3 32.5 30.1 30.2 31.6 33.9
DK 58.0 57.5 61.5 64.9 66.2 66.8 69.3 73.9 77.7 75.1 76.1 71.2 74.2 76.0 75.3 74.1 76.1 79.9 47.5 45.6 55.7 56.5 56.0 55.1 59.2 68.5 75.2 54.8 54.8 58.7 65.3 68.3 71.8 75.7 77.5 78.1
DE 38.3 46.0 53.0 56.6 59.5 62.8 64.8 67.6 71.5 60.2 59.9 71.5 69.6 67.8 66.7 67.8 71.4 74.5 19.0 33.0 42.1 49.7 56.5 64.4 67.3 68.1 70.6 49.2 49.1 49.5 52.4 55.0 57.5 59.7 63.6 69.5
EE 21.9 22.0 28.2 34.6 36.1 36.6 34.0 33.0 32.8 34.9 33.7 44.9 48.5 49.3 47.3 50.7 55.4 61.3 21.6 22.7 23.2 23.4 24.2 27.5 25.2 21.8 16.9 13.9 13.9 21.4 36.5 39.4 37.8 30.8 29.8 34.1
IE 37.2 40.7 48.6 53.4 55.8 58.4 61.7 64.7 67.6 32.9 37.0 39.8 44.1 45.3 47.0 48.8 50.6 52.4 21.7 25.4 39.9 46.4 50.0 55.6 62.9 68.1 71.6 72.1 71.7 72.4 74.5 76.8 76.1 76.5 78.5 82.5
EL 22.3 22.3 21.7 24.3 27.0 27.0 28.8 30.4 33.2 34.3 30.7 34.7 35.8 36.5 36.1 36.2 36.0 37.7 13.6 15.3 12.1 14.9 20.4 21.1 26.4 30.7 37.4 23.8 23.6 24.2 27.0 26.4 25.7 25.0 25.5 26.0
ES 52.6 52.9 57.0 62.0 69.4 76.9 80.6 81.1 82.0 73.7 69.7 72.3 76.8 82.5 86.5 87.4 86.6 87.2 33.3 35.8 43.5 53.4 64.8 70.1 75.7 79.1 80.7 59.4 59.2 58.9 58.1 62.7 75.1 79.1 77.8 78.4
FR 52.4 55.1 68.2 78.3 79.8 81.4 81.7 83.8 85.3 64.1 70.8 77.1 80.8 83.1 84.9 86.3 86.9 86.8 41.2 43.2 70.2 82.9 84.6 85.4 85.8 86.2 86.6 54.6 54.6 58.4 71.7 72.3 74.2 73.5 78.7 82.5
HR 28.4 27.3 28.5 34.8 41.4 45.3 49.7 49.5 44.2 40.2 40.0 38.7 42.2 45.1 46.3 49.9 54.7 56.6 24.8 22.2 19.0 19.8 28.6 37.2 46.9 43.0 41.0 22.9 22.9 31.6 50.2 55.1 54.2 52.6 51.6 37.3
IT 25.2 29.4 45.3 47.6 48.8 52.2 56.9 62.7 66.5 31.7 35.8 47.4 47.9 49.3 52.8 58.8 62.4 61.8 10.6 14.8 44.7 53.1 54.9 56.7 59.5 66.6 73.2 47.8 47.8 43.7 42.5 43.1 47.5 52.7 59.2 65.2
CY 15.4 17.4 24.7 28.2 29.8 30.0 30.1 29.2 28.8 30.1 30.2 25.8 27.5 29.9 32.3 34.6 34.5 34.9 4.7 6.8 22.6 23.0 23.0 22.9 22.8 22.2 22.6 25.9 25.7 25.8 35.6 38.6 36.6 34.6 32.3 30.4
LV 34.8 37.9 39.0 44.1 49.4 50.4 50.9 49.1 50.5 38.1 43.7 40.5 36.7 40.6 43.4 43.7 41.8 43.7 37.5 42.1 44.2 45.6 46.1 48.2 49.2 45.5 51.6 29.5 29.5 33.2 51.4 64.3 61.2 61.3 62.4 57.1
LT 32.9 27.7 36.6 32.5 34.1 39.3 45.4 48.6 55.5 34.0 34.8 40.0 40.9 45.5 48.5 54.7 59.1 62.0 23.7 13.9 30.1 18.5 18.1 24.5 34.2 37.8 52.8 44.3 44.2 40.9 45.3 48.2 51.2 50.0 51.5 52.3
LU 25.6 34.9 43.5 44.8 48.4 53.4 59.7 64.4 68.0 45.3 47.6 51.1 48.9 51.5 54.6 57.7 60.9 65.0 5.2 12.5 23.5 28.2 32.1 37.5 47.3 57.8 67.8 71.5 71.2 68.2 65.2 68.6 74.2 77.9 75.9 71.5
HU 23.5 21.9 18.7 20.6 22.2 22.9 24.8 26.2 27.1 16.1 15.9 14.3 15.0 17.8 21.8 25.8 26.4 24.9 37.8 31.0 22.1 23.1 23.7 23.0 21.4 20.5 20.3 21.4 21.5 20.9 25.1 25.8 24.1 27.7 33.4 39.2
MT 20.9 25.0 27.4 32.2 32.8 37.5 40.4 45.3 51.2 30.0 29.1 30.5 32.9 33.1 35.3 35.7 39.8 46.6 12.4 21.9 24.4 24.0 24.2 29.9 34.6 40.9 44.3 24.5 24.6 27.5 42.2 44.2 49.8 53.4 57.1 65.1
NL 56.9 56.6 52.9 50.0 57.2 64.0 68.9 72.7 75.3 69.5 66.0 70.6 70.6 71.9 73.4 74.8 76.4 79.1 40.4 41.8 33.1 29.3 45.9 58.7 69.6 72.0 76.1 65.8 65.8 63.4 60.2 56.7 60.7 62.9 70.1 70.9
AT 28.4 30.8 34.9 39.9 44.2 48.2 51.7 55.4 57.1 60.3 60.3 59.1 61.1 65.9 74.7 78.9 81.6 80.4 9.3 11.8 17.4 21.1 24.4 28.0 30.6 32.0 33.0 40.7 40.8 41.1 49.3 53.7 53.6 57.2 65.3 70.2
PL 30.6 34.8 35.1 29.1 30.0 31.5 34.4 36.4 39.6 36.6 43.5 46.1 43.6 44.3 45.6 46.9 47.2 47.0 27.5 33.8 38.2 33.1 34.1 35.7 37.3 38.9 43.8 28.6 28.6 24.4 17.0 17.8 19.2 23.2 26.2 30.3
PT 34.9 29.7 33.9 46.7 51.1 53.6 55.5 57.4 61.3 41.9 42.4 48.7 56.7 59.0 62.6 64.5 65.1 65.7 20.4 12.6 16.4 36.3 44.9 47.9 46.9 44.7 56.4 49.6 49.3 48.9 49.4 50.4 51.4 56.6 64.9 62.1
RO 30.8 28.8 33.2 38.8 37.5 34.7 32.6 30.7 32.8 23.5 26.5 32.9 40.8 41.6 41.0 36.1 31.8 32.6 28.0 20.4 21.4 20.5 21.5 19.0 17.8 15.7 18.1 44.4 44.4 51.8 69.7 59.3 53.6 54.1 57.6 60.0
SI 41.1 51.5 60.6 57.6 55.0 53.0 53.3 56.1 59.0 44.5 46.3 65.4 67.3 64.4 59.2 55.6 56.2 62.3 29.9 56.4 61.5 50.4 44.7 45.1 45.0 53.6 53.8 52.3 52.3 55.3 56.2 57.7 55.8 60.5 58.8 61.2
SK 29.5 25.4 23.1 26.8 29.6 30.7 31.4 31.1 30.4 31.0 28.4 29.0 35.3 36.9 37.2 36.8 36.8 37.3 34.1 23.7 14.6 17.9 23.3 26.3 27.6 27.5 26.3 24.3 24.4 29.1 30.4 30.0 29.6 30.6 29.6 28.6
FI 69.1 73.2 65.3 66.7 71.9 74.3 74.3 73.9 75.8 86.1 86.3 84.8 78.8 83.9 90.4 91.1 91.1 91.1 52.5 62.0 47.6 52.5 59.2 60.8 61.0 58.9 60.2 73.1 73.2 68.9 71.5 74.8 74.6 73.8 75.0 79.4
SE 77.8 75.2 79.5 83.4 84.2 84.5 84.6 85.1 85.8 92.1 93.0 93.9 95.1 94.9 95.0 95.5 95.9 96.3 58.7 52.6 60.8 69.4 71.7 70.7 69.4 69.2 68.6 87.1 87.1 87.8 87.9 87.8 89.8 91.4 92.9 95.6

98 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Rank
Member
Domain of power Political Economic Social
State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
BE 7 8 8 9 10 8 7 7 7 6 5 8 8 7 8 5 3 3 10 8 13 12 14 11 7 3 5 11 11 10 9 10 11 13 16 17
BG 8 9 7 6 6 9 9 11 14 10 10 12 12 12 12 12 14 17 13 12 5 3 4 6 6 10 15 5 5 5 6 6 8 8 8 11
CZ 15 15 25 25 25 25 25 25 21 23 21 21 21 22 21 20 20 22 15 14 27 27 27 27 26 26 22 18 18 18 23 23 23 24 23 23
DK 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 4 4 3 3 6 5 5 5 8 8 7 3 4 4 4 7 10 11 6 4 8 8 8 7 7 7 5 5 6
DE 10 10 9 8 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 5 7 8 9 9 9 9 21 11 10 9 6 4 5 8 8 13 13 13 13 15 12 12 12 10
EE 25 25 21 19 19 20 21 21 24 17 20 16 14 14 16 16 16 15 19 17 18 18 20 20 23 24 27 27 27 26 21 21 21 22 24 22
IE 11 11 11 10 9 10 10 9 10 20 17 19 16 17 17 18 18 18 18 15 11 10 9 9 8 7 7 3 3 2 2 2 2 4 3 2
EL 24 24 26 26 26 26 26 24 22 18 22 22 23 24 24 23 24 23 22 21 26 26 25 25 22 21 20 24 24 25 25 25 25 26 27 27
ES 5 6 6 5 4 3 3 3 3 4 6 4 4 4 3 3 5 4 9 9 9 5 3 3 2 2 2 7 7 7 11 9 3 2 4 5
FR 6 5 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 7 4 3 2 3 4 4 4 5 4 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 9 9 3 4 5 7 2 3
HR 20 21 20 18 17 17 17 16 19 14 16 20 18 18 18 17 17 16 16 18 22 23 17 16 15 16 19 25 25 20 15 14 14 19 19 21
IT 22 18 12 12 14 14 12 12 11 21 18 14 15 15 14 11 11 14 24 22 7 6 8 8 10 9 6 14 14 15 19 20 20 18 14 12
CY 27 27 23 23 23 24 24 26 26 24 23 26 26 26 26 26 25 25 27 27 19 20 23 24 24 23 24 21 21 23 22 22 22 21 22 24
LV 13 12 14 15 13 15 16 17 18 15 13 17 22 21 20 21 21 21 7 6 8 11 10 12 12 14 16 19 19 19 14 8 9 10 13 18
LT 14 20 15 20 20 18 18 18 16 19 19 18 19 16 15 15 13 13 17 23 15 24 26 22 19 19 14 16 16 17 18 18 18 20 20 19
LU 21 13 13 14 15 12 11 10 9 11 11 11 13 13 13 13 12 11 26 25 17 16 16 15 13 12 10 4 4 4 8 5 6 3 6 7
HU 23 26 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 6 13 20 19 21 23 25 25 25 26 26 27 26 26 26 25 21 20
MT 26 23 22 21 21 19 19 19 17 25 24 24 25 25 25 25 22 20 23 19 16 17 19 18 18 17 17 22 22 22 20 19 19 17 18 13
NL 4 4 10 11 8 6 6 6 6 5 7 7 6 6 7 7 7 8 5 7 14 15 11 7 3 4 3 6 6 6 10 13 10 9 9 8
AT 19 16 17 16 16 16 15 15 15 8 8 10 10 9 6 6 6 6 25 26 23 21 18 19 20 20 21 17 17 16 17 16 16 14 10 9
PL 17 14 16 22 22 22 20 20 20 16 14 15 17 19 19 19 19 19 14 10 12 14 15 17 17 18 18 20 20 24 27 27 27 27 26 25
PT 12 17 18 13 12 11 13 13 12 13 15 13 11 11 10 10 10 10 20 24 24 13 12 13 14 15 12 12 12 14 16 17 17 15 11 14
RO 16 19 19 17 18 21 22 23 23 26 26 23 20 20 22 24 26 26 12 20 21 22 24 26 27 27 26 15 15 12 5 11 15 16 17 16
SI 9 7 5 7 11 13 14 14 13 12 12 9 9 10 11 14 15 12 11 2 2 8 13 14 16 13 13 10 10 11 12 12 13 11 15 15
SK 18 22 24 24 24 23 23 22 25 22 25 25 24 23 23 22 23 24 8 16 25 25 22 21 21 22 23 23 23 21 24 24 24 23 25 26
FI 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 6 7 5 5 9 11 11 2 2 3 4 3 4 6 7 4
SE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 2 2 4 5 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

European Institute for Gender Equality 99


Annexes

Table 11. Gender Equality Index scores and ranks for the domain of health and its sub-domains
Score (points)
Member
Domain of health Status Behaviour Access
State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU 86.7 86.7 87.1 87.8 87.8 87.8 88.7 88.5 88.6 90.4 90.6 90.9 91.9 92.0 92.2 91.9 91.7 91.5 74.8 74.8 74.8 74.8 74.8 74.8 77.8 77.8 77.8 96.2 96.2 97.0 98.3 98.3 98.2 97.6 97.3 97.6
BE 86.5 86.4 86.3 86.3 86.5 86.3 88.5 88.5 88.5 92.6 93.4 93.3 93.3 93.6 93.3 93.8 94.3 93.7 70.3 70.3 70.3 70.3 70.3 70.3 75.1 75.1 75.1 99.3 98.1 98.0 97.9 98.4 98.1 98.3 97.8 98.6
BG 75.3 75.8 76.4 77.1 77.2 77.2 78.0 77.8 78.3 88.1 88.4 88.1 89.0 89.1 89.1 88.4 87.8 89.3 52.3 52.3 52.3 52.3 52.3 52.3 54.4 54.4 54.4 92.6 94.1 96.9 98.5 98.5 98.8 98.8 98.7 98.8
CZ 85.7 85.7 86.0 86.3 86.3 86.3 84.8 84.8 85.1 89.1 89.0 89.6 90.0 90.0 89.9 89.9 89.8 90.7 72.3 72.3 72.3 72.3 72.3 72.3 68.6 68.6 68.6 97.9 98.0 98.2 98.7 98.9 98.9 99.1 98.9 99.0
DK 90.3 90.2 89.6 89.9 89.7 89.5 89.5 88.6 87.9 92.2 92.6 91.6 92.4 91.1 91.6 92.0 90.4 89.2 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.9 81.9 81.9 97.8 96.9 96.2 96.3 96.8 95.9 95.2 93.8 92.8
DE 89.3 89.4 90.5 90.5 90.6 90.7 90.0 89.8 89.7 90.4 90.2 91.8 92.0 92.3 92.5 91.6 91.1 90.8 80.9 80.9 80.9 80.9 80.9 80.9 79.7 79.7 79.7 97.5 97.9 99.7 99.7 99.7 99.8 99.9 99.8 99.8
EE 82.7 82.1 81.5 81.9 81.6 82.2 85.0 85.1 85.7 83.4 83.2 84.1 83.9 83.8 85.2 86.0 85.7 86.7 70.1 70.1 70.1 70.1 70.1 70.1 76.1 76.1 76.1 96.8 94.7 91.9 93.5 92.6 92.9 93.8 94.7 95.3
IE 90.7 90.4 90.6 90.9 91.3 91.3 95.0 94.8 94.6 96.5 96.5 96.8 97.1 97.6 97.7 96.8 96.8 96.5 79.0 79.0 79.0 79.0 79.0 79.0 89.7 89.7 89.7 98.0 97.0 97.3 97.9 98.8 98.6 98.7 98.2 97.9
EL 84.3 83.9 83.1 83.5 84.0 84.3 85.8 85.5 85.2 94.1 93.5 93.4 93.3 94.4 95.2 94.9 94.3 94.6 66.6 66.6 66.6 66.6 66.6 66.6 71.0 71.0 71.0 95.7 94.8 92.3 93.8 94.1 94.5 93.9 93.5 92.1
ES 88.6 89.1 89.6 90.1 90.1 90.3 91.7 91.2 91.0 92.4 93.6 93.2 94.1 94.4 95.2 93.8 92.6 91.9 78.6 78.6 78.6 78.6 78.6 78.6 83.7 83.7 83.7 95.7 96.2 98.3 98.9 98.7 98.6 98.1 97.9 97.9
FR 86.7 86.8 87.1 87.4 87.4 87.4 88.6 88.3 88.0 91.0 91.6 91.6 91.9 92.1 92.1 92.5 92.5 91.5 74.0 74.0 74.0 74.0 74.0 74.0 78.0 78.0 78.0 96.8 96.6 97.6 98.1 97.9 98.1 96.4 95.3 95.4
HR 81.5 82.8 83.3 83.7 83.7 83.8 85.1 84.8 85.2 85.1 85.7 86.4 87.5 87.4 87.6 88.3 88.2 88.5 68.3 68.3 68.3 68.3 68.3 68.3 70.9 70.9 70.9 93.1 97.0 97.8 98.1 98.3 98.3 98.3 97.6 98.5
IT 86.3 86.5 86.3 88.7 88.4 88.4 89.0 89.2 89.3 91.1 91.3 91.3 95.1 94.3 94.4 93.9 94.6 94.5 74.2 74.2 74.2 74.2 74.2 74.2 76.1 76.1 76.1 94.9 95.5 94.8 99.0 98.6 98.6 98.6 98.6 99.1
CY 86.4 87.1 88.2 88.4 88.0 87.9 87.0 87.1 87.4 93.7 94.4 95.5 96.1 94.8 94.6 94.8 94.9 95.5 73.0 73.0 73.0 73.0 73.0 73.0 70.2 70.2 70.2 94.4 96.0 98.4 98.4 98.4 98.4 98.9 99.2 99.6
LV 77.3 77.9 78.4 78.3 78.4 79.3 79.3 78.9 79.0 80.0 80.5 79.8 79.0 79.9 80.4 81.4 80.6 80.9 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5 65.5 64.9 64.9 64.9 88.3 89.7 92.3 92.9 92.1 94.6 94.5 93.8 93.8
LT 80.4 79.6 79.1 79.8 80.0 80.3 82.7 82.9 83.4 81.9 79.7 78.5 80.0 81.0 81.2 80.3 81.4 82.3 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 71.6 71.6 71.6 98.1 97.7 97.5 98.2 97.8 98.3 98.5 97.8 98.3
LU 89.8 90.0 89.0 89.6 89.5 89.9 90.4 90.4 90.0 93.8 94.4 92.0 91.9 91.5 93.0 93.7 94.0 93.3 78.5 78.5 78.5 78.5 78.5 78.5 79.1 79.1 79.1 98.3 98.4 97.7 99.7 99.7 99.7 99.6 99.3 98.9
HU 85.4 85.9 86.0 86.6 87.0 86.7 87.3 87.2 87.5 84.2 85.9 85.8 86.6 87.6 86.9 88.0 88.4 88.6 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 77.0 77.0 77.0 96.3 96.0 96.5 97.6 97.9 97.6 98.3 97.4 98.1
MT 90.6 91.6 91.8 92.1 92.0 92.3 87.8 87.4 87.9 93.8 95.3 95.6 96.2 95.8 96.4 95.8 94.7 95.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 81.7 71.0 71.0 71.0 97.0 98.6 99.0 99.6 99.4 99.8 99.7 99.3 99.8
NL 90.3 89.7 89.9 90.0 90.0 90.2 94.2 94.2 93.4 93.6 91.8 91.7 92.1 92.2 92.8 93.4 93.2 91.0 79.3 79.3 79.3 79.3 79.3 79.3 89.9 89.9 89.9 99.2 99.3 99.9 99.9 99.9 99.6 99.6 99.6 99.6
AT 91.1 91.5 91.7 91.7 91.9 91.9 91.3 91.4 91.0 91.0 91.7 91.3 91.5 91.8 91.9 92.8 93.4 92.3 84.6 84.6 84.6 84.6 84.6 84.6 82.2 82.2 82.2 98.1 98.8 99.8 99.7 99.9 99.7 99.9 99.7 99.5
PL 81.6 81.7 82.2 83.2 83.1 83.3 83.6 84.4 84.8 85.8 85.9 86.6 87.3 87.4 87.7 87.5 87.9 87.8 67.9 67.9 67.9 67.9 67.9 67.9 70.7 70.7 70.7 93.4 93.6 94.5 97.0 96.7 97.2 94.6 96.6 98.1
PT 84.3 84.4 83.6 84.5 84.6 84.8 84.5 84.1 84.6 83.3 84.6 82.6 84.0 84.2 84.5 85.4 85.1 85.6 75.5 75.5 75.5 75.5 75.5 75.5 73.9 73.9 73.9 95.2 94.2 93.9 95.2 95.2 95.8 95.6 94.6 95.8
RO 69.9 70.2 70.4 71.1 71.2 71.3 70.4 70.0 70.4 87.9 88.5 88.6 88.6 88.7 89.2 89.2 88.5 89.3 42.5 42.5 42.5 42.5 42.5 42.5 40.7 40.7 40.7 91.6 92.1 92.9 95.7 96.0 95.9 96.0 95.3 95.9
SI 86.8 87.3 87.7 87.1 86.9 87.8 86.9 86.5 86.9 86.3 87.9 89.1 89.4 88.3 90.7 91.3 91.6 91.5 75.9 75.9 75.9 75.9 75.9 75.9 73.6 73.6 73.6 99.8 99.8 99.8 97.5 97.8 98.2 97.8 96.0 97.4
SK 84.8 85.0 85.3 85.8 85.5 85.5 85.2 85.1 85.5 85.4 86.1 87.4 88.1 87.8 87.7 87.7 87.3 88.2 73.1 73.1 73.1 73.1 73.1 73.1 72.9 72.9 72.9 97.6 97.5 97.3 98.0 97.4 97.6 96.7 96.9 97.4
FI 89.5 89.3 89.7 89.7 89.3 89.5 92.6 93.1 91.7 90.5 90.2 91.1 90.9 90.3 90.5 91.2 92.4 89.5 81.9 81.9 81.9 81.9 81.9 81.9 90.7 90.7 90.7 96.6 96.4 96.8 96.8 96.3 96.6 96.0 96.3 95.1
SE 93.2 93.0 94.1 94.7 94.5 94.6 95.2 94.5 93.8 95.7 95.7 97.4 96.9 96.3 96.4 96.3 94.8 92.8 89.3 89.3 89.3 89.3 89.3 89.3 91.2 91.2 91.2 94.5 94.2 95.8 98.0 98.1 98.2 98.3 97.7 97.6

100 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Rank
Member
Domain of health Status Behaviour Access
State
2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2010 2012 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
BE 13 15 14 16 16 16 12 11 10 8 8 6 8 8 8 8 7 6 19 19 19 19 19 19 14 14 14 2 6 9 16 11 16 15 13 10
BG 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 17 18 19 18 17 19 19 22 18 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 25 24 16 9 10 7 8 8 9
CZ 16 17 16 17 17 17 21 21 21 16 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 15 18 18 18 18 18 18 24 24 24 8 7 8 8 6 6 6 7 7
DK 5 5 8 8 8 9 9 10 12 10 9 11 9 14 14 13 16 19 5 5 5 5 5 5 7 7 7 9 13 19 22 20 22 23 26 26
DE 9 8 5 5 5 5 8 8 8 15 14 9 11 9 11 14 15 14 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 8 8 11 8 4 2 4 2 2 1 2
EE 21 22 23 23 23 23 20 18 17 24 25 24 25 25 24 24 24 24 20 20 20 20 20 20 13 13 13 14 21 27 26 26 27 27 23 23
IE 3 4 4 4 4 4 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 4 4 4 7 12 14 17 7 9 9 10 16
EL 19 20 21 21 20 20 17 17 19 3 7 5 7 6 4 4 6 4 23 23 23 23 23 23 20 20 20 17 20 26 25 25 26 26 27 27
ES 10 10 9 6 6 6 5 6 6 9 6 7 6 5 5 7 11 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 5 5 5 18 16 7 7 8 10 16 11 15
FR 12 13 13 13 13 14 11 12 11 12 12 12 13 11 12 12 12 12 15 15 15 15 15 15 10 10 10 13 14 12 13 15 17 19 21 22
HR 23 21 20 20 21 21 19 20 20 22 23 22 21 23 22 20 20 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 24 11 10 12 13 13 14 15 11
IT 15 14 15 11 11 11 10 9 9 11 13 13 5 7 7 6 5 5 14 14 14 14 14 14 12 12 12 20 19 21 6 9 8 10 9 6
CY 14 12 11 12 12 12 15 15 15 6 5 4 4 4 6 5 2 3 17 17 17 17 17 17 23 23 23 22 17 6 10 12 11 7 6 4
LV 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 27 26 26 27 27 27 26 27 27 24 24 24 24 24 24 25 25 25 27 27 25 27 27 25 25 25 25
LT 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 26 27 27 26 26 26 27 26 26 25 25 25 25 25 25 18 18 18 5 9 13 11 18 12 11 12 12
LU 7 6 10 10 9 8 7 7 7 4 4 8 12 13 9 9 8 7 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 4 5 11 4 3 4 4 5 8
HU 17 16 17 15 14 15 14 14 14 23 22 23 23 21 23 21 19 20 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 16 18 18 18 16 18 13 16 14
MT 4 2 2 2 2 2 13 13 13 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 19 19 19 12 4 5 5 5 1 3 4 1
NL 6 7 6 7 7 7 3 3 3 7 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 13 7 7 7 7 7 7 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 5 5 3 3
AT 2 3 3 3 3 3 6 5 5 13 11 14 14 12 13 11 9 9 2 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 6 6 3 2 3 2 3 1 2 5
PL 22 23 22 22 22 22 23 22 22 20 21 21 22 22 21 23 21 23 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 23 25 22 20 21 20 24 18 13
PT 20 19 19 19 19 19 22 23 23 25 24 25 24 24 25 25 25 25 13 13 13 13 13 13 15 15 15 19 23 23 24 24 24 22 24 21
RO 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 18 17 18 19 18 18 18 18 17 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 26 26 24 23 23 23 20 22 20
SI 11 11 12 14 15 13 16 16 16 19 19 17 17 19 15 15 14 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 16 16 16 1 1 3 19 17 14 17 20 18
SK 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 19 18 21 20 20 20 20 20 22 23 22 16 16 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 10 10 15 15 19 19 18 17 19
FI 8 9 7 9 10 10 4 4 4 14 15 15 15 15 16 16 13 16 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 15 15 17 21 22 21 21 19 24
SE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 3 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 21 22 20 14 14 15 12 14 17

European Institute for Gender Equality 101


Annexes

Annex 3. Indicators included in the Gender Equality Index 2024

Table 12. Gender Equality Index 2024 indicators included in the domain of work by Member State
Participation Segregation and quality of work
Employed people in education, human Ability to take an hour or two off during
Member
FTE employment (aged 15–89) Duration of working life (years) health and social work activities working hours to take care of personal Career Prospects Index (0–100 points)
State
(aged 15–89) or family matters (%, aged 15+)
Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap
EU 43.5 58.4 50.6 – 14.9 34.2 38.6 36.5 – 4.4 30.2 8.3 18.5 21.9 29.0 37.2 33.4 – 8.2 61.5 63.1 62.4 – 1.6
BE 42.1 54.4 47.9 – 12.3 32.7 36.2 34.5 – 3.5 38.2 11.5 24.1 26.7 27.4 32.7 30.2 – 5.3 66.2 66.5 66.4 – 0.3
BG 48.6 60.9 54.4 – 12.3 32.3 34.8 33.6 – 2.5 18.9 4.1 11.0 14.8 22.6 31.3 27.3 – 8.7 65.6 62.3 63.9 3.3
CZ 49.0 66.3 57.4 – 17.3 33.3 39.3 36.4 – 6.0 27.2 5.5 15.1 21.7 18.1 28.1 23.7 – 10.0 60.9 65.4 63.1 – 4.5
DK 50.4 60.1 55.0 – 9.7 39.4 42.4 41.0 – 3.0 42.2 13.3 27.0 28.9 36.5 46.8 42.0 – 10.3 70.4 72.9 71.7 – 2.5
DE 43.6 60.8 51.8 – 17.2 37.4 41.2 39.3 – 3.8 32.5 9.7 20.4 22.8 31.8 39.2 35.8 – 7.4 65.5 67.9 66.7 – 2.4
EE 55.4 66.8 60.7 – 11.4 40.7 39.9 40.3 0.8 27.9 5.1 16.4 22.8 34.6 42.9 38.8 – 8.3 65.8 64.8 65.3 1.0
IE 49.3 63.9 56.2 – 14.6 36.3 42.3 39.4 – 6.0 35.0 9.3 21.3 25.7 32.6 43.0 38.1 – 10.4 64.6 64.1 64.3 0.5
EL 36.2 56.0 45.7 – 19.8 30.3 37.3 33.9 – 7.0 25.2 8.1 15.3 17.1 29.5 35.2 32.8 – 5.7 51.0 52.2 51.6 – 1.2
ES 42.5 56.6 49.3 – 14.1 34.1 37.8 36.0 – 3.7 26.5 8.1 16.6 18.4 35.6 38.1 37.0 – 2.5 56.1 57.3 56.8 – 1.2
FR 45.2 54.5 49.5 – 9.3 35.2 37.9 36.6 – 2.7 33.3 10.3 21.6 23.0 16.0 21.1 18.6 – 5.1 63.8 66.7 65.3 – 2.9
HR 42.4 54.4 48.1 – 12.0 32.1 35.7 34.0 – 3.6 27.5 5.3 15.6 22.2 38.2 50.2 44.7 – 12.0 59.8 61.0 60.4 – 1.2
IT 32.3 52.4 41.8 – 20.1 27.6 36.5 32.2 – 8.9 26.0 7.1 15.1 18.9 26.9 34.9 31.5 – 8.0 51.9 55.7 54.0 – 3.8
CY 52.1 64.5 58.0 – 12.4 35.4 41.7 38.7 – 6.3 19.4 5.9 12.3 13.5 42.9 47.8 45.5 – 4.9 53.0 50.8 51.9 2.2
LV 52.5 63.3 57.4 – 10.8 36.6 36.6 36.6 0.0 26.7 5.3 16.2 21.4 36.3 42.8 39.5 – 6.5 62.7 60.7 61.8 2.0
LT 56.1 64.6 60.0 – 8.5 38.1 36.5 37.3 1.6 27.3 5.5 16.6 21.8 28.8 39.5 34.1 – 10.7 61.9 63.2 62.5 – 1.3
LU 51.7 62.4 56.9 – 10.7 33.2 36.2 34.7 – 3.0 28.2 10.7 18.8 17.5 32.0 37.9 35.2 – 5.9 70.1 72.5 71.3 – 2.4
HU 50.9 64.8 57.5 – 13.9 34.4 37.9 36.2 – 3.5 24.4 5.5 14.4 18.9 36.1 41.4 38.9 – 5.3 64.4 63.5 64.0 0.9
MT 51.3 68.9 60.4 – 17.6 34.8 41.6 38.4 – 6.8 30.7 9.9 18.7 20.8 45.4 51.0 48.7 – 5.6 69.0 67.0 67.8 2.0
NL 46.5 62.6 53.8 – 16.1 41.1 45.1 43.2 – 4.0 39.7 11.4 24.7 28.3 47.3 66.9 57.7 – 19.6 61.0 62.4 61.7 – 1.4
AT 42.6 60.7 51.2 – 18.1 36.2 40.3 38.3 – 4.1 27.8 8.9 17.8 18.9 35.6 43.1 39.6 – 7.5 64.3 65.4 64.9 – 1.1
PL 47.4 63.1 54.8 – 15.7 32.2 36.8 34.6 – 4.6 25.8 5.1 14.5 20.7 23.4 36.0 30.3 – 12.6 60.1 59.2 59.7 0.9
PT 51.6 61.1 56.0 – 9.5 37.4 39.4 38.4 – 2.0 30.3 7.4 18.7 22.9 29.0 34.9 32.0 – 5.9 55.6 57.0 56.3 – 1.4
RO 40.0 57.9 48.7 – 17.9 28.0 34.9 31.5 – 6.9 19.9 3.6 10.5 16.3 25.4 34.2 30.6 – 8.8 66.0 67.1 66.6 – 1.1
SI 49.5 60.4 54.9 – 10.9 35.5 37.9 36.7 – 2.4 30.5 7.4 17.9 23.1 30.6 37.8 34.5 – 7.2 60.4 61.5 61.0 – 1.1
SK 52.5 64.1 58.1 – 11.6 33.8 36.4 35.2 – 2.6 28.3 5.3 16.1 23.0 20.5 28.2 24.5 – 7.7 65.7 66.8 66.2 – 1.1
FI 49.6 56.8 53.0 – 7.2 39.7 40.1 39.9 – 0.4 37.6 8.7 22.7 28.9 32.9 51.3 42.5 – 18.4 65.4 66.7 66.1 – 1.3
SE 54.0 62.6 58.2 – 8.6 41.4 43.8 42.6 – 2.4 40.3 12.4 25.5 27.9 46.8 58.5 53.0 – 11.7 66.7 68.1 67.4 – 1.4
Source: Eurostat, EU-LFS, 2022; EIGE’s calculations Source: Eurostat (lfsi_dwl_a), EU-LFS, 2022 Source: Eurostat (lfsa_egan2), EU-LFS, 2022 Source: Eurofound, EWCTS, 2021; EIGE’s calculations Source: Eurofound, EWCS, 2015; EIGE’s calculations

NB: Eurofound, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.

102 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Table 13. Gender Equality Index 2024 indicators included in the domain of money by Member State
Financial resources Economic situation
Member Not-at-risk-of-poverty rate, ≥ 60 %
Mean monthly earnings (PPS, working population) Mean equivalised net income (PPS, aged 16+) S80/S20 income quintile share (%, aged 16+)
State of median income (%, aged 16+)
Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap
EU 2 321 2 818 2 581 – 497 20 859 21 967 21 395 – 1 108 83.0 85.1 84.0 – 2.1 21.2 21.0 21.1 0.2
BE 2 778 3 075 2 927 – 297 25 684 26 778 26 220 – 1 094 86.6 87.1 86.8 – 0.5 28.4 26.6 27.5 1.8
BG 1 078 1 256 1 168 – 178 11 916 12 924 12 399 – 1 008 74.7 80.7 77.5 – 6.0 14.3 14.5 14.3 – 0.2
CZ 1 463 1 845 1 669 – 382 16 629 17 914 17 254 – 1 285 87.8 92.5 90.1 – 4.7 28.5 29.7 28.9 – 1.2
DK 2 868 3 479 3 160 – 611 25 770 26 689 26 223 – 919 87.1 87.2 87.1 – 0.1 24.5 23.5 24.0 1.0
DE 2 765 3 461 3 135 – 696 26 209 27 383 26 784 – 1 174 84.3 86.2 85.2 – 1.9 22.5 22.3 22.4 0.2
EE 1 461 1 896 1 653 – 435 18 653 19 688 19 136 – 1 035 72.8 77.7 75.1 – 4.9 18.7 17.5 18.1 1.2
IE 2 597 3 084 2 833 – 487 22 825 23 991 23 400 – 1 166 85.5 87.1 86.3 – 1.6 24.7 23.1 23.8 1.6
EL 1 524 1 802 1 672 – 278 12 272 12 643 12 451 – 371 81.3 82.3 81.8 – 1.0 19.3 19.1 19.2 0.2
ES 1 961 2 290 2 135 – 329 19 581 20 378 19 969 – 797 79.9 81.9 80.9 – 2.0 18.1 18.6 18.4 – 0.5
FR 2 282 2 798 2 548 – 516 23 155 24 630 23 859 – 1 475 84.6 87.0 85.8 – 2.4 22.3 22.0 22.1 0.3
HR 1 572 1 783 1 681 – 211 13 109 13 875 13 474 – 766 79.2 84.0 81.4 – 4.8 21.3 22.3 21.7 – 1.0
IT 2 201 2 620 2 435 – 419 20 946 22 204 21 554 – 1 258 79.2 82.5 80.8 – 3.3 17.5 18.1 17.8 – 0.6
CY 1 941 2 303 2 123 – 362 22 635 23 456 23 031 – 821 85.1 87.5 86.3 – 2.4 23.5 23.7 23.6 – 0.2
LV 1 349 1 697 1 514 – 348 14 124 15 847 14 897 – 1 723 73.0 79.8 76.1 – 6.8 15.4 15.4 15.2 0.0
LT 1 316 1 549 1 427 – 233 16 637 18 553 17 512 – 1 916 75.2 82.0 78.3 – 6.8 16.2 14.8 15.4 1.4
LU 3 497 3 625 3 576 – 128 36 469 38 318 37 415 – 1 849 82.9 84.8 83.9 – 1.9 21.8 21.9 22.2 – 0.1
HU 1 408 1 677 1 546 – 269 11 183 11 943 11 542 – 760 86.8 88.1 87.4 – 1.3 25.4 23.5 24.4 1.9
MT 2 238 2 662 2 475 – 424 24 133 24 744 24 451 – 611 82.4 84.7 83.6 – 2.3 21.1 21.7 21.4 – 0.6
NL 2 374 2 938 2 663 – 564 26 577 27 816 27 190 – 1 239 84.6 85.7 85.1 – 1.1 25.4 24.6 25.0 0.8
AT 2 343 3 018 2 738 – 675 27 838 28 969 28 391 – 1 131 85.3 86.6 86.0 – 1.3 23.9 23.1 23.5 0.8
PL 1 677 2 018 1 855 – 341 16 368 16 898 16 622 – 530 85.8 86.8 86.3 – 1.0 25.8 24.7 25.3 1.1
PT 1 367 1 541 1 452 – 174 14 654 15 027 14 829 – 373 83.6 84.4 84.0 – 0.8 19.7 18.7 19.3 1.0
RO 1 732 1 782 1 758 – 50 11 217 11 455 11 332 – 238 79.5 80.0 79.8 – 0.5 17.8 16.3 16.9 1.5
SI 1 847 2 084 1 972 – 237 19 883 20 449 20 167 – 566 86.9 87.7 87.3 – 0.8 30.0 29.4 29.7 0.6
SK 1 285 1 628 1 461 – 343 10 284 10 517 10 397 – 233 87.3 88.5 87.9 – 1.2 32.9 33.7 33.2 – 0.8
FI 2 419 2 953 2 667 – 534 22 847 24 147 23 484 – 1 300 86.0 87.4 86.7 – 1.4 27.0 25.4 26.2 1.6
SE 2 628 3 024 2 822 – 396 22 102 23 276 22 690 – 1 174 83.3 84.8 84.0 – 1.5 22.9 21.6 22.2 1.3
Source: Eurostat (ilc_di03), EU-SILC, 2022 (FR, LU: break in time Source: Eurostat (ilc_di02), EU-SILC, 2022 (FR, LU: break in time Source: EU-SILC, 2022 (FR, LU: break in time series); Eurostat’s
Source: Eurostat (earn_ses18_20), SES, 2018
series) series) calculations

NB: PPS, purchasing power standard.

European Institute for Gender Equality 103


Annexes

Table 14. Gender Equality Index 2024 indicators included in the domain of knowledge by Member State
Attainment and participation Segregation
Member People participating in formal or non-formal Tertiary students in the fields of education, health and welfare,
Graduates of tertiary education (%, aged 15–89)
State education and training (%, aged 15–74) and humanities and arts (%, aged 15+)
Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap
EU 28.1 26.2 27.1 1.9 20.3 18.7 19.5 1.6 42.8 20.8 32.8 22.0
BE 36.0 31.4 33.7 4.6 21.4 19.8 20.6 1.6 50.8 29.0 41.3 21.8
BG 27.3 19.6 23.6 7.7 10.0 10.2 10.1 – 0.2 44.8 22.2 34.7 22.6
CZ 21.8 19.3 20.6 2.5 17.0 16.7 16.9 0.3 48.5 21.8 37.0 26.7
DK 37.3 28.3 32.9 9.0 37.6 30.4 34.0 7.2 51.6 24.8 40.1 26.8
DE 24.1 31.0 27.5 – 6.9 15.5 15.5 15.5 0.0 40.9 17.3 29.1 23.6
EE 43.1 27.7 35.9 15.4 28.5 22.1 25.3 6.4 46.9 18.2 35.2 28.7
IE 44.9 39.6 42.3 5.3 23.2 21.5 22.4 1.7 46.0 22.5 35.1 23.5
EL 25.7 25.9 25.8 – 0.2 13.7 13.4 13.5 0.3 35.6 16.4 25.9 19.2
ES 33.5 31.2 32.4 2.3 24.6 21.4 23.0 3.2 49.6 25.2 38.5 24.4
FR 34.4 30.7 32.6 3.7 25.3 21.9 23.7 3.4 37.0 19.3 29.1 17.7
HR 22.8 18.5 20.7 4.3 12.7 11.1 11.9 1.6 37.6 16.9 28.8 20.7
IT 17.0 13.7 15.4 3.3 16.5 15.9 16.2 0.6 47.6 25.0 37.7 22.6
CY 41.1 36.7 39.0 4.4 17.0 16.7 16.8 0.3 49.0 21.6 37.8 27.4
LV 38.0 25.4 32.3 12.6 21.1 15.9 18.7 5.2 44.0 14.3 31.4 29.7
LT 42.8 32.2 38.0 10.6 16.2 14.4 15.4 1.8 46.3 18.2 34.6 28.1
LU 42.4 42.5 42.4 – 0.1 31.3 30.4 30.8 0.9 36.1 18.3 27.8 17.8
HU 26.4 21.7 24.2 4.7 15.4 14.3 14.8 1.1 40.6 19.1 30.8 21.5
MT 26.5 23.6 25.0 2.9 19.1 17.5 18.2 1.6 50.1 30.6 41.9 19.5
NL 34.7 35.7 35.2 – 1.0 32.9 31.6 32.3 1.3 37.0 19.2 28.8 17.8
AT 27.9 31.4 29.6 – 3.5 22.1 19.5 20.8 2.6 41.6 21.8 32.6 19.8
PL 30.2 22.2 26.4 8.0 15.0 14.0 14.5 1.0 40.2 20.3 32.2 19.9
PT 24.9 18.8 22.1 6.1 21.5 21.6 21.5 – 0.1 38.6 18.3 29.2 20.3
RO 15.1 13.9 14.5 1.2 12.8 13.4 13.1 – 0.6 34.4 18.1 27.1 16.3
SI 36.0 27.1 31.5 8.9 28.6 25.8 27.2 2.8 41.8 16.5 31.1 25.3
SK 26.6 20.8 23.8 5.8 19.2 18.8 19.0 0.4 51.2 25.8 40.8 25.4
FI 38.1 29.5 33.8 8.6 34.0 27.1 30.5 6.9 49.5 17.0 34.7 32.5
SE 44.6 33.1 38.8 11.5 45.4 33.6 39.4 11.8 52.9 29.2 43.6 23.7
Source: EIGE’s calculations based on Eurostat, EU-LFS, 2022; EIGE’s calculations Source: EIGE’s calculations based on Eurostat, EU-LFS, 2022; EIGE’s calculations Source: Eurostat: education statistics (educ_uoe_enrt03), 2022

104 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Table 15. Gender Equality Index 2024 indicators included in the domain of time by Member State
Care activities Social activities
People caring for and educating their children or Workers doing sporting, cultural or leisure
Member People doing cooking and/or housework Workers involved in voluntary or charitable
grandchildren, older people or disabled activities outside their home daily or at least
State every day (%, aged 18–74) activities at least once a month (%, aged 15–74)
people every day (%, aged 18–74) several times a week (%, aged 16–74)
Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap
EU 33.5 24.6 29.1 8.9 63.1 35.7 49.5 27.4 28.6 34.4 31.7 – 5.8 10.9 14.7 12.9 – 3.8
BE 31.4 24.2 27.8 7.2 64.0 41.1 52.6 22.9 25.8 32.2 28.8 – 6.4 7.9 17.5 12.4 – 9.6
BG 42.9 31.8 37.3 11.1 71.7 36.6 54.1 35.1 24.7 32.5 28.7 – 7.8 8.1 10.8 9.5 – 2.7
CZ 33.8 19.4 26.6 14.4 58.3 20.4 39.4 37.9 23.0 27.8 25.8 – 4.8 6.7 8.1 7.5 – 1.4
DK 14.7 21.3 18.0 – 6.6 59.8 42.3 51.0 17.5 32.2 38.0 35.5 – 5.8 14.0 23.9 19.7 – 9.9
DE 21.2 12.6 16.8 8.6 44.3 25.4 34.7 18.9 20.8 27.8 24.5 – 7.0 13.4 17.7 15.7 – 4.3
EE 16.9 17.7 17.3 – 0.8 50.7 38.7 44.8 12.0 25.0 34.3 29.7 – 9.3 4.9 12.5 8.7 – 7.6
IE 36.0 28.0 32.1 8.0 67.8 45.5 56.8 22.3 9.6 23.7 16.7 – 14.1 12.0 18.0 15.0 – 6.0
EL 37.2 30.5 33.9 6.7 65.0 27.2 46.7 37.8 25.9 25.4 25.6 0.5 10.1 10.2 10.2 – 0.1
ES 40.9 33.4 37.1 7.5 64.4 43.9 54.2 20.5 33.3 38.9 36.0 – 5.6 8.5 15.0 11.7 – 6.5
FR 31.2 23.4 27.4 7.8 68.1 42.8 55.7 25.3 30.3 35.9 33.2 – 5.6 8.7 12.5 10.6 – 3.8
HR 38.9 28.2 34.4 10.7 77.9 34.0 59.5 43.9 12.1 24.0 16.9 – 11.9 4.2 8.2 5.8 – 4.0
IT 33.6 24.5 29.2 9.1 72.4 33.7 53.3 38.7 27.6 34.0 31.3 – 6.4 11.5 12.9 12.3 – 1.4
CY 41.0 28.4 34.7 12.6 70.2 33.2 52.3 37.0 19.1 27.1 23.1 – 8.0 5.8 6.3 6.0 – 0.5
LV 40.5 24.2 32.9 16.3 73.2 34.8 55.4 38.4 23.9 28.4 26.0 – 4.5 11.1 17.0 13.9 – 5.9
LT 34.9 20.7 28.0 14.2 64.9 28.8 47.8 36.1 21.4 20.6 21.0 0.8 10.4 11.3 10.8 – 0.9
LU 29.5 21.4 25.5 8.1 62.1 49.2 55.7 12.9 23.0 33.0 28.3 – 10.0 7.3 4.8 5.9 2.5
HU 27.9 19.2 23.6 8.7 59.3 22.6 41.4 36.7 23.6 31.2 27.7 – 7.6 9.2 11.5 10.4 – 2.3
MT 32.4 15.8 24.2 16.6 78.2 62.9 70.5 15.3 22.5 41.5 32.7 – 19.0 5.3 6.3 5.8 – 1.0
NL 30.3 25.8 28.0 4.5 68.9 43.7 56.2 25.2 46.4 48.0 47.3 – 1.6 11.6 20.2 16.2 – 8.6
AT 32.0 23.0 27.5 9.0 61.1 32.6 47.0 28.5 25.7 33.4 29.6 – 7.7 14.3 19.6 17.0 – 5.3
PL 48.2 32.2 40.3 16.0 66.9 34.0 51.0 32.9 42.8 46.5 44.7 – 3.7 11.1 14.3 12.8 – 3.2
PT 42.7 32.4 37.8 10.3 73.1 42.8 58.7 30.3 28.6 38.2 33.4 – 9.6 10.4 15.7 13.0 – 5.3
RO 51.7 40.3 46.0 11.4 65.7 38.2 51.8 27.5 24.8 27.5 26.3 – 2.7 17.9 12.6 15.0 5.3
SI 26.3 23.8 25.0 2.5 69.2 28.7 47.7 40.5 29.9 35.9 33.5 – 6.0 10.7 10.6 10.7 0.1
SK 37.3 23.9 30.7 13.4 52.8 22.6 37.7 30.2 24.1 29.5 27.2 – 5.4 7.6 9.3 8.6 – 1.7
FI 23.7 21.5 22.6 2.2 61.9 45.3 53.4 16.6 36.5 47.0 42.0 – 10.5 6.2 14.9 10.7 – 8.7
SE 24.7 25.0 24.9 – 0.3 60.6 46.2 53.3 14.4 25.2 36.8 31.7 – 11.6 10.8 16.5 14.0 – 5.7
Source: EIGE’s CARE Survey, 2022; EIGE’s calculations Source: EIGE’s CARE Survey, 2022; EIGE’s calculations Source: EIGE’s CARE Survey, 2022; EIGE’s calculations Source: EIGE’s CARE Survey, 2022; EIGE’s calculations

European Institute for Gender Equality 105


Annexes

Table 16. Gender Equality Index 2024 indicators included in the domain of power by Member State
Political Economic Social
Share of board members Share of members of the
Share of board members
of the largest listed Share of members of highest decision-making
Member Share Share of members Share of members of Share of members of of publicly owned
companies – supervisory public research-funding bodies of the national
State of ministers (%) of parliament (%) regional assemblies (%) central banks (%) broadcasting
boards or boards of organisations (%) Olympic sport
organisations (%)
directors (%) organisations (%)
Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men
EU 34.3 65.7 32.9 67.1 30.5 69.5 31.9 68.1 28.0 72.0 41.6 58.4 37.2 62.8 20.9 79.1
BE 52.5 47.5 43.5 56.5 42.8 57.2 38.4 61.6 36.8 63.2 34.1 65.9 35.0 65.0 19.9 80.1
BG 37.6 62.4 24.0 76.0 27.2 72.8 17.5 82.5 38.1 61.9 53.1 46.9 36.7 63.3 21.4 78.6
CZ 17.8 82.2 22.5 77.5 22.5 77.5 21.7 78.3 9.5 90.5 30.0 70.0 13.6 86.4 8.3 91.7
DK 32.9 67.1 42.2 57.8 46.3 53.7 38.8 61.2 37.3 62.7 48.1 51.9 45.0 55.0 25.4 74.6
DE 47.2 52.8 34.2 65.8 33.0 67.0 37.1 62.9 35.3 64.7 46.2 53.8 35.0 65.0 25.5 74.5
EE 43.7 56.3 27.7 72.3 28.9 71.1 9.9 90.1 8.3 91.7 30.0 70.0 11.1 88.9 14.8 85.2
IE 26.7 73.3 27.7 72.3 26.0 74.0 33.3 66.7 40.0 60.0 48.3 51.7 50.0 50.0 28.2 71.8
EL 17.2 82.8 20.6 79.4 20.9 79.1 22.2 77.8 16.7 83.3 12.0 88.0 16.7 83.3 11.6 88.4
ES 46.5 53.5 41.8 58.2 46.9 53.1 35.1 64.9 48.3 51.7 51.3 48.7 41.4 58.6 28.8 71.2
FR 50.2 49.8 38.1 61.9 48.7 51.3 45.6 54.4 45.5 54.5 43.3 56.7 48.8 51.2 38.3 61.7
HR 26.9 73.1 32.3 67.7 30.5 69.5 28.4 71.6 14.8 85.2 19.0 81.0 28.6 71.4 11.3 88.8
IT 37.9 62.1 34.9 65.1 23.5 76.5 40.9 59.1 35.2 64.8 30.4 69.6 44.4 55.6 26.8 73.2
CY 23.6 76.4 15.6 84.4 15.3 84.7 10.2 89.8 13.0 87.0 23.1 76.9 14.8 85.2 9.4 90.6
LV 31.7 68.3 28.8 71.2 14.6 85.4 21.9 78.1 36.8 63.2 82.9 17.1 62.5 37.5 26.4 73.6
LT 43.7 56.3 28.3 71.7 31.3 68.7 23.3 76.7 35.7 64.3 35.4 64.6 30.6 69.4 21.7 78.3
LU 32.4 67.6 34.2 65.8 30.1 69.9 22.8 77.2 44.4 55.6 57.7 42.3 42.3 57.7 22.1 77.9
HU 11.7 88.3 13.3 86.7 14.7 85.3 10.4 89.6 11.1 88.9 7.7 92.3 42.9 57.1 11.7 88.3
MT 16.4 83.6 22.5 77.5 25.9 74.1 14.3 85.7 26.7 73.3 40.9 59.1 37.0 63.0 14.0 86.0
NL 47.9 52.1 36.9 63.1 35.4 64.6 39.6 60.4 37.5 62.5 47.1 52.9 27.6 72.4 33.0 67.0
AT 46.4 53.6 41.3 58.7 35.9 64.1 33.3 66.7 0.0 100.0 43.7 56.3 53.3 46.7 15.2 84.8
PL 19.4 80.6 27.5 72.5 27.8 72.2 25.1 74.9 21.3 78.7 21.8 78.2 17.6 82.4 8.4 91.6
PT 36.5 63.5 38.1 61.9 32.1 67.9 31.8 68.2 29.4 70.6 40.0 60.0 61.1 38.9 15.2 84.8
RO 10.8 89.2 19.6 80.4 20.6 79.4 18.5 81.5 0.0 100.0 44.9 55.1 33.8 66.2 15.3 84.7
SI 32.0 68.0 27.2 72.8 33.8 66.2 22.6 77.4 30.8 69.2 52.4 47.6 37.5 62.5 6.1 93.9
SK 21.2 78.8 21.8 78.2 14.9 85.1 26.9 73.1 0.0 100.0 10.3 89.7 20.8 79.2 13.2 86.8
FI 55.7 44.3 45.8 54.2 47.4 52.6 36.3 63.7 25.0 75.0 46.3 53.7 42.9 57.1 32.3 67.7
SE 49.3 50.7 47.0 53.0 47.9 52.1 36.8 63.2 31.4 68.6 49.8 50.2 54.5 45.5 52.0 48.0
Source: EIGE, gender statistics Source: EIGE, gender statistics Source: EIGE, gender statistics Source: EIGE, gender statistics Source: EIGE, gender statistics Source: EIGE, gender statistics Source: EIGE, gender statistics Source: EIGE, gender statistics
database on WMID (3-year database on WMID (3-year database on WMID (3-year database on WMID (3-year database on WMID (3-year database on WMID (3-year database on WMID (3-year database on WMID (3-year
average: 2021, 2022 and average: 2021, 2022 and average: 2021, 2022 and average: 2021, 2022 and average: 2021–2022-2023); average: 2021, 2022 and average: 2021, 2022 and average: 2021, 2022 and
2023); national governments 2023); national parliaments 2023); local level used for BG, 2023); EIGE’s calculations EIGE’s calculations 2023); break in time series for 2023); EIGE’s calculations 2023); EIGE’s calculations
(all ministers: junior and senior (both houses); EIGE’s EE, IE, CY, LT, LU, MT and SI IT and RO (only 2018); EIGE’s
ministers); EIGE’s calculations calculations (2023); EIGE’s calculations calculations

NB: WMID, women and men in decision-making.

106 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Table 17. Gender Equality Index 2024 indicators included in the domain of health by Member State
Status Behaviour Access
Population who do not Population doing physical
Healthy life years in Population without unmet Population without unmet
Member Self-perceived health – good Life expectancy in absolute smoke and are not involved activities and/or consuming
absolute value at birth needs for medical needs for dental
State or very good (%, aged 16+) value at birth (years) in harmful drinking (%, aged fruits and vegetables
(years) examination (%, aged 16+) examination (%, aged 16+)
16+) (%, aged 16+)
Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap Women Men Total Gap
EU 65.4 70.3 67.8 – 4.9 83.3 77.9 80.6 5.4 62.8 62.4 62.6 0.4 72.7 55.6 64.6 17.1 37.6 42.6 40.0 – 5.0 95.4 96.5 95.9 – 1.1 95.0 95.5 95.2 – 0.5
BE 72.5 78.2 75.3 – 5.7 83.9 79.7 81.8 4.2 63.3 64.1 63.7 – 0.8 71.8 50.9 61.6 20.9 37.0 41.1 38.9 – 4.1 98.3 98.6 98.4 – 0.3 95.8 96.4 96.1 – 0.6
BG 64.6 71.9 68.1 – 7.3 77.9 70.6 74.2 7.3 68.9 64.5 66.7 4.4 69.6 47.4 59.1 22.2 11.3 19.8 15.3 – 8.5 97.4 98.0 97.7 – 0.6 97.0 97.1 97.1 – 0.1
CZ 65.4 70.5 67.9 – 5.1 81.9 76.1 79.0 5.8 62.4 61.2 61.8 1.2 69.6 50.4 60.2 19.2 26.7 33.4 30.0 – 6.7 98.3 98.0 98.2 0.3 97.7 97.2 97.5 0.5
DK 62.7 66.9 64.8 – 4.2 83.2 79.5 81.3 3.7 54.6 57.1 55.9 – 2.5 61.5 43.0 52.4 18.5 66.1 59.7 62.9 6.4 87.8 87.2 87.5 0.6 88.1 85.5 86.9 2.6
DE 62.5 65.8 64.1 – 3.3 83.0 78.3 80.7 4.7 61.2 60.9 61.1 0.3 61.0 43.5 52.4 17.5 51.8 54.6 53.2 – 2.8 99.4 99.3 99.3 0.1 99.0 98.9 99.0 0.1
EE 55.9 59.9 57.7 – 4.0 82.3 73.6 78.1 8.7 60.6 58.0 59.3 2.6 78.5 54.7 67.5 23.8 34.5 35.1 34.8 – 0.6 85.8 89.3 87.4 – 3.5 96.9 97.3 97.1 – 0.4
IE 79.9 80.1 80.0 – 0.2 84.2 80.9 82.6 3.3 66.8 65.2 66.0 1.6 69.0 59.3 64.2 9.7 55.9 55.4 55.7 0.5 95.6 97.2 96.4 – 1.6 96.6 98.3 97.4 – 1.7
EL 75.1 79.2 77.1 – 4.1 83.4 78.3 80.8 5.1 67.8 66.2 67.0 1.6 75.9 58.8 67.8 17.1 24.5 31.5 27.9 – 7.0 85.5 88.4 86.9 – 2.9 84.8 85.3 85.0 – 0.5
ES 67.6 72.8 70.1 – 5.2 85.9 80.5 83.2 5.4 60.6 61.7 61.2 – 1.1 78.5 69.3 74.0 9.2 38.2 46.6 42.3 – 8.4 97.3 97.9 97.5 – 0.6 94.1 94.7 94.4 – 0.6
FR 63.2 67.3 65.1 – 4.1 85.1 79.3 82.3 5.8 65.2 63.7 64.5 1.5 72.3 55.5 64.3 16.8 38.2 43.5 40.7 – 5.3 92.8 94.7 93.7 – 1.9 90.2 92.1 91.1 – 1.9
HR 60.6 65.8 63.1 – 5.2 80.8 74.6 77.7 6.2 61.5 59.0 60.3 2.5 70.5 55.2 64.0 15.3 25.2 29.9 27.2 – 4.7 95.3 95.2 95.3 0.1 98.0 98.4 98.2 – 0.4
IT 70.6 75.3 72.9 – 4.7 84.8 80.7 82.8 4.1 67.8 67.1 67.5 0.7 80.3 68.7 74.8 11.6 24.8 29.8 27.2 – 5.0 97.7 98.4 98.1 – 0.7 98.1 98.0 98.1 0.1
CY 76.6 78.8 77.7 – 2.2 83.4 79.7 81.6 3.7 66.3 65.7 66.0 0.6 84.1 59.8 72.3 24.3 24.4 31.4 27.8 – 7.0 99.9 99.7 99.8 0.2 97.8 98.1 98.0 – 0.3
LV 45.6 56.0 50.2 – 10.4 79.4 69.4 74.5 10.0 55.4 53.0 54.2 2.4 79.4 49.5 66.1 29.9 22.7 27.4 24.8 – 4.7 89.1 92.0 90.3 – 2.9 87.7 87.9 87.8 – 0.2
LT 44.3 53.7 48.1 – 9.4 80.1 71.4 75.8 8.7 62.3 58.2 60.3 4.1 82.4 51.7 68.4 30.7 31.2 33.7 32.3 – 2.5 96.2 97.0 96.5 – 0.8 97.0 97.5 97.2 – 0.5
LU 73.0 75.6 74.4 – 2.6 85.2 80.8 83.0 4.4 59.4 60.7 60.1 – 1.3 67.2 46.5 56.8 20.7 49.1 52.8 51.0 – 3.7 96.5 97.7 97.1 – 1.2 98.8 99.1 99.0 – 0.3
HU 60.7 65.6 63.0 – 4.9 79.3 72.6 76.0 6.7 63.9 61.3 62.6 2.6 71.9 56.6 64.6 15.3 34.6 38.9 36.6 – 4.3 94.3 95.3 94.8 – 1.0 97.7 98.0 97.8 – 0.3
MT 73.7 79.4 76.7 – 5.7 84.6 80.4 82.4 4.2 70.3 70.1 70.2 0.2 73.5 58.2 65.6 15.3 21.7 21.9 21.8 – 0.2 99.1 99.3 99.2 – 0.2 99.3 99.3 99.3 0.0
NL 68.9 73.6 71.3 – 4.7 83.1 80.2 81.7 2.9 56.3 60.7 58.5 – 4.4 75.5 57.5 66.6 18.0 70.7 73.9 72.3 – 3.2 99.0 98.5 98.7 0.5 99.4 99.3 99.3 0.1
AT 68.6 71.7 70.1 – 3.1 83.6 79.1 81.4 4.5 61.3 60.6 61.0 0.7 70.7 56.1 63.6 14.6 44.5 47.7 46.0 – 3.2 98.9 99.0 99.0 – 0.1 98.5 98.3 98.4 0.2
PL 59.1 65.9 62.2 – 6.8 81.1 73.4 77.2 7.7 64.1 60.8 62.5 3.3 75.9 55.6 67.8 20.3 24.3 27.1 25.5 – 2.8 94.1 95.2 94.6 – 1.1 98.0 98.1 98.1 – 0.1
PT 46.6 52.6 49.4 – 6.0 84.5 78.9 81.8 5.6 58.0 60.2 59.1 – 2.2 83.0 62.0 73.3 21.0 26.3 29.7 27.9 – 3.4 94.3 96.1 95.2 – 1.8 89.3 89.1 89.2 0.2
RO 69.2 77.6 73.2 – 8.4 79.2 71.3 75.1 7.9 59.3 58.7 59.0 0.6 73.0 35.2 54.8 37.8 6.2 14.0 10.0 – 7.8 91.8 94.4 93.1 – 2.6 93.0 94.3 93.6 – 1.3
SI 64.5 70.9 67.7 – 6.4 84.1 78.6 81.3 5.5 68.5 65.0 66.8 3.5 68.1 54.0 61.1 14.1 31.3 38.8 35.1 – 7.5 94.6 95.8 95.2 – 1.2 95.0 95.9 95.4 – 0.9
SK 63.2 69.1 66.1 – 5.9 80.5 73.6 77.0 6.9 58.0 56.6 57.3 1.4 76.5 56.2 66.7 20.3 31.0 40.6 35.7 – 9.6 93.3 93.9 93.6 – 0.6 96.1 95.7 95.9 0.4
FI 62.7 65.9 64.3 – 3.2 83.8 78.7 81.2 5.1 56.5 59.3 57.9 – 2.8 68.8 56.5 62.5 12.3 75.1 72.9 74.1 2.2 90.6 93.0 91.8 – 2.4 90.5 90.4 90.5 0.1
SE 64.6 68.9 66.8 – 4.3 84.8 81.4 83.1 3.4 65.3 67.5 66.4 – 2.2 80.3 64.9 72.6 15.4 60.3 57.4 58.8 2.9 94.2 95.6 94.9 – 1.4 96.4 96.0 96.2 0.4
Source: Eurostat (hlth_silc_01), Source: Eurostat: mortality data Source: Eurostat: mortality data Source: Eurostat, EHIS, 2019; Source: Eurostat, EHIS, 2019; Source: Eurostat (hlth_silc_08), Source: Eurostat (hlth_silc_09),
EU-SILC, 2022 (FR, LU: break in time (demo_mlexpec), 2022 (EU, BG, HR, ([hlth_hlye), 2022 (EU, BG, DE, FR, Eurostat calculations (EU, FI: EIGE’s Eurostat’s calculations EU-SILC, 2022 (FR, LU: break in time EU-SILC, 2022 (FR, LU: break in time
series) HU, PL, PT: break in time series) HR, LU, HU, PL, PT: break in time estimation) series) series)
series. FR, NL, PT: provisional. RO:
estimated)

European Institute for Gender Equality 107


Annexes

Annex 4. Gender Equality Index: conceptual and measurement frameworks at a


glance

The Gender Equality Index is a unique measurement tool that synthesises the complexity of gender
equality as a multidimensional concept into a user-friendly and easily interpretable measure. The
computation of the Gender Equality Index is based on the internationally accepted methodology
for building composite indicators developed by the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre
and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD et al., 2008).

Developing a conceptual framework was the first step in defining the structure of the Gender
Equality Index and what is measured, and provided the basis for the selection and combination of
variables into a meaningful index.

The measurement framework of the Gender Equality Index includes the development of both a
metric to calculate gender gaps and the methodology to aggregate gender gaps in sub-domains,
domains and the Gender Equality Index. It includes the calculation of final scores of the Gender
Equality Index for each Member State and for the EU as a whole.

This annex sets out the calculation of the Gender Equality Index in brief. A more detailed
explanation of the conceptual framework is presented in the first edition of the Gender Equality
Index (EIGE, 2013), and the methodology to calculate the Gender Equality Index in the current
version is described in a methodological report (EIGE, 2017d).

108 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Figure 26. Overall structure of the Gender Equality Index

Conceptual framework

The choice of domains for the Gender Equality Index was guided by in-depth reviews of key gender
equality policy documents at the EU and international levels, theoretical equality frameworks at
the international level, and literature relevant to each of the domains and sub-domains identified.
The Gender Equality Index consists of six core domains (work, money, knowledge, time, power and
health), which are combined into the Index, and two additional domains (intersecting inequalities
and violence) (Figure 26). The additional domains are conceptually related to gender equality but
cannot be included in the core Index because they measure a phenomenon that applies only to a
selected group of the population. This occurs when considering issues that are related to women
only, as in the case of gender-based violence against women, or when examining gender gaps
among specific population groups (people with disabilities, lone parents, etc.). Each domain is
further subdivided into sub-domains (EIGE, 2013).

The experiences of women and men within the domain of work vary significantly. Women are
much less likely to participate in the labour market and more likely to work on a part-time basis
than men (EIGE, 2021c). Furthermore, women dominate sectors such as education and health and

European Institute for Gender Equality 109


Annexes

are greatly under-represented in science, technology and engineering. Finally, the domain also
considers how women and men get on in the labour market by considering the issue of quality of
work. This is a gendered issue, as women are disproportionately involved in non-standard and/or
precarious work, and this type of work may hold fewer opportunities for training and promotion,
which in turn may contribute to further segregation (EIGE, 2018b).

Gender equality in employment is a major focus of the European Pillar of Social Rights, which
includes a commitment to support Member States in achieving equality between women and men
with regard to labour market opportunities and treatment at work, focusing on creating not only
more jobs but also better jobs. This commitment has been inscribed in a number of strategic
documents, including the EU gender equality strategy for 2020–2025, in which the emphasis is on
increasing women’s employment, in conjunction with the reduction of labour market segregation.
This is complemented by one of the EU headline targets to achieve an employment rate of at least
78 % of the population aged 20–64 by 2030 and to at least halve the gender employment gap
compared with 2019.

The domain of money examines the financial resources and economic situations of women and
men. Financial resources include earnings and other forms of income, for example social transfers.
Women tend to have lower financial resources than men, and this has an impact on the economic
situations of women and men throughout the life course, with women as a result being both less
financially independent and more AROP than men (EIGE, 2019a) (42). The income distribution
between the richest and poorest women and men is also an important aspect when assessing the
economic situation.

The principle of equal pay for work of equal value has been enshrined in the European treaties since
1957. The elimination of the gender pay gap and its root causes is one of the key priorities of the
EU gender equality strategy for 2020–2025. In 2022, the EU achieved a major breakthrough in the
form of the Commission’s proposal for a directive on pay transparency. In addition, the European
Pillar of Social Rights identifies the need for women and men to have equal opportunities to
acquire pension rights. It established an EU headline target to reduce the number of people at risk
of poverty or social exclusion within the EU by at least 15 million by 2030. The gender equality
strategy takes a strong stand on the importance of social and economic policies, taxation and
social protection systems not perpetuating structural gender inequalities based on traditional
gender roles in the realms of work and private life.

The domain of knowledge shows differences between women and men in terms of education and
training. A greater proportion of young women than young men now reach at least upper
secondary school, and women outnumber men as university graduates. However, patterns of
segregation remain deeply rooted in the EU. Although women increasingly enter fields dominated
by men, the converse remains untrue. Overall, the greatest gender segregation prevails in STEM, to
the detriment of women, and in health, education and welfare studies, to the disadvantage of men.
In addition, skills and competencies need to be expanded through lifelong learning, in line with the

(42) See also Commission communication on a comprehensive approach to mental health (COM(2023) 298 final).

110 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

fast-changing world of work and technological development, although participation remains low
for both women and men.

At the policy level, the EU aims to increase adult participation in training to 60 % and further
reduce early school leaving. The gender equality strategy for 2020–2025 seeks to eliminate gender
segregation in educational paths, studies and professions. The European skills agenda also
addresses horizonal segregation, stereotyping and gender gaps in education and training. The
digital education action plan for 2021–2027 specifically seeks to increase the inclusion of women in
digital and STEM study fields and careers, including as entrepreneurs.

The domain of time focuses on the trade-off between economic, care and other social activities
(including leisure, volunteering and charity activities). Over the past few decades, we have
observed a remarkable increase in women’s participation in the labour market. However, this has
not led to a more equal share of time spent on caring activities. On the contrary, decreasing
differences in time spent on unpaid care are due to women’s reduced involvement rather than
men’s greater contribution. As a result, this can translate into fewer opportunities to spend time on
other activities, including social, cultural and civic activities.

The balance between work, care and social activities is emphasised in key EU strategic documents.
The work–life balance directive introduced the minimum standards required for family leave and
flexible working arrangements to reach equal sharing of caring responsibilities between partners.
The European Pillar of Social Rights, the gender equality strategy for 2020–2025 and the most
recent EU care strategy all address the need to achieve a better work–life balance for women and
men. Their focus is on promoting long-lasting changes in gender roles, institutional practices and
the organisation of work and unpaid care, with changes that affect not only women but also men,
children and the whole of society.

The domain of power examines how the attainment of gender equality can be greatly affected by
women’s lack of participation in decision-making. There are considerable differences in the
representation of women and men in decision-making. There is an overall democratic deficit in the
EU at all political levels and on the boards of the EU’s largest companies. In addition, there is a low
proportion of women in social areas, including in top positions on scientific boards, and boards of
public broadcasters and the largest sports federations.

Leading equally throughout society is a key political priority of the EU. The gender equality
strategy for 2020–2025 acknowledges that gender parity is needed for successful leadership,
especially in view of the complex challenges that decision-makers face today. With the adoption of
the directive on improving the gender balance on corporate boards, the Commission and the
Member States committed to striving to lead by example in ensuring gender parity in the EU.

The domain of health focuses on differences between women and men in terms of health status,
behaviour and access to health services. There are differences, related to both sex and gender,
between women and men. First, women live longer, but have fewer healthy life years. There are
also differences in behaviours, leading to differences in determinants of health. Men are, for

European Institute for Gender Equality 111


Annexes

example, at greater risk of violent death, of being victims of car accidents, and of smoking, drinking
and engaging in unsafe sex. Finally, women may be more likely to access health structures because
of their gendered role in society and their reproductive needs, although their position in
households can deprive them of access to healthcare, as they often prioritise the needs of others
over their own (EIGE, 2021b).

At the policy level, the European Pillar of Social Rights emphasises the need to reduce health
inequalities and to ensure better access to healthcare systems. In addition, the gender equality
strategy focuses on addressing gender-specific health risks and diseases and on tackling gender-
based inequalities in healthcare, long-term care and health outcomes.

Intersecting inequalities is an additional domain of the Index. The values of this domain are not
taken into account when calculating the final score of the Index. As women and men cannot be
considered as homogeneous groups, this domain looks at other characteristics that may affect
gender equality (e.g. age, family status, education, migration background and (dis)ability). On the
one hand, the concept of diversity contends that focusing solely on the binary categories of gender
is not sufficient, while on the other hand the number of intersecting categories is theoretically as
great as the number of individuals concerned. The problem is compounded by pragmatic issues
such as determining the areas of gender equality that can be examined under the principle of
intersecting inequalities. As gender equality is a cross-cutting issue, different gender gaps exist
between different groups in all of the domains considered in the Index. For example, it has been
noted by several studies that the most disadvantaged groups during the recent COVID-19
pandemic were young women and men and lone parents, mostly mothers, as they were worst hit
by job losses (EIGE, 2022a).

The values of non-discrimination, equality and respect for human rights and human dignity are
enshrined in the EU treaties (e.g. Articles 2 (43) and 3(3) (44) of the Treaty on European Union).
Article 8 (45) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union empowers the EU to introduce
measures to eliminate inequalities and urges it to promote equality between men and women
through all its policies. Article 19 (46) of the treaty grants the EU the competence to combat
discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual
orientation. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU goes further, including new types of
discrimination (genetic features, language, opinions, membership of a national minority, property
and birth) and asserts that non-discrimination should be observed on the grounds described. The
gender equality strategy for 2020–2025 commits to addressing the intersectionality of gender
with other grounds of discrimination across EU policies.

Violence is the second additional domain of the Index. Due to both conceptual and methodological
considerations, it is not combined into the core of the Index. First, conceptually, acts of violence
targeting women are the corollary of structural inequalities experienced by women in many

(43) https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12016M002.
(44) https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12016M003.
(45) https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12016E008.
(46) https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12016E019.

112 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

aspects of life – work, health, money, power, education and unpaid care – and remain the most
brutal manifestation of gender inequality. From this point of view, the domain of violence brings an
important aspect to the core domains of the Gender Equality Index. Second, statistically, unlike the
core domains, the domain of violence does not measure differences between women and men;
instead, it examines women’s experiences of violence. The main objective is to eliminate violence
against women, not to reduce gaps.

EIGE developed a three-tier structure of measurement to provide the most complete and reliable
picture of violence against women in the EU. The first – a composite measure – combines indicators
on the extent of violence against women. The second tier – additional indicators – covers the
broader range of forms of violence against women defined in the Istanbul Convention. Finally, the
contextual factors include some of the root causes of violence against women. Designed to
monitor Member States’ compliance with the obligations set out in the Istanbul Convention, they
cover six dimensions: policies, prevention, protection and support, substantive legislation, the
involvement of law enforcement agencies and the societal framework.

Ending gender-based violence is a high policy priority of the EU. EU accession to the Istanbul
Convention is a priority in the gender equality strategy for 2020–2025. In parallel, the Commission
proposed a directive on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence.

Measurement framework

The measurement framework of the Gender Equality Index includes the development of both a
metric to calculate gender gaps and a methodology to aggregate gender gaps in sub-domains,
domains and the Gender Equality Index. It includes the calculation of final scores of the Gender
Equality Index for each Member State and for the EU as a whole. The Gender Equality Index is
calculated following several steps (EIGE, 2017d).

Step 1: selection of indicators

Each sub-domain and domain has a determined number of indicators. The initial selection of the
indicators was made on a theoretical basis and based on a review of official statistical sources at
the European level. The current version of the Gender Equality Index is composed of 31 indicators,
included in 14 sub-domains, which in turn are comprised in six domains (see Annex 1).

Step 2: processing indicators

The indicators selected were then processed in order to ensure that they measured gender equality
in a homogeneous way (for more details, see EIGE, 2017d, pp. 10–11). All indicators used in the
Gender Equality Index must have a positive direction (i.e. the higher the value of the indicator, the

European Institute for Gender Equality 113


Annexes

closer it is to the EU targets or a ‘desirable situation’, that is, higher values are regarded
positively) (47).

For the domain of power, a particular transformation is used. Due to the characteristics of data in
the domain of power, which is often provided on a quarterly or biannual basis, a simple average
from all available data points for each year is computed. Additionally, in order to smooth the
‘jumps’ in time series in the data from small decision-making bodies, the average over 3
consecutive years is considered.

All indicators are expressed in relative terms, using the closest reference population. This facilitates
comparisons between populations that are of different structures and sizes (48). In the case of
indicators in the domain of power, the reference population is the 3-year average of the population
aged over 18 years in each country, in line with the calculation of the variables in the domain (49).

The final list of indicators of the Gender Equality Index is presented in Annex 1, which includes the
name of the indicator, the reference population, the short name, a detailed description (including
brief methodological notes and survey questions), the data providers, the data sources, the
method of calculation (whether it was EIGE’s calculations using microdata or a Eurostat calculation
on request) and the time reference of the data used.

Step 3: calculating the gender gap metric

The metric developed for the Gender Equality Index measures gender gaps by considering the
relative position of women and men, by taking the absolute value of the difference. This means
that a gender gap in which women are at a disadvantage compared with men (e.g. with earnings)
is treated in the same way as a gender gap in which men are at a disadvantage (e.g. educational
attainment in tertiary education) (for more details, see EIGE, 2017d, pp. 11–13).

Each indicator is transformed into a final metric, starting from the calculation of the gender gap.
The gender gap is a relative indicator that can be calculated for any values for women and men in
the range 0–1, where gender equality is represented by 0 and inequality is represented by 1. For
reasons of interpretability, the values are reversed by taking their complementary values. This
yields values in which 1 represents complete gender equality, and any value below that indicates a
proportional lack of gender equality in a given indicator, with full gender inequality being 0.

(47) For example, variables measuring ‘participation in tertiary education’ or ‘healthy life years’ have a positive direction, as it is
desirable to increase educational attainment or to live a long and healthy life. By contrast, the variable measuring ‘being at
risk of poverty’ implies a negative sign or interpretation, which means that, for the Index, the indicator was reversed to ‘not
being at risk of poverty’.
(48) For example, to measure the population without ‘unmet needs for medical examination’, the number of women and men with
those unmet needs was divided by the total population aged 16 years or over.
(49) For example, for the indicators measuring the share of members of national parliaments, the indicator was calculated as the
percentage of women in parliaments, averaged over 3 years (i.e. for 2021, using the average of 2020, 2021 and 2022) among
the population in each country aged 18 years and older (closest reference population), also averaged over the same 3 years.

114 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

measures the gaps between women and men, where the calculation is carried out for the
indicator X for the i-th country in the period t in order to obtain the percentage that women
represent over the average of the two values of women and men .

  (1)

Step 4: calculating the correcting coefficient

The correcting coefficient is the other element in the metric used to transform the original
variables.

Correcting coefficients have been introduced in the metric in order to take into account the level of
achievement. Member States with similar gender gaps are treated differently according to the level
of achievement reached in the indicator. The higher the level of achievement, the higher the
correction of the gender gap.

The purpose of the correcting coefficient is to compare the performance of each country with the
best performer in the EU. In a particular variable, the more that the score of a country diverges
from the level of the best performer, the more the score will be adjusted.

The correcting coefficient for each indicator is calculated in the following way, where is the total
of the indicator (T, total of women and men) of the country i at the time t.

  (2)

The square root in the formula has been introduced to balance the contribution of the level of
achievement and the gender gap in the final metric (for more details, see EIGE, 2017d, pp. 13–14).

The denominator of the formula is the benchmark for each indicator, identified in the maximum
value (T, total of women and men) among all the Member States in 2005, 2010, 2012 and 2015.

In this way, the denominator is a fixed value in each edition of the Index. If, in subsequent years,
the level achieved in a specific indicator of a specific country is larger than its fixed benchmark, the
value of its correcting coefficient will be trimmed to 1 (i.e. there will be no correction applied).
When these fixed benchmarks are obsolete, they will be moved and the time series will be
recalculated in order to maintain time comparability.

Corrections are not applied to the sub-domain of caring activities in the domain of time or to the
domain of power (for more details, see EIGE, 2017d, p. 14).

The maximum of each indicator in 2005, 2010, 2012 and 2015, which is used to calculate the
correcting coefficients, is displayed in Table 18.

European Institute for Gender Equality 115


Annexes

Table 18. Maxima of the indicators (2005, 2010, 2012, 2015)

Domain Sub-domain Indicator Maximum


FTE 60.9
Participation
Duration 41.2
Work Segregation 27.7
Segregation and quality
Flexibility 52.6
of work
Prospects 71.7
Earnings 3 492
Financial resources
Income 33 457
MONEY
Poverty 91.8
Economic situation
S80/S20 0.3

Attainment and Graduates 36.8


KNOWLEDGE participation Participation 39.0
Segregation Segregation 48.2
Care —
Care activities
Cooking —
TIME
Leisure 57.2
Social activities
Voluntary 35.5
Ministers —
Political Parliament —
Regional assemblies —
Company boards —
POWER Economic
Central banks —
Research —
Social Media —
Sport —
Self-perceived health 82.8
Status Life expectancy 83.0
Healthy life years 73.9
HEALTH Risky behaviour 74.3
Behaviour
Healthy behaviour 63.6
Medical 99.7
Access
Dental 99.3

116 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

Step 5: calculating the final metric

The final metric for each indicator is the combination of the gender gap and the correcting
coefficient. The final metric provides a measure of gender gaps adjusted by levels of achievement.
It is dimensionless (allowing comparability, as the measurement units of the variable have been
eliminated) and is bound between 1 and 100. It also allows interpretability, as each indicator is
considered in terms of its distance from the equality point (set at 100), and it maintains
comparability among indicators within each country.

The final metric, , can be expressed as:

  (3)

Step 6: aggregating for sub-domain, domain and Index levels

The final step is to group the data according to the structure provided by the measurement
framework (for more details, see EIGE, 2017d, pp. 14–16).

All indicators within each sub-domain are aggregated, creating indices at the sub-domain level.
Subsequently, these are aggregated at the domain level. Finally, all of the domain indices are
aggregated, creating the overall Gender Equality Index (see Table 19). At the sub-domain level, the
aggregation is made using the arithmetic mean (i.e. the mean of the metric of each indicator in the
sub-domain), with equal weights. Aggregation at the domain level is based on the geometric mean,
that is, a geometric mean is applied to the scores of sub-domains, with equal weights, in order to
obtain a score for each domain. The final aggregation to get the Gender Equality Index is made using
a geometric mean of the six scores of the domain by applying specific weights to the domains (see
Table 20), determined using the analytic hierarchy process.

The Gender Equality Index takes a value of 1–100, where a value of 100 represents complete
gender equality and full gender inequality is represented by 1.

Table 19. Characteristics of the Gender Equality Index

Step Variables Sub-domains Domains


Weighting Equal Equal Experts (analytic hierarchy process)
Aggregation Arithmetic Geometric Geometric

Normalisation The metric , by construction, acts as a normalisation method


Closest values
Imputation Average of Member States No imputation No imputation
Expectation–maximisation

European Institute for Gender Equality 117


Annexes

Table 20. Mean experts’ weights used for the Gender Equality Index (rounded)

Work Money Knowledge Time Power Health


0.19 0.15 0.22 0.15 0.19 0.10

NB: The weights, to 15 decimal places, used in the calculation of the Gender Equality Index are the following: work,
0.193293420026752; money, 0.154066793988684; knowledge, 0.216676323111808; time, 0.145891003769590; power,
0.190954414426013; and health, 0.099118044677153.

The final metric of the Gender Equality Index is the following:

   (4)

i = 1, …, 27

d = 1, …, 6

s = 1, …, 14

v = 1, …, 31

ns = number of indicators in the sub-domains

nsd = number of sub-domains in the domain d

   (5)

118 European Institute for Gender Equality


Annexes

GETTING IN TOUCH WITH THE EU


In person
All over the European Union there are hundreds of
Europe Direct centres. You can find the address
of the centre nearest you online
(https://european-union.europa.eu/contact-eu/meet-us_en).

On the phone or in writing


Europe Direct is a service that answers your questions about
the European Union. You can contact this service:
— by freephone: 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (certain operators may charge for
these calls),
— at the following standard number: +32 22999696,
— via the following form: european-union.europa.eu/contact-eu/write-us_en.

FINDING INFORMATION ABOUT THE EU


Online
Information about the European Union in all the official languages of the EU is
available on the Europa website: (europa.eu).

EU publications
You can view or order EU publications at op.europa.eu/en/publications. Multiple
copies of free publications can be obtained by contacting Europe Direct or your local
documentation centre (european-union.europa.eu/contact-eu/meet-us_en).

EU law and related documents


For access to legal information from the EU, including all EU law since 1951
in all the official language versions, go to EUR-Lex (eur-lex.europa.eu).

Open data from the EU


The portal data.europa.eu provides access to open datasets from
the EU institutions, bodies and agencies. These can be downloaded
and reused for free, for both commercial and non-commercial
purposes. The portal also provides access to a wealth of
datasets from European countries.

European Institute for Gender Equality III


eige.europa.eu

You might also like