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Light, electromagnetic spectrum

Zwinkels, Joanne

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27851-8_204-1
Encyclopedia of Color Science and Technology, 2015-09-09

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L

Light, Electromagnetic Spectrum When it is used to describe a light stimulus, the

International Lighting Vocabulary [1] gives the
Joanne Zwinkels following two definitions: (1) It is a characteristic
National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON, of all sensations and perceptions that is specific to
Canada vision, and (2) it is radiation that is considered
from the point of view of its ability to excite the
human visual system, i.e., it is limited to electro-
Synonyms magnetic radiation with wavelengths in the visi-
ble spectral region between approximately
Light – Light stimulus, Optical radiation, Elec- 380 and 780 nm.
tromagnetic radiation; Electromagnetic The term light is also sometimes used as a
spectrum – Optical spectrum synonym for electromagnetic radiation which
encompasses not only the ultraviolet, visible,
and infrared range but also the X-ray and
gamma-ray ranges and the radio range.
Definitions
Electromagnetic radiation is the emission or
transfer of energy in the form of electromagnetic
Light is so much a part of our everyday existence
waves and in the form of photons.
contributing to our quality of life, as well as a key
Photon is a quantum of electromagnetic radi-
enabler in photonics, solar power, and new light-
ation that is usually associated with radiation that
ing technologies, that the year 2015 has been
is characterized by one wavelength or frequency
declared by the UNESCO as the International
(monochromatic radiation).
Year of Light and Lighting Technologies.
Electromagnetic wave is a transverse oscilla-
Light has many different meanings depending
tion of inextricably linked electric and magnetic
upon the application.
fields traveling through space; through empty
When it is used to broadly describe optical
space, it travels at the speed of light in vacuum;
radiation, it is defined as electromagnetic radia-
through other media, its speed is reduced by the
tion with wavelengths between approximately
value of the refractive index of the medium.
10 nm and 1 mm, i.e., a term that is used to
Electromagnetic spectrum is defined as the
describe the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared
graphical representation of electromagnetic
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
waves arranged according to their wavelength.

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015

R. Luo (ed.), Encyclopedia of Color Science and Technology,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-27851-8_204-1
2 Light, Electromagnetic Spectrum

Light, Electromagnetic Wavelength

Spectrum, Electric field
Fig. 1 Simplified picture
of an electromagnetic
wave. The oscillations are Magnetic field
perpendicular to each other
and to the direction of
energy flow
Direction of energy flow

Overview substance, luminiferous ether or light-bearing

ether, because it was believed that all types of
Early Views of Light waves required a medium for propagation such as
The nature of light has intrigued philosophers and sound waves in air and water waves in water.
scientists for thousands of years. Because light However, light is very different from other
travels in straight lines (rectilinear propagation), types of waves. In 1881, in one of the most
it was long believed that it was made of particles famous experiments with light, Michelson and
(corpuscles) that emanated from the source. Morley tried to measure the rotational motion of
However, some properties of light, such as the the earth in this luminiferous ether [2]. However,
fussiness produced when light passes around they found that the light did not travel at different
obstacles or through openings (diffraction), speeds for different paths. This failed experiment
needed a different model of light where it indirectly showed that light does not need a
behaved like a type of wave or propagating dis- medium and can travel in free space (vacuum)
turbance. In the early 1700s, both the particle and and at constant speed. Michelson also carried out
wave models of light prevailed with Sir Isaac experiments to measure the speed of light by
Newton being a staunch supporter of the particle improving on Galileo’s echo technique by
theory and others, such as the Dutch physicist, replacing men carrying lanterns with a series of
Christiaan Huygens, being proponents of the mirrors and a telescope. By adjusting the rotation
wave theory [2]. But, in the early 1800s, when speed of the mirrors, he could observe the light in
the English physician Thomas Young showed the telescope, and from the rotation of the mirror
that light diffracted and interfered to produce and the known distance traveled by the light, he
fringes when it passed through a double slit, the was able to determine the speed of light to about
wave model of light became the accepted theory. six significant figures [2]. Presently, the speed of
At the end of the nineteenth century, the particle light is the most accurately known fundamental
theory of light was revived by Einstein, who used constant of nature.
particle behavior and a new type of
theory – quantum physics – to explain the photo-
electric effect. It is now widely accepted that light Description of Electromagnetic
exhibits all three of these behaviors: particle, Radiation and Light
wave, and quantum, which are used to explain
all known properties of light [2]. Electromagnetic radiation (emr) can also be
The history of light has also included interest- described as the emission or transfer of energy
ing debates on how it is propagated. Ancient from vibrating charged particles that creates a
astronomers thought that light traveled at infinite disturbance in the form of oscillating electric
speed. The Greek philosopher Aristotle proposed and magnetic fields (Fig. 1). The British physicist
that light propagated through a hypothetical James Clerk Maxwell [3] was the first to discover
Light, Electromagnetic Spectrum 3

that these electric and magnetic waves always intensity describes the amount of energy flowing
occurred together, i.e., were coupled, giving rise in the electromagnetic wave and is proportional
to the name, electromagnetic waves. It was also to the square of the amplitude. It is also necessary
found that the lines of force of these electric and to specify the direction that the wave is traveling,
magnetic waves were always perpendicular to which is indicated in Fig. 1 by using an arrow. It
each other and perpendicular to the direction of can be seen that these waves crest up and down in
wave propagation, i.e., transverse, never longitu- a sinusoidal fashion, which is described as the
dinal. This transverse nature of light gives rise to wave front moving up and down. When more
various phenomena associated with polarization. than one wave is traveling, it is important to
Polarized electromagnetic radiation is defined describe how they differ in phase. Two waves
as radiation whose electromagnetic field, which are in-phase, if their crests coincide and their
is transversal, is oriented in defined directions [1, troughs coincide. Two waves are out-of-phase,
4] where this polarization can be linear, elliptic, if the crest of one wave coincides with the trough
or circular. Light is totally linearly polarized of the second wave and vice versa. A plane wave
(or plane polarized) if the electric field vectors is a wave whose surfaces of constant phase are
are all oriented in the same plane, parallel to a infinite parallel lines transverse to the direction of
fixed direction which is referred to as the polar- motion. If all of the waves vibrate in-phase, the
ization direction. Light is unpolarized when its emr is referred to as coherent. The laser is an
electric field vectors vibrate randomly in all example of a coherent light source. If there is no
directions; this can also be considered to be fixed phase pattern between the waves emitted by
equal amounts of plane-polarized radiation a light source, the emr is referred to as incoherent.
whose vibration directions are perpendicular to Most ordinary light sources, such as an incandes-
each another. The state of polarization of the cent lamp, are examples of incoherent light
radiation (linear, circular, elliptic) is described sources.
by the phase relationship between these two
orthogonal components. If this phase difference
is zero or 180 , the radiation is linearly polarized; Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
if the phase difference is 90 or 270 and both
components have the same amplitude, the radia- As mentioned above, generally a wave, such as a
tion is circularly polarized; and if the phase dif- water wave, is a propagating disturbance of some
ference is not 0 ,180 , 90 , or 270 and/or the equilibrium state in a continuous medium. How-
amplitudes are different, the radiation is ellipti- ever, no medium is required for propagation of
cally polarized. electromagnetic waves. This property of electro-
Light is partially polarized if the electric vec- magnetic waves makes them unique from other
tors have a preferred direction. If the electric types of waves that can be considered mechanical
vector is polarized vertical to the plane of inci- in nature and was first demonstrated by Einstein
dence, this is referred to as s-polarized (or TE), in 1905. He also proposed the idea that light could
and if the electric vector is polarized parallel to behave both as a wave and as a particle in order to
the plane of incidence, this is referred to as explain the spectral distribution of the radiation
p-polarized or (TM). emitted from a hot (incandescing) object. This
In addition to its state of polarization, these type of electromagnetic radiation is referred to
electromagnetic waves are characterized by sev- as blackbody radiation (give link to encyclopedia
eral other measurable properties, such as the article on blackbody radiation).
number of oscillations per second, the separation Electromagnetic waves of all wavelengths
between successive peaks or troughs, and the size travel exactly at the same speed in vacuum. This
or amount of oscillations. These quantities are fundamental constant of nature is known as the
described by the frequency, n; wavelength, l: speed of light in vacuum, denoted by the symbol,
and amplitude or intensity, I, respectively. The c. It has a value of 299,792,458-metre per second.
4 Light, Electromagnetic Spectrum

Light, Electromagnetic Spectrum, Table 1 Regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

Wavelength range (nm) Frequency range (s 1) Description
<0.1 nm 1020–1023 Gamma rays
0.1–10 nm 1017–1020 X-rays
10–400 nm 1015–1017 Ultraviolet
400–700 nm 1014–1015 Visible
700 nm to 1 mm 1011–1014 Infrared
1 mm to 1 cm 1010–1011 Microwaves
1 cm to 100 km 103–1010 Radio waves
100–1,000 km 102–103 Audio frequency

The frequency, v, is related to wavelength, l, by The electromagnetic spectrum spans the total
n = cl 1. Waves are also sometimes described range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radia-
by their wave number, s, which is the inverse of tion from the shortest to the longest wavelength
wavelength, defined by s = l 1. that can be generated physically. This range of
When an electromagnetic wave travels through wavelengths spans practically from zero to near
other media such as air, glass, or water, its fre- infinity and can be broadly divided into regions as
quency remains constant, but its wavelength and shown in Table 1 [7], which includes radio
speed are both reduced by a factor, n, the refrac- waves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and
tive index of the material. For commonly used gamma rays. This division is not exact since there
optical glasses, the value of n ranges from 1.52 is a gradual transition from one region to the next,
to 1.72 and is a function of frequency. For standard which is shown schematically in Fig. 2 where the
air, n has a value of 1.00028 [5] and can be ignored visible and ultraviolet regions are highlighted.
for most practical applications. This classification of light into regions is also
The behavior of electromagnetic waves at the shown as a function of frequency. It is important
boundary from one medium to another giving rise to note that the only difference between electro-
to reflection, transmission, and refraction phe- magnetic radiations in all these regions is its
nomena is described by a set of wave equations wavelength (and frequency). It has different
known as Maxwell’s equations [6]. descriptions because of the relationship between
These four equations have become the funda- its frequencies and those that are excited in the
mental laws in electromagnetics connecting the various materials that the electromagnetic radia-
principles of electricity and magnetism. Solving tion can interact with. For example, the visual
these equations reveals the wave equation and the receptors in the human eye are only sensitive to
form of the electromagnetic waves. The Maxwell’s electromagnetic radiation in a very narrow fre-
equations are not given here because this is outside quency range from 1014 to 1015 s 1
the scope of this entry; the interested reader can find a (or 400–700 nm), whereas X-rays are used to
good description in the following references [2, 6]. excite features in the body that are of the size of
The smallest unit or quantity of electromag- an atom (0.1 nm). These different applications of
netic radiation is called a photon. The energy of a emr are described in more detail below.
photon is given by E = hn where h is Planck’s
constant (6.62606  10 34 J s). Light can then be
described as a stream of individual photons, each Interaction of Light with Matter
with a definite energy and that can interfere with
each other like waves and diffract around corners When light interacts with matter, different phe-
[3]. The motion of these photons is controlled by nomena can occur depending upon the relation-
these same set of Maxwell wave equations [2, 3]. ship of the wavelength (frequency) of the light
Light, Electromagnetic Spectrum 5

X-rays Ultraviolet Visible Light Infrared

VACUUM- UV-C UV-B UV-A

UV

Wavelength (nm)

100 200 280 315 400 780

Hg-Low Pressure
Lamp 254nm

Light, Electromagnetic Spectrum, Fig. 2 The regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, highlighting the optical
spectrum which includes the visible and ultraviolet regions.

with the physical size (resonant frequencies) of with dust particles or gas molecules in the atmo-
the interfering matter. This matter consists of sphere, Rayleigh scattering occurs which pro-
atoms, ions, and molecules. As mentioned duces the blue color of the sky (add link to
above, only light in the visible portion of the Rayleigh and Mie scattering article).
spectrum with frequencies from 1014 to 1015 s 1 However, when light interacts with objects
can stimulate the visual receptors in the human that are large in relationship to their wavelength,
eye. Light can also exhibit wave or particle prop- such as a brick wall or pane of glass, the light
erties depending upon this relationship between behaves more like a ray (particle) and the laws of
size (or frequency). For light waves that are geometrical optics can be applied.
closely spaced in relation to the spacing of the Depending upon the transparency or translu-
interfering matter, for example, a wave front cency of the material and its surface quality, the
passing through a slit or an opaque edge, second- light will be reflected, refracted, transmitted,
ary wave fronts are generated. These will inter- absorbed, or scattered. The type of light interac-
fere with the primary wave front, as well as with tion that dominates depends upon the precise
each other, and produce diffraction patterns. nature of the matter, e.g., for a smooth opaque
Since these secondary wave fronts were produced colorless solid, specular (mirror-like reflection)
from the same primary wave, their phase will will dominate, whereas for an opaque colored
change in step. Thus, even for a normally inco- material, diffuse reflection or scattering will dom-
herent light source, wave-like behavior such as inate. The selective modification of the energy
diffraction and interference can be seen under distribution of the incident light by the diffusely
certain conditions [8]. reflecting material gives rise to different colors.
Many colorful effects are produced by this
combination of light diffraction and interference.
In nature, this can be seen, for example, in the Light Intensity Distribution and Color
beautiful array of colors displayed by mother of
pearl (opalescence) or by thin film iridescence The different wavelengths in the visible spectrum
(add link to iridescence article). For light waves can also directly stimulate different colors in the
that are very small in relation to the interfering human visual system. This dependence of color
particles, such as the interaction of visible light on wavelength is shown in Table 2.
6 Light, Electromagnetic Spectrum

Light, Electromagnetic Spectrum, Table 2 Dependence of color on wavelength

Wavelength range (nm) Color
400–430 nm Violet
430–480 nm Blue
480–560 nm Green
560–590 nm Yellow
590–620 nm Orange
620–700 nm Red

Light, Electromagnetic
Spectrum, Fig. 3 Use of a
prism to separate white Slit
lights into a spectrum of
colors White
light

Radiation of a single wavelength is called known as the trichromatic theory of human color
monochromatic. Except for lasers and certain vision.
specialized lamps, most sources of optical radia- Because of this trichromacy, white light can
tion emit energy over a broad wavelength region. be produced by many different SPDs. The varia-
The curve describing the power at each wave- tion in these SPDs is illustrated in Fig. 4, which
length is called the spectral power distribution shows the SPD of a typical tungsten lamp, a
(SPD). A color stimulus generally has an SPD fluorescent lamp, a white LED source produced
that varies with wavelength across the visible by a blue LED and yellow phosphor, and noon
spectrum producing a color or sensation that is a daylight. The most prevalent source of light in
shade or mixture of the colors listed in Table 2. our natural environment - the sun, has an SPD
Stimuli containing all the visible wavelengths in that can change dramatically during the course of
roughly equal proportions appear white. the day, from a bluish cast at noon to a reddish-
This is demonstrated by passing white light orange cast at sunset. These variations in SPD of
through a glass prism, which spreads the light the light source are very important for visual
out into a spectrum of colors (see Fig. 3). evaluations of colored goods. For this reason,
However, white light can also be produced by the SPDs of different phases of daylight have
superimposing discrete monochromatic lights. been standardized by the International Commis-
For example, white light can be produced by sion on Illumination (CIE) as a series of D illu-
superimposing red, blue, and green lights in cer- minants. Shown in Fig. 4 is the SPD of CIE
tain proportions. This was first demonstrated by standard illuminant D65, which is average day-
Thomas Young [3] who used this experimental light with an approximate correlated color tem-
finding to theorize that the human eye contained perature of 6500 K.
three different types of color receptors, which is
Light, Electromagnetic Spectrum 7

Light, Electromagnetic Spectrum, Fig. 4 Relative given in parentheses: Top Left: tungsten lamp (CIE A);
spectral power distributions (SPDs) of four different Bottom Left: noon daylight (CIE D65); Top Right: fluo-
sources of white light; CIE illuminant (if applicable) rescent lamp (FL12); blue LED + yellow phosphor

Applications of Electromagnetic frequencies in the infrared region are close to

Radiation the resonant vibrational frequencies in molecules
and can be used for molecular identification by
The applications of electromagnetic radiation spectroscopic means. Similarly, the frequencies
(emr) cover almost all aspects of our daily lives. in the microwave region are close to the resonant
The importance of visible light for human vision rotational frequencies in molecules, in particular
has already been discussed. Light emanating the water molecule. Since most foods contain a
from the sun spans the solar wavelength region significant amount of water, the microwave radi-
from about 250 nm in the UV to 2,500 nm in the ation heats the food by the increased rotational
near-infrared region. This solar radiation is motion of the interspersed water molecules.
extremely important to the energy balance of These microwaves pass through glass, ceramic,
the earth and for various building design applica- and plastic but reflect from metal which can also
tions, such as the design of glazing materials. It is be used to advantage in the selection of the food
also exploited in light-based technologies, such container and walls of the microwave,
as photovoltaics. respectively.
Light in the infrared region of the spectrum is Light in the ultraviolet (UV) region has many
felt as heat and is used in the design of radiant important uses. In the early nineteenth century, it
heating, solar panels, and collectors. The was called “chemical rays” because it was found
8 Light, Electromagnetic Spectrum

that UV radiation could cause chemical changes. constituent atoms or disrupt DNA bonds,
This was used to advantage to harden special resulting in prevention of cellular division. This
glues in inks, coatings, and adhesives more can be used to advantage to kill microorganisms
quickly, in a process called UV curing through throughout the material. Gamma sterilization is
polymerization. The skin of our bodies needs used, for example, in sterilization of water and
exposure to UV with wavelengths in the region food products.
280–315 nm (UVB) in order to stimulate the Other important applications of emr are radio,
production of Vitamin D. However, too much television, and electric current.
exposure to UVB can cause skin cancers, so it is
important to find the optimum exposure level.
UV light with wavelengths in the region Cross-References
200–280 nm (UVC) is called “germicidal UV”
because it has sufficient energy to inactivate bac- ▶ Blackbody Radiation
teria and viruses by disabling their DNA strands. ▶ Iridescence
For this reason, it is also used for sterilization of ▶ Rayleigh Scattering, Mie Scattering
surfaces such as medical equipment. This type of ▶ Spectral Power Distribution (SPD)
UVC radiation is often produced by a low-pres-
sure mercury vapour lamp (see Fig. 2). UV radi-
ation is also needed to excite a class of molecules References
referred to as fluorescent-whitening agents
(FWAs) or optical brighteners in manufactured 1. CIE S 017/E: ILV – International Lighting Vocabulary.
CIE Central Bureau, Vienna (2011)
white goods, such as paper, fabrics, detergents,
2. Jenkins, F.A., White, H.E.: Fundamentals of Optics,
soaps, and cosmetics, which emit in the blue 4th edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (1976)
portion of the visible spectrum and produce an 3. Overheim, R.D., Wagner, D.L.: Light and Color.
enhanced whiteness effect. UV radiation is also Wiley, New York (1982)
4. Shurcliff, W.E.: Polarized Light: Production and Use.
of the appropriate frequencies to absorb ozone
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA (1962)
molecules in the atmosphere so very little UV 5. Ciddor, P.E.: Refractive index of air: new equations for
radiation reaches the earth’s surface. the visible and near infrared. Appl. Optics 35,
X-rays have a higher frequency than UV radi- 1566–1573 (1996)
6. Stern, F.: In: Seitz F., Turnbull D. (eds.): Elementary
ation and can pass through the skin and soft
theory of the optical properties of solids. Solid State
tissue, but they do not easily pass through the Physics, vol. 15. Academic, New York, pp 301–304
bone or metal. This type of emr is used to produce (1963)
photographs of bones in medical diagnostics to 7. Williamson, S.J., Cummins, H.: Light and Color in
Nature and Art. Wiley, New York (1983)
check for damage such as fractures. The frequen-
8. Falk, D., Brill, D., Stork, D.: Seeing the Light: Optics in
cies of gamma radiation, on the other hand, are Nature, Photography, Color, Vision, and Holography.
more penetrating and can destroy chemical bonds Harper & Rowe Publishers, New York (1986)
by interacting with the electrons of the