REPORT

DISUSUN OLEH:

Faiz Athariq Akbar​ ​ 2306254653

Sultan Rafi Maulana​ 2306172703
Rajwaa Athaya Dzikra ​ 2306172501
Widya Pramudito​ 2306172956
Bonifacius Galih Pramuditho Rennes​ ​ 2306172994
Ranva Bhagas Vistara ​ 2306173050
Aron Torkis Jodi Nainggolan ​ 2306254590

FORGING GROUP
FAKULTAS TEKNIK
UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION​ 2
II. APPLICATIONS OF FORGING​ 3
III. METALS AND THEIR FORGING TEMPERATURES​ 6
IV. MEASUREMENT OF FORGING TEMPERATURES​ 7
V. CLASSIFICATION OF FORGING​ 7
V.I Open-die Forging​ 7
V.II Close-die Forging​ 8
VI. FORGING OPERATIONS​ 9
VII. TYPES OF FORGING PROCESS BASED ON METHOD OF APPLICATION OF FORCE​
13
VIII. ADVANCED METHOD OF FORGING​ 16
IX. DIES USED FOR FORGING​ 20
X. LUBRICANTS USED IN FORGING​ 20
XI. DEFECTS IN FORGING​ 21
XII. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT FORGING MATERIALS​ 23
XIII. CLOSING​ 23
Disadvantages​ 24
Cold Forging​ 24
Advantages​ 24
Disadvantages​ 24
REFERENCES​ 26
I.​ INTRODUCTION
The importance of metals in modern technology is due, in large part, to the ease with
which they may be formed, into useful shapes such as tubes, rods, and sheets. Useful shapes may
be generated in two basic ways:
1.​ By plastic deformation processes in which the volume and mass of metal are conserved
and the metal is displaced from one location to another.
2.​ By metal removal or machining processes in which material is removed to give it the
required shape.
Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing. Various
useful shapes are obtained by compressive forces that are applied to workpieces through various
dies and tools. The compressive forces for forging are derived either from the impact of a hammer
(hand or power-operated) or the pressure exerted by a large mechanical press. Metals in forging
are deformed plastically at room temperature (cold forging) as well as at higher temperatures (hot
forging). The ability to cold forge the metal depends on the ductility and malleability of the metal
whereas the ability to hot forge the metal depends on its ‘range of plasticity' at higher
temperature. The forged components are called forgings.
Cold forging may generally cause anisotropy, a state in which the properties of the metal
are different in different directions and this effect of cold forging is taken care of by annealing the
cold-forged component. The enforceability of a metal is defined as the capability of the metal to
undergo deformation without cracking. A commonly accepted test for forgeability is to upset a
solid cylindrical specimen and observe any cracking on the barrelled surface, the greater the
deformation before cracking, the greater the forgeability of metal. In forging metal may be:
1.​ Drawn out to increase its length and decrease its cross-section.
2.​ Upset to decrease the length and increase the cross-section.
3.​ Squeezed in closed impression dies to produce the desired shape by compelling metal
flow into multi-directions
II.​ APPLICATIONS OF FORGING
The following common types of jobs are produced by forging:
1.​ Box-end wrenches, always made from forgings, are subjected to very high stresses due to
hammering; excellent for providing the highest torque to tighten the bolts. Casting can
not survive (by drop Forging).
2.​ Riveting of shells for boilers, tanks, and furnaces (by upset forging).
3.​ Machinery parts and steel furniture (open-die forging).
4.​ Bolts, headed pins, nuts, nails, keys, eye bolts, hooks, bolts, shackles, hinges, drops,
hangers, racks, hooks, links and other lifting tackles for cranes and hoists (by die forging)
5.​ Arms, weapons and cutting tools (by drop forging).
6.​ Agricultural implements and tools (by drop forging).
7.​ Cams, crankshafts connecting rods, axles and levers, etc. for vehicles, locomotives and
aircraft (by closed-die forging).
8.​ Helical and laminated springs (by open-die forging).
9.​ Landing gear cylinders, beams for aircraft wings, turbine disks, gears, and wheels (by
close-die forging).

Forging operations produce discrete parts while rolling operations produce continuous
plates, sheets, strips, or various structural cross-sections. Figure 1 shows typical products made
from forging operations.

The first question that comes to us is why is it necessary to forge a part to shape when it
is simpler and cheaper to cast or machine the metal directly to the form required. Casting or
machining processes may indeed be cheaper when compared to forging operations for certain
products. If the function of a component calls for high strength and resistance to shock vibration
the properties must be uniform, easily predicted, and measurable within close limits.
To achieve this it is usually necessary for steel to be subjected to some form of hot
working or forging into more complex shapes. Forging refines the grain structure and improves
the physical properties of the metal. In forging controlled development of grain flow lines which
closely follow the outline of the component is obtained. The continuous grain flow lines increase
the overall toughness of the forged part and decrease its susceptibility to fatigue and corrosion
failures. Internal flaws of the metal are largely eliminated. This can be more explained in the
figures below.
 Advantages of Forging
1.​ Physical properties (such as strength, ductility and toughness) are much better in forging
than in the base metal, which has, crystals randomly oriented. Grains are refined and
improved,
2.​ Forging produces a beneficial grain-flow pattern in the direction of the shape of the
forged component, resulting in a tough fibrous structure conforming to the outline of the
part,
3.​ Forging yields parts that have a high strength-to-weight ratio, they can be used reliably
for highly stressed and critical applications.
4.​ Forging produces products with higher structural integrity, which are consistent from
piece to piece, without any porosity, voids, inclusions and other defects as in the case of
casting.
5.​ Reduced testing requirements.

Disadvantages of forging
1.​ Hot metal oxidizes rapidly and the scale thus formed gives a poor surface finish,
2.​ Close dimensional tolerances on forgings may not be maintained.
3.​ Metal has to be worked within a particular range of temperature: if worked below, it will
crack or get distorted and if worked above the required temperature range, it may burn.
Hence, too much care is needed while maintaining the optimum temperature for forging.

III.​ METALS AND THEIR FORGING TEMPERATURES

The degree to which a metal can be forged depends on its composition and structure. The
low and medium carbon steels are readily forged but high carbon and alloy steels are more
difficult to forge. The metals and alloys that can be forged include carbon steels, alloy steels,
stainless steels, wrought iron, copper base alloys, nickel and nickel-copper alloys, aluminium
alloys and magnesium alloys. Cast iron is not forgeable because it has a crystalline structure and
when heated and beaten, it breaks into pieces. Every metal has its forging temperature range at
which it goes in a plastic state (see Table 1).
IV.​ MEASUREMENT OF FORGING TEMPERATURES
Thermocouples are used for measuring temperatures usually from 200 to 1300°C. Then
there are optical pyrometers which are used for measuring temperatures in higher ranges, 700 to
2000°C Radiation pyrometers are also available for measuring still higher temperatures.
The assessment of the temperature of hot metals by seeing their colour is an approximate
method of temperature measurement. In the case of steels, the following information may be
useful (Table 2).

V.​ CLASSIFICATION OF FORGING

V.I Open-die Forging

It is the simplest forging process which is quite flexible but not suitable for large-scale
production. The operation is carried out between two flat dies or dies of very simple shape. The
process of open die forging is carried out in large hydraulic presses or power hammers. Since in
open die forging the workpiece is usually larger than the tool, at any point in time, deformation is
confined to a small portion of the workpiece.
Numerous squeezes or blows are applied to different portions of the workpiece to bring it
to the final desired shape. The operator obtains the desired shape of forging gradually and step by
step, by manipulating the work material between blows. The resulting size and shape of the
forging are dependent on the skill of the operator.
Applications: The process is mostly used for forging large objects of simple shape or
when several parts to be made is small. Open die forging is often used to make preforms (of
workpieces) for use in close die forging and large and bulky forgings. Examples of parts made in
open die forging include ship propeller shafts, rings, pressure vessels, gun tubes, and ring
forgings. The process can produce forgings up to 200 tons of weight.

Advantages of open die forging

1.​ Simple process
2.​ Dies are inexpensive
3.​ Useful for small quantities
4.​ A wide range of job sizes can be handled

Limitations of open die forging

1.​ Limited to simple shapes
2.​ Close dimensional tolerances not possible
 3.​ Machining to final shape required if necessary
4.​ Low production rate
5.​ High degree of skill required

V.II Close-die Forging

In closed die forging the workpiece is deformed under high pressure between two die
halves, which have the impressions of the desired final shape. The heated metal (billet) is
positioned in the lower die cavity and on it, one or more blows are struck by the upper die. This
hammering makes the metal (billet) flow and fills the die cavity completely. Excess metal is
squeezed out around the periphery of the cavity to form a flash.
On completion of forging, the flash is trimmed off with the help of a trimming die. The
work material is given the final desired shape in stages as it is deformed in several successive die
sets. Thus, a high precision forged with close dimensional tolerances is produced. Closed die
forging is shown in Figures 8, 9 &10. The shape of the die cavities causes the metal to flow in
the desired direction, thereby impartingthe desired fibre structure to the component. This
process is also known as impression die forging.
 Advantages of closed die forging
1.​ Good utilization of workpiece material
2.​ Better properties than open-die forged parts
3.​ Good dimensional accuracy
4.​ Higher production rates
5.​ Good reproducibility

Limitations of closed die forging

1.​ High cost of dies for small quantities
2.​ Die designis more complex
3.​ Machining of forged parts is often required

VI. FORGING OPERATIONS

Forging Operations Most forgings are obtained in multiple steps with a series of dies,
where one or more blows of the hammer are used for each step in the sequence. The reason for
multi-steps is to distribute the metal roughly per the requirements of the later steps and smooth
out the forging force requirement. These processes prepare the workpieces for further forging
processes. A few of the forging operations are Upsetting, Cogging, Edging, Fullering, Blocking
and Finishing.
1.​ Upsetting The simplest example of open die forging is the upsetting operation shown in Figure
12. In upsetting, a solid workpiece is placed between two flat dies and reduced in height (but
increasing in size in the lateral direction) by the application of compressive force. The die
surfaces may be flat or have simple cavities to produce relatively simple forgings.
Equipment: Hydraulic, mechanical presses, screw presses; hammers, upsetting machines.
Applications: Finished forgings, including nuts, bolts; flanged shafts, and preforms for finished
forgings.

As the metal flows laterally between the advancing die surfaces, there is less deformation at the
die interface because of the friction forces than at the mid-height plane resulting in the barreling
of the sides of the upset workpiece. Metal flows most easily towards the nearest free surface
because that represents the lowest frictional path. Proper lubrication can help reduce the barreling
effect. [Figures 12 & 13]
2.​ Cogging (drawing out), Cogging is an open die forging operation in which the thickness of a bar
(or workpiece) is reduced by successive hammer blows at specific intervals. Typical examples of
cogging operation. Since the contact area per stroke is small, the thickness of workpieces is
reduced in stages.
3.​ Edging is the process of gathering material into a region using a concave-shaped open die. The
process is called edging because it is usually carried out on the ends of the workpiece. (Figure-24)
 4.​ Fullering is the process of reducing the cross-sectional area of a portion of the stock using a
convex-shaped die. The metal flow is outward and away from the centre of the fuller. (Figure-25)
5.​ The blocking stage makes the metal to approximately final shape, with generous corner and fillet
radii. (Figure-26)
6.​ The finisher die imparts the final shape and size, after which the flash is trimmed from the
part.(Figure-26)

VII. TYPES OF FORGING PROCESS BASED ON METHOD OF

APPLICATION OF FORCE
The different types of forging operations are:
1.​ Hand forging
The hand-forging process consists of forming the desired shape of a heated metal by applying
repeated blows of a hand-held hammer. A flat die or an anvil is used. The desired shape of the
metal piece is maintained by the smith during the forging process as the desired length and
cross-section are adjusted manually by positioning and turning the part on the flat surface of the
anvil. While hammering, tongs hold the red hot metal and a well-rounded chisel-shaped edge,
called fuller, and is used to draw out the metal. Fuller is held on the metal by a helper while the
smith strikes the metal with a hammer. The quality of the forging is wholly dependent on the skill
of the smith.
Applications: Only simple shapes can be hand forged. Horseshoes are hand-forged and fitted to
the hooves of the horse. Figure 27 illustrates a hand-forging operation.
 The tools used by a blacksmith include an anvil, swage block, hammers, tongs, swage fullers, and
flatters.

2.​ Drop forging

Drop forging is a mechanized form of the blacksmith’s hammer. In drop forge a massive weight is
raised and made to fall freely. Dies are made in sets or halves; one half of the die is attached to ra
am and the other to a stationary anvil. The drop hammer uses compressed air or steam to lift the
ram and lets it fall by gravity. The ram is lifted by a steel rod connecting it to a piston. In drop
forging, from the bar to the final shape of the forged product is achieved in several steps by
repeated blows of the dies containing impressions. Figure-28 & 29 illustrate a drop forging
operation using a hydraulic hammer. During drop forging, a greater amount of energy is absorbed
by the machine and foundation and the process is therefore not considered economical. Drop
forging is very noisy and the shock of impact is difficult to isolate. In drop forging operations, the
machine and foundation absorb much of the impact of the drop hammer.
Equipment: Gravity drop hammers
Application: Drop hammers are the choice for workpieces made of steel, aluminium alloys,
brasses and bronzes.
3.​ Press forging
Press forging is done in presses rather than with hammers. In press forging a slow squeezing
action is used to transfer a great amount of compressive force to the workpiece. Unlike open-die
forging where multiple blows are required to transfer the required energy to the material being
forged, the press forging process is more accurate as the ram sticks to the die impression more
rigidly and transfers the force uniformly & gradually to the bulk of the material giving time for
the metal to flow as it is pressed. This results in uniform material properties. The construction of
the press is similar to the one given in Figure-29. Press forging is considerably a quieter operation
than drop forging. Also a greater portion of the total energy is transmitted to the metal than in a
drop hammer.
Application: It is the choice for workpieces made of aluminium, magnesium, beryllium alloys,
bronzes and brass.
VIII. ADVANCED METHOD OF FORGING
1.​ Rotary Swagging
Rotary swaging is the application of the forging process for shaping round bars, and tubes
in which the diameter of a rod or a tube is reduced. In the rotary swaging process workpiece is
held stationary and the dies rotate rapidly in a housing, the dies strike the workpiece at a rate as
high as 10 - 20 strokes per second. The process is shown in Figure 31. When compared to other
methods of forging, the production rate is high in rotary forging. The maximum diameter of the
workpiece that can be swaged is limited to about 150 mm; workpieces as small as 0.5 mm in
diameter have been swaged. Swaging is a noisy operation. Equipment: Rotary forging presses.
Applications: Screwdriver blades, box spanners and soldering iron tips are typical examples of
swaged products. Figures 32-36 show products made by swaging.
2.​ Orbital Forging
A typical rotary forging process (sometimes called orbital forging) makes use of two dies
to deform only a small portion of the workpiece at a time, and the process continues till the whole
of the workpiece is deformed, one portion after the other. The axis of the upper die is tilted to a
small angle to the lower die, figure 37. The inclined upper die rotates around the workpiece in
such a way that only a small area of the die is in contact with the workpiece at any time. The
lower die, however, is kept in a horizontal position and rotates at the same speed as the upper die.
Equipment: Orbital forging presses. Application: Bevel gears, claw clutch parts, wheel disks with
hubs, bearing rings, rings of various contours, and bearing-end covers.

3.​ Flashless Forging

In flashless forging, also known as precision or true closed-die forging, the metal is
deformed in a cavity that provides total confinement, figure 38 (b). Accurate workpiece sizing is
required since complete filling of the cavity must be ensured with no excess material. Accurate
workpiece positioning is also necessary, along with good die design and control of lubrication.
The major advantage of this approach is the elimination of the scrap generated during flash
formation, an amount that is often between 20 and 45% of the starting material and minimum
machining of the forged part is needed. Equipment: Higher capacity presses are used.
Applications: Aluminium and magnesium alloys are particularly suitable for precision forging.
Precision forged products are gears, connecting rods, housings, and turbine blades.
4.​ Isothermal Die Forging
Isothermal die forging is also known as hot-die forging. In this process, dies are heated to
the same temperature as that of the hot workpiece. When the workpiece is maintained hot (during
forging), its low strength and high ductility are effectively maintained to help the forging
operation. Forging forces are also low. The dies used are made of nickel or molybdenum alloys.
The process is expensive and slow.
Equipment: Hydraulic presses
Application: Complex parts from titanium and super alloys with good dimensional accuracy are
forged by this process.
5.​ Roll Forging
This process is used to reduce the thickness of round or flat bars with the corresponding
increase in length. When the rolls are in the open position, the heated bar stock is placed between
the rolls. With the rotation of rolls through half a revolution, the bar is progressively squeezed and
shaped. The bar is then inserted between the next set of smaller grooves and the process is
repeated till the desired shape and size are achieved.
Equipment: rolling mill that has two semi-cylindrical rolls that are slightly eccentric to the axis of
rotation. Each roll has a series of shaped grooves on it.
Application: Leaf springs, axles, and levers.

6.​ Coining
It is a closed–die forging process used mainly for minting coins and making jewellery. In order to
produce fine details on the work material the pressures required are as large as five or six times
the strength of the material. Lubricants are not employed in this process because they can get
 entrapped in the die cavities and, being incompressible, prevent the full reproduction of fine
details of the die.
Equipment: Presses and hammers.
Applications: Metallic coins; decorative items, such as patterned tableware, medallions and metal
buttons; sizing of automobile and aircraft engine components.

IX. DIES USED FOR FORGING

Since most forging operations are carried out at elevated temperatures, dies should have
●​ high strength and toughness at high temperatures,
●​ hardenability and ability to harden uniformly,
●​ resistance to mechanical and thermal shocks and
●​ wear resistance.
The selection of die material is governed by the size of the forging and its shape complexity, the
number of forgings and the forging temperature. Common die materials are tool and die steels
containing chromium, nickel, molybdenum and vanadium.

X. LUBRICANTS USED IN FORGING

A proper lubricant is necessary for making good forgings. The lubricant is useful in
preventing the sticking of the workpiece material with the die and also acts as a thermal insulator
to help reduce die wear. A wide variety of lubricants are used such as graphite and molybdenum
disulphide used for hot forging dies. Lubricants affect and reduce fthe orces required for forging.
They also impart a thermal barrier between the hot workpiece and the relatively cool die.
XI. DEFECTS IN FORGING

Defects in a forging may be due to the following reasons:

●​ defective metal with a lot of inclusions of impurities or oxides,

●​ faulty design of the die,
●​ improper upkeep of the die (oxides may get deposited in pockets in the die),
●​ development of internal stresses affecting the structure and strength of forging,
●​ oxides or scales not properly removed from the hot blank before forging and
●​ oversize blank fed to the dies for forging.

Common forging defects are:

●​ Defective structure of forged piece due to defective base metal.

●​ Incomplete forging (not up to correct dimensions) due to either less metal used for
forging a part or the die may be defective.
●​ Cracks at the corners of the forgings due to improper forging process. Surface cracking
of forgings occurs due to excessive working of the workpiece surface at too low a
temperature or as a result of hot shortness.

●​ Cracking at the flash of closed die forging is another defect since the crack may
penetrate into the forging when the flash is trimmed off. Either increase the flash
thickness or relocate the flash to a less critical region of the forging.
●​ Internal cracking at the centre of the forging may be due to the development of
secondary tensile stresses during forging. This can be reduced by proper die design.
●​ Cracks in ribs may occur due to the use of oversized billet for.
●​ Mismatched forgings due to faults in two halves of the die in working. A mismatch is
caused by misalignment between the top and bottom dies.
●​ Cold shut or fold is a discontinuity produced when two surfaces of the metal fold against
each other without welding completely. The defect is caused due to sharp corners in the
die cavity, excessive chilling or high friction.
●​ Laps formed by web buckling are another defect in forgings. A thicker web should be
used to avoid this defect.
●​ Scale and oxidation of the surface of forging.
●​ Oversize forging due to oversize dies.
XII. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT FORGING MATERIALS

XIII. CLOSING
Lecturers Additional Materials
XIII.I Hot and Cold Forgings
Hot Forging
Process Description
Hot forging involves heating the metal above its recrystallization temperature, typically
up to 1150°C for steel, 360-520°C for aluminium alloys, and 700-800°C for copper alloys. This
high temperature allows the metal to become more malleable, facilitating easier shaping without
strain hardening

Advantages
1.​ Increased Ductility: The high temperatures enhance the ductility of the metal, allowing
for complex shapes and configurations that would be difficult to achieve with cold
forging.
2.​ Homogenized Grain Structure: The recrystallization process at high temperatures helps in
achieving a uniform grain structure, which can improve the mechanical properties of the
forged parts.
 3.​ Surface Finish: Hot forging can produce parts with good surface quality, allowing for a
variety of finishing processes like polishing and coating.

Disadvantages
1.​ Oxidation and Scaling: The high temperatures can lead to oxidation, resulting in surface
scaling that may complicate finishing processes.
2.​ Dimensional Tolerances: Hot-forged components may have less precise dimensional
tolerances compared to cold-forged parts due to thermal expansion and contraction during
the process.
3.​ Higher Energy Costs: The need for heating increases energy consumption, making hot
forging generally more expensive than cold forging

Cold Forging
Process Description
Cold forging is performed at or near room temperature, utilizing compressive forces to
shape the metal without any heating. This process is particularly effective for metals that are
already soft, such as certain aluminium and carbon alloy steels
Advantages
1.​ Improved Strength: Cold forging increases the strength of metals through strain ​
hardening, which enhances their durability and resistance to deformation.
2.​ High Precision and Tolerances: Cold forging allows for tighter tolerances and better
surface finishes, reducing the need for additional machining or finishing.
3.​ Cost Efficiency: This method often results in lower material waste and does not require
heating equipment, leading to reduced operational costs over time.
Disadvantages
1.​ Limited Complexity: Cold forging is generally limited to simpler shapes due to the higher
resistance of materials at room temperature.
2.​ Equipment Requirements: The process requires heavier machinery capable of exerting
significant force on the workpiece, which can increase initial investment costs.
3.​ Residual Stress: Cold forging can introduce residual stresses in the material that may
require subsequent annealing to relieve.
The choice between hot and cold forging depends on specific application requirements
such as desired material properties, complexity of shapes, production volume, and cost
considerations. Hot forging is ideal for complex geometries requiring high ductility, while cold
forging excels in producing precise components with enhanced strength. Understanding these
differences helps manufacturers select the most appropriate method for their needs.
The choice of a forging method has a significant influence on the selection of materials,
energy usage, and the properties of the final product. For instance, rotary swing forging is best
suited for ductile materials like aluminum and medium-carbon steels, ideal for producing
symmetrical parts such as shafts and axles. Flashless forging, on the other hand, emphasizes
precision by eliminating excess material, making it efficient for high-performance components
like gears and medical implants. Roll forging elongates and strengthens materials like aluminum
and copper, often used for long parts like springs and rods. Each method aligns with specific
applications, energy considerations, and material behaviors, shaping the overall efficiency and
quality of the forging process.
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https://www.glforge.com/what-are-the-different-types-of-forging-processes
https://www.forgiarapida.com/home-manufacturing-process-forging.html
https://www.reliance-foundry.com/blog/forging#:~:text=Forging%20is%20a%20manufacturing%2
0process,of%20metals%20can%20be%20forged.
https://www.tfgusa.com/metal-forging-processes-methods/
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EME 4th unit.pdf