ARJUN BATCH 2.

O
ENGLISH MEDIUM

MPPSC PRE
GS
UNIT-7

PHYSICS

FULL NOTES
@I-magnus
www.imagnus.in
By:-Dr.Kuldeep Sir
 Physics

Units, Dimensions and Measurements

Physical Quantity
 A physical quantity is something that can be measured and used to explain various physical
phenomena, often expressed through rules and formulas.
 For example length, mass, time force etc.

Types Of Physical Quantity

A. On The Basis Of Direction And Magnitude
1. Scalar Quantities
 To express these quantities, direction is not required, only magnitude is required like length,
time, work energy etc.
2. Vector Quantities
 To express these quantities, both magnitude and direction are required.
 Example- displacement velocity, acceleration force etc.

B. Based On Measurement
1. Fundamental Quantities
 Those quantities which are independent from other quantities and do not require other physical
quantities to define them. Hence these are also called absolute quantities
 Like length, time etc.
2. Derivative Quantities
 Thosequantities which are obtained with the help of fundamental quantity.
 Examples – area, volume, pressure, velocity, acceleration
3. Complementary Quantity
 Quantities other than fundamental and derived Quantities
 Example – plane angle and cubic angle

Unit
 To measure a physical quantity, a certain quantity is called a unit.
 For example, Newton is the unit of force.

Types Of Units
1. Fundamental unit
 Units offundamental quantities not depends on other units
 Example- meter, kilogram, second

2. Derived units
 Units of derived quantitiesObtained with the help of fundamental units
 Example-Newton, Joule
1. Complementary Unit

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 Units of complementary quantities

 Example-Radian, Steradian

System of units
 The set of both fundamental and derived units for all types of physical quantities is called system
of units.
 The popular methods are as follows.
1- CGS System – centimeter, gram and second
2- MKS System – meter, kilogram and second
3- FPS Method – Foot, Pound and Second
4- S.I. / International Method
 It is an international system of units and is a widespread system used throughout physics.
 There are seven basic units and two supplementary units.
 Currently the internationally accepted system is System International of Units.
 It was developed by the International Bureau of Measurement in 1971

Physical quantity S.I Signal

1. Length Meter) M
2. Mass Kilogram Kg
3. Time Second) S
4. Heat Kelvin K
5. Electric Current Ampere) A
6. Light Intensity Candela) Cd
7. Quantity Of Mol
Substance
Complementary Unit
1. Plane Angle Radian Rd
2. Cubic Angle Steradian Sr

(a) Astronomical unit

 The distance between the Sun and the Earth is called astronomical unit.
 Its value is 149.6 × 109m.
(b) Light year
 The distance traveled by light in one year is called light year.
 The value of light year is 9.46 × 1015 m. It happens.
 1 parsec = 3.26 light years.
 Parsec is the largest unit of distance measurement.
 The speed of light is 3 × 108 m/second.
 1 hectare – 2.5 acres
 1 gallon – 3.785 liters

Mass
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 The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of
the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10−34 when expressed in the unit J⋅ s, which is equal to
kg⋅ m2⋅ s−1, where the metre and the second are defined in terms of c and ΔνCs.
 Chandrasekhar Unit 1 CSU = 1.4 times the mass of the Sun = 28x10 30 kg
 Metric ton :1 metric = 1000 kg
 Quintal: 1 quintal = 100 kg
 Atomic mass unit 1 amu = 1.67x1027kg

Time
 Since the Earth makes one revolution around the Sun in 365 days, one year is 365 days.
 Every 4 years has 366 days which is called leap year.
 To find leap year, division is given by 4, but in centenary years like 1300, 1600, etc., division is
given by 400.
(a) Solar month
 It lasts for 30/31 days.
(b) lunar month
 The time taken by the Moon to make one revolution around the Earth is called lunar month. Its
value is 28 days.
Sadreal day
 The time taken by the Earth to complete one complete rotation around its axis with respect to a
distant star is called a sidereal day.
 1 shake = 10-8 seconds

Deca 101¾ 10 Desi 10&1 ¾

𝟏
𝟏𝟎
Hectare 102 ¾ 100 centi 10&2 ¾
𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Kilo 103 ¾ 1000 Millie 10 &3
¾
𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
mega 106 micro 10&6
giga 109 nano 10&9
terra 1012 pico 10&12
PETA 1015 Femto 10&15
axa 1018 axa 10&18
zeta 1021 jepto 10&21
Yota 1024 Yocto 10&24

Length
1 km 0.621 miles
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 Physics

1 mile 1.609 km.

1 meter 3.281 feet
1 inch 2.54 cm
1 feet 12 inches(30.48 cm)
1 yard 3 feet (0.91 m)

Distance
1. Total journey traveled
2. It may be equal to or greater than the displacement.
3. It does not decrease with time.
4. It is a scalar quantity.
5. Speed by distance/time

Displacement
1. The difference between the starting and ending points.
2. It may be equal to or smaller than the distance.
3. It may decrease over time.
4. It is a vector quantity.
5. Displacement/Velocity vs Time
 In uniform circular motion the speed does not change but due to change of direction the velocity
keeps changing.

Motion
 The change in position of an object relative to time relative to other objects is called motion.

One dimensional motion

 The motion of an object in a straight line is called one-dimensional motion.
 Example Speed of a car on a straight road Speed of a freely falling object

Equations of motion
V = u +at
S = ut + ½ at2
V2= u2 + 2as

Two dimensional motion

 The motion of an object in a plane is called two-dimensional motion.
 Example: Speed of a car on a circular path Speed of a billiard ball

Three dimensional motion

 The motion of an object in the sky is called three-dimensional motion.
 Example: Speed of flying kite, speed of flying insect
Harmonic motion
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 If the motion of a particle repeats itself after a certain time interval, it is called periodic motion.

Rotational speed
 Rotating in a circular path around a fixed axis

Torque
 The tendency of a force due to which it tries to rotate an object around a fixed point.
 The force that passes through the axis of rotation does not produce a torque.

Center of gravity
 The point where the entire mass of the body is concentrated
 The Tower of Pisa does not fall even after being tilted because the line passing through the center
of gravity of the tower passes through its base.

Moment of inertia
 The property of an object due to which it resists change in its rotational state.

Angular Momentum
 The moment of linear momentum of a rotating body is called angular momentum.

Oscillatory Motion
 When an object keeps coming to the central standard position after a time interval, then it is
called oscillatory motion.

Projectile Motion
 If a body is projected inside the gravitational field in a direction other than vertical. If that body
moves on a curved path with constant gravitational acceleration, then this type of motion is
called projectile motion.
 The position of the projectile is always parabolic
 Motion on a curved path in the vertical plane under the acceleration of gravity
1. A bomb dropped by an airplane flying horizontally
2. Bullet fired from a gun
3. Arrow shot from the bow
4. Javelin thrown by the player

Range
 The horizontal distance from the launch point to a specified distance is called range.
 To get more range, the long jumper throws at an angle.

Velocity
 The rate of displacement of an object is called velocity
 It is a vector quantity
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 Its SI unit

Uniform Velocity
 The condition of keeping the magnitude and direction of velocity constant by a moving particle.
 Uniform velocity is possible only when moving in the same direction in a straight line.

UNEVEN VELOCITY
 When an object is displaced unequal distances in equal intervals of time, the velocity of the
object is called uneven velocity or unstable velocity.
AVERAGE VELOCITY
 The ratio of total displacement and total time is called average velocity.

INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY
 The velocity at any instant t is called instantaneous velocity.

ACCELERATION
 The rate of change in velocity of an object is called the acceleration of that object.
 If an object is thrown upwards from the earth then the value of acceleration (g) is negative.

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
 The acceleration of an object moving in uniform circular motion is called centripetal acceleration.
 It always acts on the object along the radius and towards the center of the circular path.

VEHICLE OVERTURN
 When a car turns on a circular track at a speed greater than a certain maximum speed, then
despite there being enough friction to prevent the car from slipping, it overturns and its inner
wheels leave the ground first.

WORK
 The product of the component along the direction of displacement of force and the magnitude of
displacement is called work.
 W=FCOSθ.d
 The work will not be considered completed in the following circumstances
 If the displacement of the object is zero.
 If the forces are zero.
 force and displacement are mutually perpendicular
 SI unit of work is joule (Joule = Newton X meter)
 Alternative units of work (in joules)

Erg 10&7
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Electron volt 1-6 × 10&19

CALORIES 4-186
kilowatt-hour 3-6× 106

Nature of Work
 Work can be both positive and negative
Positive action
 If the force is parallel to the displacement and supports the motion of the body then the work
will be positive in nature.
 If the angle between force and displacement is zero then the work done by the force will be
maximum.
 Example - If a person lifts a body above the surface of the earth then the work done by him will
be positive.

Negative function
 If the force is opposite to the displacement then work will be negative in nature.
 If the angle between force and displacement is 1800, then the work done by the force will be
minimum (maximum negative).
 For example, if a person lifts a body above the earth's surface, then the work done by the force of
gravity will be negative.

Energy
 The ability to do work on an object is called energy of that object.
 Energy is a scalar quantity.
 The unit of energy is joule.
 Commercial unit of energy - kilowatt-hour
 1 kilowatt-hour= 3.6  106 J

Kinetic energy
 An object contains energy due to its motion, which is called kinetic energy.
𝟏
 𝐖= 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐

Example
 A water turbine is rotated by the kinetic energy of flowing water.
 The turbine of a wind mill is rotated by the kinetic energy contained in the wind.
 It is possible to drive a nail into a wall only because of the kinetic energy of the hammer.

Potential energy
 The energy stored due to position is called potential energy.
a. Gravitational potential energy

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 The energy stored in an object due to work done against the force of gravity is called gravitational
potential energy.

b. Elastic potential energy

 The energy stored in an object due to elasticity is called gravitational potential energy.

c. Electrical potential energy

 Electrical potential energy refers to the energy stored in a system as a result of the relative
positions of charged particles exerting electric forces on each other."

energy converter
Dynamo(generator) mechanical energy into electrical energy
Microphone sound energy into electrical energy
Loudspeaker Electrical energy into sound energy
Candle burning Chemical energy into light and heat energy
Electric cell Chemical energy into electrical energy
Electric motor Electrical energy into mechanical energy
Electric iron Electrical energy into heat energy
Electric heater Electrical energy is mainly converted into heat energy.
Electric light bulb Electricity (or electric lamp) converts electricity into light energy
Radio Electrical energy into sound energy
Steam engines Converting heat energy into kinetic energy (or mechanical energy)
Car engine The chemical energy of petrol is converted into heat energy and then into
kinetic energy (or mechanical energy).
Solar water heater Light energy into heat energy
Solar cell Light energy into electrical energy
Gas stove Chemical energy of cooking gas is converted into heat energy.

law of conservation of energy

 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.It can be converted from one form to another.
 During the transformation, although some energy may be wasted, the total energy of the system
remains the same.

Power
 The rate of doing work is called power.
 Power=work done/time taken
 S.I. The unit is watt. 1 horse power = 746 watts

Force
 The factor which can change the position of a stationary or moving object is called force.
 The S.I. unit of force is Newton.
 Dimensional formula of force MLT-2

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Force based on strength of force

 There are two types of forces depending on the strength of the force.
1. balanced force
2. Unbalanced forces

Balanced force
 If equal force is applied on an object from both sides, there is no change in its position.
 These forces are called balanced forces
Unbalanced force
 If unequal force is applied on an object from both sides, its position changes, which is called
unbalanced force.

Conservative force
 The force by which the work done in moving a particle from one point to another does not
depend on the path, then that force is called a conservative force.
 Frces by which the work done in a complete cycle is zero are called conservative forces.
 Example: Gravitational force, spring force

Non-conservative force
 The force by which the work done in moving a particle from one point to another depends on the
path, then that force is called non-conservative force.
 Example - Frictional force, Viscous force

Centripetal force
 The force required to move an object in a circular path is called centripetal force.
 It is perpendicular to the displacement, hence the total work will be zero.

Example
 Movement of artificial satellites around the Earth.
 Motion of the moon.
 Movements of the seconds hand of a clock.
 Runner moving on a circular path.
 In circular motion the direction keeps changing with time whereas in linear motion the direction
is fixed.

Centrifugal force
 “The virtual force which acts equal but opposite to the centripetal force in response to the
centripetal force of a body moving on a circular path is called centrifugal force.”

Example
 Game of “Well of Death” in the circus.

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 Clothes drying machine.

 Machine for extracting butter from milk.

Force Relative strength

Gravitational force 1
Weak nuclear force 1025
Electromagnetic force 1036
Strong nuclear force 1038

Frictional Force
 When two surfaces slide on each other, a force is generated which opposes the relative motion
between them. This force opposing motion is called friction force.
 Its features are as follows
1. It always works between the contact planes of two objects.
2. It acts parallel to the contact plane
3. It works in the direction opposite to motion
4. Friction force works only when there is relative motion between two objects.
5. It is a non-conservative force
6. The value of friction force does not depend on the area of the contact surfaces.
Origin Of Friction Force
 Friction force originates due to adhesive force.

Types Of Friction Force

 There are two types of friction forces
1. Static friction force
2. Dynamic friction force

Static Friction Force

 External force is applied to move one object on another object but that object remains
stationary, then the friction force working between their contact planes is called static friction
force.

Dynamic Friction Force

 When one object moves on another object, the friction force acting between their contact parties
is called kinetic friction force.
 There are two types of dynamic friction
1. Sliding friction
2. Rolling friction

Sliding Friction
 When one object moves over another object, the friction acting between their contact parties is
called sliding friction.
 For example, when sliding a book on the table, sliding friction works.
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Rolling Friction
 When one object rolls on another object, the friction acting between their contacting surfaces is
called rolling friction.
 The value of rolling friction is less than that of sliding friction.

Marginal Friction Force
 When one object is placed on another object and no external force is applied to move it, then no
friction force acts between their contact planes, but when even a little force is applied on the first
object, then opposing friction force acts. seems to do
 As the value of external force is increased, the value of static friction force also starts increasing.
 A situation arises when the first object is ready to move exactly on the second object, this
situation is called the situation of marginal equilibrium.
 The static friction force acting between the contacting parties in the state of limiting equilibrium
is called limiting friction force.
 The value of limiting friction force is maximum

Newton's Laws Of Motion


1. Newton's first law of motion
 An object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion will remain in motion until it is
forced by an external force to change its state.
 The first law is also called the law of inertia.
Example
1. When the bus starts suddenly, our body gets pushed backwards.
2. Falling of fruits due to shaking of trees.
3. Separation of dust particles by dusting the bedsheet.
4. The bicycle continues to move for some distance even after stopping pedalling.
5. Drops of water falling from shaking wet clothes.
6. By firing a bullet a round hole is made in the glass, whereas by throwing a stone the glass
breaks into pieces.

Momentum
 The momentum of a body (or object) is defined as the product of its mass and velocity.
 Momentum = mass velocity
 The SI unit of momentum is kilogram meter per second.

2. Newton's second law of motion

 The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force and is in the same
direction in which the force acts.

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Example
 A cricket player moves his hands down or back to take a catch and never tries to stop the ball
suddenly because the velocity of the ball will suddenly drop to zero and in such a situation the
deceleration of the ball will be very high. .
 Therefore, there will be more force on the hands due to which there is a possibility of injury.
 When the player moves his hands back a little, the acceleration reduces slightly, hence the force
also reduces.

3. Newton's third law of motion

 Whenever one object exerts force on another object, the second object exerts an equal and
opposite force on the first object.
 Every action has an equal and opposite reaction to that action.
 This is also called the law of conservation of momentum.
Example
 Example
(i) When a gun is fired, the operator is pushed backwards.
(ii) When jumping from the boat to the shore, the boat moves backwards.
(iii) This rule is used to fly a rocket.
(iv) We are able to walk only because of the force applied by our feet on the ground and the force
applied by the earth.
(v) The water pipe is held by applying a lot of force by the fire brigade personnel because the fast
flowing water pushes the pipe back with equal force.
 Jet engine is based on this Newton's law of motion.

Moment Of Inertia
 Moment of inertia is that inherent property of an object due to which the object resists any
change in its rest or uniform rotational motion.
 Moment of inertia of a particle where is the perpendicular distance of the particle from the axis
of rotation. I  mr 2

Torque
 The rotational effect of a force applied about the axis of rotation is called torque.
 Torque= force× perpendicular distance from axis
1. If a planet passes near the Sun while revolving in an elliptical orbit around the Sun, then the
angular velocity of its rotation increases because in this situation the moment of inertia
decreases.
2. Circus artists, while performing acrobatics, contract their arms and legs because by doing so
the moment of inertia decreases and the angular velocity increases.
3. A person is standing on a rotating platform with a heavy object in his hands. If he suddenly
bends his arms, his moment of inertia decreases and angular velocity increases.

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Gravity
 In 1665, Newton discovered the force of gravity by observing an apple falling.
m m
gravitational force, F  G  1 2 2
r
Where, L is a constant which is called “universal gravitational constant”.
The value of the universal gravitational constant, G 6.67  10 11 Nm 2 / kg 2 , has been found.

(1) Gravitational acceleration is a vector quantity, its direction is always towards the center of the
planet.
(2) The average value of H on the earth's surface is 9-8 m/s2.
(3) The value of gravitational acceleration changes due to the following factors.
1. Size of the Earth 2. Height of objects from the Earth's surface 3.Depth of objects from the Earth's
surface 4.Axial rotation of the Earth.
On solving g =g –w2 Rcosx
λ=90 for the poles and λ=0^0 for the equator.
The Earth's rotation has no effect on the value of g at the poles.
The effect of Earth's rotation is maximum on the value of g at the equator.
The value of gravitational acceleration of an object decreases as it goes above or below the earth's
surface.
The value of gravitational acceleration on the Moon is 1/6th of that on Earth.

Kepler's laws of planetary motion

1. Kepler's first law
The planets move in elliptical orbits around the Sun.
2. Kepler's second law
Each planet revolves around the Sun in such a way that the line joining the planet to the Sun moves
by equal areas at equal intervals of time.
3. Kepler's third law
The cube of the planet's average distance from the Sun, which is proportional to the square of the
time it takes to revolve around the Sun.
T2 α r3
Where, r = average distance of the planet from the Sun.
T = time period of the planet (around the Sun)

Fact
 If two objects of different masses are dropped independently from above, they will reach the
earth simultaneously.

Change In The Value Of Gravitational Acceleration

 The weight of an object is least at the equator and greatest at the poles.
 The weight of an object is zero at the center of the Earth.
 If the Earth stops rotating around its orbit, the weight of the object will increase at places other
than the poles.
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 If the Earth starts rotating faster, the weight of the object will decrease at places other than the
poles.
 Therefore, if the Earth starts rotating 17 times faster, then all the objects located on the equator
will come into a state of weightlessness.
 The presence of atmosphere on Earth is due to gravity, astronauts revolving around the Earth
cannot use pendulum clocks, they only use spring clocks.
 The sky appears black to astronauts due to the absence of atmosphere.

Artificial satellite
 Their rotation period depends on their height above the earth's surface.
 The farther the satellite is from the Earth's surface, the longer its orbital period.
 If any object or packet is released from a rotating satellite, it will not fall on the Earth but will
continue to rotate in the same orbit with the satellite at the same speed.

Weightlessness in satellites
 Artificial satellites have a state of weightlessness.
 Due to weightlessness in satellites, astronauts carry their food in a special type of tube.
 The Moon is also a satellite but due to its greater mass, there is no state of weightlessness there.
 Solar cells are the source of electrical energy in artificial satellites.
Weight Of Body In Lift
 If the lift goes up, the person feels his weight increasing.
 If the lift goes down, the person feels his weight decreasing.
 If the lift moves with uniform speed then the person does not feel any change in his weight.
 If the rope of the lift breaks then the body in free state falls down and the person feels the state
of weightlessness.

Escape velocity
 The minimum velocity with which when any body is thrown above the Earth's surface, it goes out
of the Earth's gravitational field, that is, it can never return back to the Earth's surface.
V = √2gR
 Where is the acceleration due to gravity
 Ris the radius
 The escape velocity of any body from the earth's surface is 11-2 km/ sec
Simple Pendulum
 The period of the pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of the effective length.
 If another girl comes and sits next to the girl swinging. So there is no effect on the period.
 Pendulum clocks do not work inside satellites because there the period of the pendulum would
become infinite.
 The period of the pendulum clock is determined by h, hence the pendulum clock will become
slow on the moon.

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 Physics

 Turnover time T  2 L
g

 Gravitational acceleration is highest on the earth's surface

 Its value decreases as we go deeper or higher.
 If the radius of the Earth is reduced then the value of gravitational acceleration increases by
double.

Wave
 is a disturbance that propagates

Wavelength
 The distance between two crests or two troughs of a wave.
 It is inversely proportional to energy.

A. On the basis of vibration of particles, there are two types of waves-

1) Transverse wave
 The particles of the medium move perpendicular to the direction in which the transverse wave or
velocity moves.
 Like- vibrations in the violin string, waves generated on the surface of water.
 Transverse wave can be polarized.
2) Longitudinal waves
 Longitudinal waves involve particles of the medium moving in the same direction as the wave
propagation.
 Like- sound waves.
 Longitudinal polarization cannot be done.

B. There are two types of waves depending on the requirement of medium.
1. Mechanical wave or elastic wave
 Those waves which require a medium for propagation are called mechanical or elastic waves.
 Waves generated in string or rope, waves formed on the surface of water, sound waves, seismic
waves

2. Electromagnetic or inelastic waves
 Those waves which do not require a medium for propagation are called electromagnetic or
inelastic waves.
Electromagnetic Waves
Wave Wavelength Use
Space rays
Gamma rays
X-rays
Ultraviolet
Visible light In the appearance
Infrared rays Patient care and TV remote in the fog

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Micro waves in photography

Radio waves in TV and radio

1. To see the interior

2. In purifying water and identifying notes.
 The wavelength of light is 3800𝑨 to 7600𝑨 it occurs.

Frequency
 The number of revolutions or vibrations made in one second is proportional to the energy.
 It is measured in Hertz.

time period
 The time taken for one revolution or vibration is called Time period.
𝒎
 Spring clock time T = 2 𝒙
𝒌
 Spring clocks do not depend on gravitational acceleration, so astronauts use spring clocks.
𝑙
T = 2𝑥
𝑔
 The gravitational acceleration of the Moon is 1/6 times that of the Earth. That is why the period
of the pendulum clock on the Moon increases, means it becomes slow.
 In summer the length of the pendulum increases, causing the clock to become sluggish.

Sound
1. There is a type of disturbance or wave which is transmitted through solid, liquid or gas and is
heard through the ears, it is called sound.
2. It is a mechanical wave, not an electromagnetic wave.
3. A medium is required for the transmission of sound.
4. Sound cannot propagate in vacuum
5. It travels as a longitudinal wave in liquids, gases and plasma, whereas in solids it can also travel
as a transverse wave.
6. The speed of sound at normal temperature and pressure is approximately 332 meters per
second.
7. As the density of the medium increases, the velocity of sound also increases, hence the car
horn is heard loudly just after the rain.
8. The human ear can hear only sound waves of approximately 20-120 decibels and 20 Hz to 20
kHz frequency.
9. Sound less than 20 Hz is called infrasonics and sound more than 20,000 Hz is called ultrasonic.
Subsonic Object traveling faster than sound
Supersonic Object traveling faster than sound
Hypersonic Object traveling 5 times faster than sound
 Ultrasonic is used for underwater sonar.

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Doppler Effect
 When the distance between the listener and the sound source starts decreasing, the frequency of
the sound increases and vice-versa.
 If a passenger is waiting for a train on the platform and at the same time the train passes, then
that person will hear the frequency of the sound first increasing and then decreasing.
 The sounds of women and mosquitoes have high pitch due to their high frequency, whereas the
sounds of men and lions have low pitch due to their low frequency.
 According to WHO, sound of 45-75 DB is suitable for health.
Sound source Intensity (decibel)
A whisper 15&20 DB
General conversation 30&60 DB
Conversation in anger 70&80 DB
Tractor, truck 90&100 DB
Factory machines 100&110 DB
Orchestra 110&120 DB
Jet plane 140&150 DB
Rocket 160&170 DB
 Any sound remains in the brain for 1/10 second.
 Mach number = speed of an object in a medium/speed of sound in that medium

1. Resonance
 When the frequency of vibration of an object is equal to the frequency of vibration of another
object, then the vibration of that object increases many times,
 Therefore, the movement of soldiers passing through the bridge is stopped.

2. Interference
 When two waves of equal frequency and amplitude reach a point simultaneously, their energy is
redistributed, which is called interference.
 Where maximum intensity is obtained, there is constructive interference and where low intensity
is obtained, there is destructive interference.

3. Diffraction
 The bending and movement of sound beyond the edge of an obstacle is called diffraction.
 Stethoscope works on the principle of reflection of sound.

Photoelectric Effect
 This theory was given by Einstein for which he received the Nobel Prize.
 The energy in light remains in small bundles called photons.
 The incoming light has higher energy and frequency and shorter wavelength, whereas the
returning light has lower energy and frequency and longer wavelength.
 When light hits a metal, electrons start coming out from it, which is called photoelectric effect.
 To produce this effect, light of a minimum frequency is required which is called threshold
frequency.

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 The photoelectric effect demonstrates the particle properties of light.

Charge
 The property of a substance due to which it produces an electric or magnetic field is called
charge.
 Its unit is coulomb.
 When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the silk becomes negatively charged.
 When the ebonite rod is rubbed with wool the ebonite rod becomes negatively charged.

Conductor
 The substances through which electric charge flows easily are called conductors.
 silver, copper, aluminum

Insulator
 Materials through which charge does not flow - wood, rubber, paper
Coulomb's Law
 When two stationary charges are located at some distance from each other, the force of
attraction or repulsion acting between them is called Coulomb force.
 It follows Newton's third law
𝐤𝐪𝟏𝐪𝟐
𝐅=
𝐫𝟐
 Force on a charged conductor acts outward due to repulsion of charges.
 This is the reason why a charged soap bubble or balloon expands.
 When a positive conductor is earthed, electrons flow from the earth towards the conductor,
whereas when a negatively charged conductor is earthed, the electrons flow from the conductor
towards the earth.
 On a hollow conductor body, the entire charge comes on its surface, hence if lightning strikes
while driving a car, one should stay inside the car.

Electric Field
 The space around acharge where its effects are experienced.

Electric Field Intensity

 A measure of the force exerted by one charged body on another.
 In a hollow conductor, the electric field inside the conductor is zero and the entire charge is only
on the outer surface, that is why if lightning falls on a car, the person sitting inside the car
remains safe.

Electric Potential
 the amount of work energy needed per unit of electric charge to move this charge from a
reference point to the specific point in an electric field.

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 Its unit is volt

Potential Difference
 Work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to another in an electric field

Electric Capacitance
 The ratio of change in charge and potential given to the conductor is called electric capacitance.

Electric Current
 The rate of flow of electric charge in a conductor is called electric current.
 Its S.I. unit is ampere

Resistance
 The obstruction caused by the atoms of the conductor in the flow of electric current in a
conductor is called resistance of the conductor.
 Its S.I. The unit is Ohm.

RULES OF Ohm
 The potential difference between two points of a conductor is directly proportional to the electric
current flowing in it.

Conductivity
 The reciprocal of resistance is called conductivity of the conductor.
 At absolute zero temperature (00K or -2730c), resistance becomes zero and conductivity becomes
infinite, which is called superconductivity.

Specific Resistance
 The resistance of a conductor is proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its area.
 Where R is a constant which is called the specific resistance of the conductor.
 The specific resistance of a wire depends on the nature of the material and its temperature.
 On increasing the temperature the specific resistance of the conductor increases.
 When a conductor is heated, its specific resistance increases due to which its resistance increases
and conductivity decreases.
 On increasing the temperature of a semiconductor, its specific resistance decreases, due to which
its resistance decreases and hence conductivity increases.
 There is no effect on non-conductors.

 Combination of resistances

Series Combination of Resistances: When resistors are connected end-to-end, creating a single path
for current flow.

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Parallel Combination of Resistances: When resistors are connected side by side, providing multiple
paths for current to flow.

Electric Power
 Rate of loss of energy in an electric circuit

Electric Force Lines

 It forms an open loop
 It comes away from the positive charge and towards the negative charge.
 Two electric lines of force never intersect each other

Electrical Appliances In Homes

 In India, electricity is supplied at 220 V.
 To maintain equal potential difference, electrical appliances are kept in parallel but fuses are kept
in series.
 The fuse wire is made of tin (63 percent) and lead (37 percent).
 Its melting point is low and resistance is high.

 Ammeter to measure current.

 Voltmeter – To measure potential difference.
 Potentiometer - used to measure electromotive force
 galvanometer - to check deflection

Thermodynamics
 Temperature is one of the seven basic quantities. It is a scalar quantity whose SI
unit is Kelvin.
 The temperature of an object is an indicator of the average kinetic energy of its
molecules.
 The temperature of the central part of the Sun is 107 Kelvin while the temperature
of the outer surface is 6000 Kelvin.
 Human body has normal temperature. 37 0 C  98.60 F

C F  32 K  273 R
  
5 9 5 4
Where C is Celsius F Fahrenheit K Kelvin R Rheumer

Thermometer
 liquid thermometer
 Mercury is used in this because mercury has more cohesive force.
 Mercury thermometer can measure from -50°C.to350°C.

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 Alcohol thermometer can measure from -800°C to 3500°C, hence alcohol thermometers are used
in cold regions.

Gas Thermometer
 These thermometers are more sensitive, hence gas thermometers are used to detect very subtle
changes.
 In a gas thermometer, temperature can be measured from 500°C. with hydrogen to 1500°C.with
nitrogen.

Platinum Thermometer
 It is used to measure high temperatures up to 15000°C.

Heat
 Heat is a type of energy which is transferred from one object to another due to their temperature
difference between two objects.
 It can be converted into work.
W
J
Q
Units Of Heat
 The unit of heat in SI system is joule and in CGS system it is calorie.
 1 calorie = 4.2 joules
 International Calorie – The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of pure
water from 14.50 C to 15.50 C.
 British Thermal Unit – The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of
water by 1 degree Fahrenheit.

Specific Heat
 The heat required to increase the temperature of unit mass of an object is called the specific heat
of the object.
 Water has the highest specific heat among all known solids and liquids.

Latent Heat
 The heat required to change the state of a substance is called latent heat.
 It does not cause any change in temperature.
 The latent heat of fusion is 80 calories per gram and the latent heat of boiling is 536 calories per
gram.

Sublimation
 Direct conversion of solid into vapor

Isothermal Process

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 If the pressure and volume of a system is changed in such a way that its temperature remains
constant, then this process is called isothermal process.
 Like solid changing into liquid at melting point
 Conversion of liquid into vapor at boiling point
 adiabatic process
 A system from which heat can neither go out nor enter that system from outside.

Ideal Gas
 A gas whose particle size is zero and there is no interaction between the particles is called an
ideal gas.
 Ideal gas equation = pv= nRT

Boyle's Law
 The volume of gas at a constant temperature is inversely proportional to its pressure.(fixedmass)

Charles's Law
 The temperature of a gas at constant pressure is proportional to its volume.(fixedmass)

Gelousek's Law
 The temperature of a gas at a fixed volume is proportional to its pressure.(fixedmass)

First Law Of Thermodynamics

 It is based on the principle of heat conservation
 According to this, when heat is given to an object, it gets converted into work and internal
energy.

Second Law Of Thermodynamics

1. It is impossible for a machine to transfer heat from a colder body to a hotter body without the
help of external factors.
2. It is impossible to build any engine which can take heat from the source and convert it
completely into work.

Third Law Of Thermodynamics

 Entropy at absolute zero temperature is zero.

Heat Transmission
1. Conduction
 Particles transfer heat to other particles without leaving their place. Only conduction is possible
in solids.
2. CONVECTION
 In this, heat is transferred by the movement of fluid particles.
 Heat is transferred by convection in liquids and gases.
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 Mercury is a liquid, but conduction occurs in it, not convection.


3. RADIATION
 In this, heat transmission occurs without changing the temperature of the medium.
 No medium is required for this.
 Sunlight reaches the earth through radiation.

Temperature Scale

𝐂 𝐅−𝟑𝟐 𝐊−𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝐑
= = =
𝟓 𝟗 𝟓 𝟒

Newton's law of cooling

 According to this rule, the rate of heat change will depend on the difference in temperature of
the object and the environment.
 The greater this difference, the greater will be the rate of heat transfer.
Kirchhoff's law
 Good absorbers are good emitters
Stephen's law
 The amount of radiation emitted per second from the surface area of an ideal black body is
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

Vean's law of displacement

 As the temperature of an object increases, the wavelength emitted decreases.
triple point
 The point at which all three states of solid, liquid and gas are found together.
 Open system – A system in which both matter and heat are exchanged.
 Closed system – Heat exchange takes place in this.
 Isolated system – In this, neither heat nor matter is exchanged.

 Steam causes more irritation than hot water

 The room gets hot if the refrigerator door is kept open.
 A thermostat is installed in the refrigerator to control the temperature.
 AC Compressed nitrogen gas is filled in it.
 In winter, two thin shirts are more useful than one thick shirt because a layer of heat-insulating
air is formed between them.
 The better the substance is the absorber of heat. The better the emitter.
 A rough surface is a better absorber and a better emitter than a smooth surface.
 It is comfortable to wear white clothes in summer because it reflects all the heat falling on it.
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 The umbrella should be white at the top and black at the bottom.
 Bolometer is used to detect temperature in electrical equipment.
 Ice provides more cooling than cold water.
 Ice is packed in sawdust because sawdust is a poor conductor of heat.
 When two pieces of ice are pressed together, due to increase in pressure, the melting point of the
ice decreases and both the pieces stick together.
 Density of water is highest at 40C i.e. its volume is minimum, hence in cold countries water pipes
burst during winter.
 If hot water is converted into ice, its density will first increase and then decrease.
 There is more heat on a cloudy night because clouds trap the heat emitted from the earth.
 Sitting in front of a cooler or fan increases the rate of evaporation, resulting in a feeling of
coolness.
 The water in the pitcher remains cool due to evaporation.
 The dog sticks out its tongue to control its temperature.
 When impurities are added to water, its boiling point increases while its freezing point decreases.
 In a pressure cooker, the boiling point of water increases due to pressure. Due to which the food
gets cooked quickly.
 Atmospheric pressure is less on the mountains, due to which the boiling point of water
decreases, due to which food gets cooked late.
 When an iron plate is heated, its hole will increase.
 The atmospheric temperature drops after snowfall.
 The shivering of teeth on eating ice cream is more severe than on drinking cold water.
 Dogs dothe process of evaporation by sticking out their tongue because they do not
sweat.

Light
 It is an electromagnetic wave.
 No medium is required for their motion.
 These are transverse waves.
 The speed of light in vacuum is 3×108 m/sec, which was calculated by Roemer in 1676.
 As the density of the medium increases, the speed of light decreases.

Properties of light
1. Reflection of light
 When a light ray traveling through a medium is incident on a boundary (a boundary separating
two mediums) and comes back to the same medium

Refraction
 When a ray of light enters from one medium to another, it deviates from its path, which is called
refraction.

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 If a ray of light enters a more dense medium (water) from a less dense medium (air), it bends
towards the normal.
 Twinkling of stars, visibility of sun before sunrise, visibility of a coin placed in water nearby are
examples of refraction.
 During refraction its frequency does not change whereas velocity and wavelength change.

Critical Angle
 If a light ray is sent from a denser to a rarer medium and the angle of incidence is kept such that
the angle of refraction becomes 90degree, then this angle of incidence is called critical angle.
total internal reflection

 If the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, then all the light returns to the denser
medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
 Such as- shining of diamond, mirage, optical fiber, endoscopy

Real And Virtual Images

 If after reflection or refraction the light rays actually meet at some point, then a real image is
formed, and if they appear to meet, then a virtual image is formed.
Plane Mirror
 Focus distance – infinity
 A plane mirror forms a virtual and erect image at the same distance as the object but with
opposite sides.
 When an object moves towards a plane mirror (or away from a plane mirror), its image also
moves towards (or away from) the mirror, but the relative speed of the image with respect to the
object is 2u. it occurs.
 When a plane mirror moves with speed u towards a stationary object, the image moves with
speed 2u.
 For a person of height u to see his full image, the length of the plane mirror should be at least
h/2.

Character Distortion
 The separation of white light into its component colors is called dispersion of light.
 Red color has the least deviation and violet color has the highest deviation.

Scattering Of Light
 The molecules of the medium absorb the incident light radiations and emit them in all directions
e.g.
1. Light appears blue.
2. It appears red at the time of sunrise and sunset.
3. Danger signs are made of red colour.

Interference

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 When two light waves of the same frequency and approximately the same amplitude travel
together in the same direction in a medium, then according to the principle of superposition they
form a resultant wave.
 The amplitude of the resultant wave is different from the amplitude of the original waves
 Due to this, colorless soap bubbles appear colorful in sunlight.

Types Of Interference
a. constructive interference
b. Destructive interference.
 constructive interference
 At the point of the medium where both the waves meet in the same phase, that is, the peaks or
troughs of both the waves fall together, at that point both the waves enhance the effect of each
other, hence the resulting intensity of light is maximum.
 This type of interference is called constructive or constructive interference.

Destructive Interference
 The point in the medium at which waves meet in opposite phases
 That is, the peak of one wave falls on the trough of another wave or the peak of another wave
falls on the trough of one wave, at that point both the waves cancel each other's effect.
 Hence the resultant intensity of light at that point is minimum or zero.
 This type of interference is called destructive interference.

Rainbow
 Rainbow is formed due to dispersion of light and total internal reflection by water droplets
present in the atmosphere.
 Rainbow is always formed in the opposite direction of the Sun.

1. Primary Rainbow
 There are two refractions and one total internal reflection.
 The innermost arc is purple and the outer one is red.
 It is more shiny.

2. Secondary Rainbow
 Two refractions and two total internal reflections
 The innermost arc is red and the outermost is purple.
 It is less shiny.

Primary Colours
 Out of the 7 colors of light, red, blue and green are called primary colors, because by mixing them
other colors can be obtained.
Secondary Color
 The colors obtained by mixing primary colors are called secondary colors.
complementary colors

 Two colors which when mixed to get white color are called complementary colors.
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 Note:- When a light ray passes from one medium to another, its velocity, wavelength and color
change, but the frequency does not change.

Convex Mirror
Position of object – at infinity

 Image position – at focus

 Nature of image – virtual and erect
 Image size – smaller in size than the object

Position of the object - between infinity and the pole

 Position of image – between focus and pole

 Nature of image – virtual and erect
 Image size – smaller in size than the object

Uses of convex mirror

 In the side mirror.
 In the street lamps.


Concave Mirror
1. Position of object - at infinity

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 Image position – at focus (F)

 Nature of image – real and inverted
 Image size – very small
2. Position of the object - between infinity and center of curvature

 Position of the image - between focus (F) and center of curvature (C)
 Nature of image – real and inverted
 Image size – smaller than the object

1- Position of the object - at the center of curvature

 Position of the image – at the center of curvature (C)

 Nature of image – real and inverted
 Image size - same as object

2- Position of the object - between the center of curvature and the focus.

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 Position of the image - between the center of curvature (C) and infinity.
 Nature of image – real and inverted
 Image size – larger in size than the object

3- Object position - on focus

 Position of image – at infinity

 Nature of image – real and inverted
 Image size – larger in size than the object

4- Position of the object – between the focus and the pole.

 Image position – behind the mirror

 Nature of image – virtual and erect
 Image size – larger in size than the object

Uses of concave mirror

1. In making shavings.
2. In making car headlights.
3. In vision defects of ENT.
4. In myopia.
5. In reflecting telescope.
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 Physics

Mirror Formula
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇

Marking convention for spherical mirrors

Measurement Concave mirror Convex mirror
Distance of object Negative Negative
Real image distance Positive Negative
Virtual image distance Negative Negative
Focus distance Positive Negative
Height of object Negative
Height of inverted and real images Positive Positive

 In a microscope, the focal length and aperture of the eyepiece lens are large, whereas the focal
length and aperture of the objective lens are small, while the length of the tube should be more.
Telescope
 In a telescope, the focal length of the eyepiece lens should be short while the focal length of the
objective lens should be long.
𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
 Power of lens = =
𝒇(𝒎) 𝒇(𝒄𝒎)
 The power of the lens is measured in diopters. The power of the human eye is 60 diopters, out of
which the power of the lens is 20D.

 If the lens is immersed in a medium with higher refractive index, its nature changes.
 For example - air bubble is a convex lens but when immersed in water it acts like a concave lens.

Dual Nature Of Light

 Huygen had proved that light is a wave. Later Albert Einstein suggested that maybe light wasn't
exactly a wave or a particle. Maybe light was both. Albert Einstein's theory is known as the
wave-particle duality of light, and is now fully accepted by modern scientists.
 Wave – Interference, Diffraction, Polarization(transverse only)
 Particle- photoelectric effect, Compton effect

Magnet
 Natural magnet is Fe3O4.
 When a natural magnet is hung freely in a horizontal plane, it always falls in the north-south
direction.
 The direction of the magnetic field is from north to south.
 The Earth's geographic North Pole lies near the Earth's magnetic South Pole.
 The Earth's geographic south pole lies near the Earth's magnetic north pole.
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 Physics

Magnetic Lines Of Force

 It originates from the North Pole and enters the South Pole and after passing through the
magnet again returns to the North Pole and forms a closed curve.
 Two lines of force never intersect each other
 Where the lines of force are close together the magnetic field is stronger.
 The lines of force of a uniform magnetic field are parallel and at equal distances from each
other.
Domain
 Every magnet is a collection of innumerable atoms
 Each atom is a complete magnet in itself. This group is called a domain.

Types Of Magnetic Materials

diamagnetic
 substances in which electrons remain in pairs
 These repel magnetic substances.
 Ex. Gold, Silver, Zinc, Bismuth, Antimony, Salt.

Paramagnetic
 They attract magnetic substances weakly but upon cooling they turn ferromagnetic.
 Like aluminium, manganese, platinum, sodium, oxygen.

ferromagnetic

 These attract magnetic materials rapidly but turn into paramagnetic when heated.
 Ex. Iron, cobalt, nickel etc.
 Permanent magnets are made of this.

Faraday's Law Of Magnetic Induction

 The total number of magnetic lines of force is called magnetic flux.
 Its unit is Weber.
 The flux per unit area is called flux density which is measured in Tesla.
 According to Faraday's law, electromotive force is generated when flux changes with time.

Transformer
 It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction which converts high AC voltage to low AC
voltage (mobile) and low AC voltage to high AC voltage.
 It is used only for alternating current
 Its core is made of soft or cast iron so that hysteresis loss is less.
 The core is made thin so that eddy currents do not occur.
 Permanent magnets are made of steel while temporary magnets are made of soft iron.
 Through compass we can find out the polarity of the magnet, the direction of the magnetic field
and the magnetic north-south direction but we cannot find out the strength of the magnet.
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 Physics

 The third pole of the magnet is called the resultant pole.

 Steel is difficult to magnetize due to its high holding capacity.

Curie Temperature
 The temperature at which a ferromagnetic material changes into a paramagnetic material.
 The Curie temperature for nickel is 3580c while that for iron is 7700c.

Battery
Primary battery
 It can be used only once.
Dry Cell
 anode of zinc and cathode of carbon or graphite
 Lacanche cell:- Anode of zinc, cathode of carbon and solution of ammonium chloride.
 Daniell Cell:- Sulfuric acid solution, copper sulphate solution and zinc electrode.

Secondary Cell:- These batteries can be reused
 lead sulfuric acid battery
 Zinc Bromine Battery.

Mechanical Properties Of Solids

 Deforming force
 external force that changes the shape or size of an object

Elasticity
 The property of a material due to which a body tries to regain its initial shape and size after the
deforming force is removed, is called elasticity.
 Its opposite quality is called plasticity.
 Quartz and phosphor bronze are almost completely elastic substances, whereas paraffin wax and
wet clay are almost completely plastic substances.

Stress
 After an object undergoes deformation, a force arises between its molecules, working to return
the object to its original state. This force, measured per unit area, is known as stress.

Hooke's Law
 Stress is proportional to strain

 Coefficient of elasticity
 Ratio of stress and strain

Pressure
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 Physics

Weight
 The weight of an object is the force by which it is attracted towards the earth.
 weight¼w½  m  g
 Answer: Mass of the body (or object)
 gravitational acceleration
 The standard unit of weight is Newton-kg.
Pressure
 The force applied on a unit area of an object is called pressure.
(F )
 Pressure 
( A)
 The standard unit for measuring pressure is Pascal.

Example
1. A person trapped in a swamp is advised to lie down. Due to which there is less pressure
downwards.
2. Nails are sharp so that they sink into the wood easily.
3. High heels leave deeper marks in the sand. When a force acts on a large area of an object, it
produces less pressure, but if the same force acts on a small area of the object, it produces
more pressure.
4. Tires of heavy vehicles are made wide. Due to which there is less pressure on the tire due to
more area.
5. The nail is made pointed because due to the small area of the tip, it exerts more pressure and
the nail easily sinks into the wall.

Mechanical Properties Of Liquids

Density
 The ratio of mass and volume of a substance is called its density.
 It is a vector quantity.
 The density of water is maximum at 4 degrees Celsius.
 The density of water is higher than that of ice, hence ice is lighter.
 If the density of any body situated in a liquid and that of the liquid is the same, then that body
will completely sink in that liquid and will float.
 If the density of a body is less than the density of the liquid, then that body will sink and float
undisturbed in that liquid.
 If the density of the body is more than the density of the liquid then it will sink in that liquid.
 The density of sea water is high, hence it is easy to swim.
 1/10th part of ice floating in water remains outside the water.
 Even after ice floating in a vessel filled with water completely melts and mixes, the level of water
remains the same.
 Lactometer is used to measure the purity of milk.
 When ice melts in a vessel, the level of water in the vessel remains the same as before.
 Due to the high density of sea water, it is easy to swim in it.
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Relative Density
 The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water at 4 degrees Celsius is called the
relative density of the substance.
Pascal’s Law
 In the state of equilibrium, the pressure is equal at every point inside the fluid.
 The force applied on any part of the liquid enclosed in a vessel is transmitted by the liquid in
equal magnitude in all directions.
 The shape of the vessel does not affect the pressure of the liquid.
 Hydraulic, press, hydraulic brake and hydraulic lift are based on this rule.
 As we go above the earth's surface, atmospheric pressure decreases.

Example
 There is problem in cooking food in the mountains due to low pressure.
 Ink leaks from the fountain pen of a passenger sitting in an aeroplane.
 Nose bleeding at high altitude is also a result of decrease in atmospheric pressure.
 A sudden drop of mercury in the barometer indicates the arrival of a storm. When the mercury
slowly falls, it indicates rain.
 Increase in the height of the mercury column indicates clear weather.
 The pressure exerted by a fluid increases with depth and acts in all directions.

Buoyant Force
 The property of a liquid due to which it exerts an upward force on objects is called buoyant force.
 When an object is immersed in a liquid, its gravitational force acts downwards and buoyancy
force acts upward.
 For example, in a wooden block there is an upward force, in an iron nail there is a downward
buoyancy force due to which the nail sinks.

Archimedes' Principle
 When an object is completely or partially immersed in a liquid, there appears to be some
reduction in its weight.
 This reduction is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by that object.

Applications Of Archimedes' Principle

 1. The relative density of a substance is determined by using Archimedes' principle.
 2. Hydrometers used to determine the density of liquids are based on Archimedes' principle.
 3. Lactometers used to determine the purity of milk are based on Archimedes' principle.
 4. Archimedes' principle is used in designing ships and submarines.

Law Of Flotation
 When floating in a balanced state, an object displaces fluid equal to its weight.

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 If the weight of an object is less than the weight of the fluid it displaces, it will float, otherwise it
will sink.
 In this state the apparent weight of the object will be zero.

Surface Tension
 From the spherical shape of the liquid drops it follows that the liquid has a tendency to minimize
its surface area.Therefore, there is a type of tension on the surface of the liquid which is called
'surface tension'.
 Its unit is Newton/meter.
 When the temperature of a liquid is increased, its surface tension decreases.

Effects Of Surface Tension
 Insects called pond skates move easily on the surface of water.
 To kill mosquito larvae, pouring kerosene on water reduces the surface tension of water and the
mosquito larvae drown and die.
 The bubbles of soap solution are big.
 Clothes get cleaned well in hot water because surface tension is reduced by adding soap and
heating the water.
 To calm the waves of the sea, oil is poured on them.

Effect On Surface Tension

 If there is dust or grease on the surface of water, the surface tension decreases and when salt is
added, the surface tension increases.

Cohesive Force
 All substances are made up of molecules. They are connected to each other because of attraction.
This force of attraction is called cohesive force.
 The value of cohesive force in gases is negligible.
 On increasing the temperature, the value of cohesive force decreases and its surface tension
decreases.

Adhesive Force
 The adhesive force between different molecules is called. Water wets any object due to adhesive
force.
 Due to this force, letters emerge when written with chalk on the blackboard.
 Water soaks the vessel.
 Writing is possible when the adhesive force between ink and paper is greater than the adhesive
force of ink.

Capillarity
 The process of liquid rising or falling in a capillary is called cellularity.
 This phenomenon of rising and falling of liquid in the capillary tube occurs due to surface tension.
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Example
 Kerosene rises up in the wick of a lantern or lamp due to capillarity.
 After the rain, farmers plow their fields so that the capillaries in the soil get broken and moisture
remains in the soil.
 Coffee powder dissolves quickly in water
 Reach of water and essential salts to the branches, stems and leaves of trees and plants.
 Absorption of ink by blotting.
 Rising of underground water.
 But the spread of water drops on cotton cloth does not occur due to capillarity.

Viscosity
 Viscosity is that property of a liquid, due to which it opposes the relative motion occurring in its
different layers.
 The viscosity of water is greater than that of air, that is why we cannot run as fast in water as we
can in air.
 Viscosity is a property of liquids and gases only.
 On increasing the temperature the viscosity of liquids decreases but increases in gases.

Bernoulli’s theorem
 When an ideal fluid flows in a 'streamline' flow in a tube, then at every point of its path the total
energy of its volume i.e. pressure energy, kinetic energy and velocity of potential energy remains
constant.

Applications of Bernoulli's theorem

 Venturimeter is used to determine the rate of flow of liquid in a tube.
 Tin roofs blow away during strong storms because the pressure above the roof reduces due to
strong wind while there is no change in the pressure inside.
 One should stand away from the tracks on the platform because when the train comes fast, the
pressure between the person and the train reduces, due to which there is a risk of falling towards
the train.
 Bernoulli's theorem is used in making airplane wings which help in lifting the ship.
 Flowing water always remains calm.
 Paint-gun is based on Bernoulli Seebeck effect.
 There is attraction between buses moving in the same direction.

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