CIRIA C761 London, 2018

Tower crane foundation

and tie design
T Watson Independent consultant
S Marchand Wentworth House Partnership

Griffin Court, 15 Long Lane, London, EC1A 9PN

Tel: 020 7549 3300 Fax: 020 7549 3349
Email: [email protected] Website: www.ciria.org
Summary

This guide is intended to promote the safe design and construction of foundations for tower cranes
through an improved understanding of temporary works design and health and safety issues.

Tower cranes are a vital element in the construction process. There are around 1500 tower cranes in the
UK and at any time around 1000 are in use. Tower cranes are often in use on construction sites in urban
areas and, although rare in the UK, any collapse of the crane is likely to result in injury to members of the
public outside the boundaries of the site as well as those working inside the site. Collapse of tower cranes
also presents a risk to adjacent railways and roads. There is a risk of a catastrophic event occurring.

The initial sections of the guide are aimed at those who need to understand the issues related to the safe
use of tower cranes (eg planners, architects, permanent works engineers and site supervisors). It also
highlights key situations where a specialist should be consulted.

Specific guidance for designers of temporary works involving tower cranes is given. Issues include the
understanding of wind effects, other loading and support considerations, factors of safety and design of
foundations (eg example calculations for typical situations).

This guide aims to bring together important practical and design issues that affect health and safety
and to present a current understanding of good practice based on the experience of a wide cross-section
of the industry. Readers of this guide may also wish to refer to the Lifting Operations and Lifting
Equipment Regulations (LOLER) 1998, HSE (2014), BS 7121-5:2006 and Lloyd (2003).

Tower crane foundation and tie design

Watson, T, Marchand, S

CIRIA

C761 RP999 © CIRIA 2018 ISBN: 978-0-86017-776-0

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record is available for this book from the British Library

Keywords
Construction process, ground engineering, health and safety, planning, temporary works design and construction
Reader interest Classification
Design and construction of tower Availability Unrestricted
cranes, temporary works design, Content Advice/guidance
health and safety
Status Committee-guided
User Temporary and permanent works engineers, site managers and
supervisors, geotechnical engineers, architects, planners

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information on the subject matter covered. It is sold and/or
distributed with the understanding that neither the authors nor the publisher is thereby engaged in rendering a specific legal or any
other professional service. While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the publication, no warranty
or fitness is provided or implied, and the authors and publisher shall have neither liability nor responsibility to any person or entity
with respect to any loss or damage arising from its use.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying
and recording, without the written permission of the copyright holder, application for which should be addressed to the publisher. Such
written permission must also be obtained before any part of this publication is stored in a retrieval system of any nature.
If you would like to reproduce any of the figures, text or technical information from this or any other CIRIA publication for use in
other documents or publications, please contact CIRIA publishing for more details on copyright terms and charges at: publishing@
ciria.org, Tel: 020 7549 3300.

ii CIRIA, C761
Acknowledgements

This guide has been produced by CIRIA as a result of Research Project (RP) 999 and has been written
by Tim Watson and Stuart Marchand. This guide supersedes CIRIA C654 Tower crane stability, published
in 2006.

Authors
Tim Watson BTech CEng MIMechE
Tim is an independent engineering consultant, specialising in cranes, hoists and powered access. He
previously worked for the Laing Group for 33 years, and was engineering director of Laing Plant until
he left in 2001. Tim has written many crane-related industry standards and guidance publications in his
role as technical consultant at the Construction Plant-hire Association (CPA). His work on this guide has
been supported both technically and financially by the CPA’s tower crane interest group.

Stuart Marchand MA(Cantab) FICE FIStructE

Stuart is managing director of Wentworth House Partnership, which he set up in 1999 as a specialist
temporary works consultancy and has built up to a complement of 29 staff. He previously worked within
Costain Construction’s temporary works department having spent the majority of his first eight years
of experience in civil engineering on road and bridge construction, finishing on the Thames Barrier.
Stuart became chief engineer at Costain in 1991 and was involved in many major developments with
deep basements and façade retention schemes. He has published several papers on deep basement
construction, was on the project steering group (PSG) for CIRIA C579 (2003) the PSG for MPA-The
Concrete Centre’s Concrete basements (2012) and acts as an expert witness on temporary works and
construction issues. His work on this paper has been supported both financially and technically by
Wentworth House Partnership.

Project steering group

Following CIRIA’s tradition of collaboration, the work was guided by a project steering group (PSG) of
experts involved or with an interest in the planning and management of tower crane use, and related
health and safety issues and mitigation. CIRIA would like to express its thanks to all members of the
PSG for their helpful and valued comments and advice throughout the project.

The PSG for the updating work comprised:

Syd Appleyard Select Plant

Paul Blackmore Building Research Establishment
Mark Blundy Bowmer and Kirkland
Mark Creighton Galliford Try
Kim Dandridge Potain
Mick Donovan Bowmer and Kirkland
Doug Genge Falcon Crane Hire
Charles Goodchild MPA – The Concrete Centre
Craig Hook Sir Robert McAlpine
Bernard Holman HTC Plant
Nick Hurrell Falcon Crane Hire
Tim Lohmann Wentworth House Partnership

Tower crane foundation and tie design iii

Alan Miles Costain
Andrew Rattray Health and Safety Executive
Ian Simpson Health and Safety Executive
Hilary Skinner Donaldson Associates
David Thomas Temporary Works Forum
Gavin Wilson Select Plant

CIRIA project team

Kieran Tully Project director
Alan Gilbertson Project manager
Lee Kelly Project manager
Clare Drake Publishing manager

Project funders
Bowmer and Kirkland Ltd

Falcon Crane Hire Ltd

HTC Plant Ltd

Select Plant Hire Company Ltd

Other contributions
The authors would like to thank HTC Plant Ltd and Mace who have provided images for the guide, and
Dr Hitesh Halai and Brett McKinley of City, University of London, and Paul Trewavas for their helpful
comments and suggestions during the editing process.

Members of the PSG provided guidance and assistance throughout the project.

Syd Appleyard and Mick Donovan sadly passed away during the update.

While not part of the PSG, significant assistance was also received from the Steel Construction Institute
and Christoph Eiwan of Liebherr. Charles Goodchild, Craig Hook, Tim Lohmann and Hilary Skinner
in particular provided valuable help.

iv CIRIA, C761
Contents

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Abbreviations and acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Causes of failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Erection, climbing or dismantling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Overload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3 High wind loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.4 Structural failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.5 Load failures or impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.6 Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.7 Overhead power lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Health and safety legislation, standards and guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Catastrophic events in construction – factors to consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Loads applied to the foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Loading information from manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Obtaining information where the crane manufacturer is no longer in existence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Partial factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Regulation and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5.1 Principles of factors recommended in this guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5.2 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5.3 Structural members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Influence of siting on design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.7.1 Foundation selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.7.2 Site investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.3 Foundation design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.4 Tower cranes mounted on the building core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.8 Lightning protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.9 Tying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.9.1 Types of tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.9.2 Internally climbing tower cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.10 Guying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.11 Erection, climbing and dismantling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 Managing the design, construction and maintenance of foundations and ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.1 Design checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4 Foundation construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.5 Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.6 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.7 Maintenance and thorough examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.8 Reconfiguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.9 Dismantling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.10 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.11 Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Tower crane foundation and tie design v

4 Foundation and tie inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.1Pre-erection inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2Initial thorough examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3Regular foundation monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3.1 Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3.2 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3.3 Deformation of foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3.4 Daily checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3.5 Weekly inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3.6 Thorough examination of tower cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
A1 Tower crane types and features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
A2 Loading and structural elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
A2.1 Information supplied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
A2.3 Design of temporary structures (ties and anchors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
A2.3.1 Design of ties and their fixings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
A2.3.2 Design and manufacture of bespoke tie components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
A2.3.3 Tie installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
A2.3.4 Foundation anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
A2.4 High tensile fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
A3 Foundations (including worked examples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
A3.1 Site investigation and determination of ground parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
A3.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
A3.2.1 Design assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
A3.2.2 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
A3.2.3 Partial factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
A3.2.4 Foundation construction issues pertaining to design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
A3.3 Design of typical bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Worked examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Example 1 Cruciform on unreinforced pad footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Example 2A Reinforced concrete square gravity base in sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Example 2B Reinforced concrete square gravity base in stiff clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Example 3 Piled square base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Example 4 RC beams for a rail-mounted tower crane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Example 5 Steel grillage on building core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Example 6 Plunge column foundations to cruciform base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
A4 Foundation construction issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
A4.1 Checks for a reinforced concrete base on piles and the building core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
A4.2 Steel tower crane foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
A5 Loads on tower cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A5.1 Structural loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A5.2 Wind loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A5.3 Determining wind loads on cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A5.4 Effects of nearby buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
A5.5 Site-specific reference wind speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
A5.6 In-service loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
A5.7 Out-of-service loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
A5.8 Other loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
A5.9 Ice and snow loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
A6 Combined foundation design and completion certificate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Statutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Case studies
Case study 2.1 Tower crane foundation designers require appropriate experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Case study 3.1 Need for early communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Case study 3.2 Effects of shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

vi CIRIA, C761
Case study 3.3 Importance of early planning for dismantling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Case study 4.4 The importance of retaining the cube from the base concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Case study A2.1 Planning for tie loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Figures
Figure 1.1 Tower crane erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 1.2 Nearby hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Figure 2.1 Loading applied to tower crane foundation on cast-in anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 2.2 Loading applied to tower crane foundations on ballasted cruciform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 2.3 Design issues relating to crane siting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 2.4 Typical tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 2.5 Proprietary tie system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 2.6 Restraining tie for crane tower passing through slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 2.7 Typical internal climbing sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 4.1 Tower crane foundation pre-erection inspection report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Figure A1.1 Basic types of tower crane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure A2.1 Typical tie loads and reaction forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Figure A2.2 Main types of foundation anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Figure A2.3 Foundation anchor setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Figure A2.4 Bolt grip length and diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure A3.1 Loading applied to base by a tower crane on cast-in anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure A5.1 Nearby buildings can alter wind speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Tables
Table 1.1 Factors tending towards or away from events with catastrophic potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Table 2.1 Checklist for crane loading information required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Table 2.2 Types of foundations and fixings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Table 3.1 Base and tie design and construction responsibility assignment matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Table 3.2 Categories of design check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 4.1 Pre-erection inspection checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Table 4.2 Foundation monitoring checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table A1.1 Tower crane types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Table A3.1 EQU limit state applied to stability of tower crane gravity base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Table A3.2 Partial factors for GEO/STR combinations 1 and 2 where loads supplied do not include second order
and dynamic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Table A3.3 Partial factors for GEO/STR combinations 1 and 2 where loads supplied do include second order and
dynamic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Tower crane foundation and tie design vii

Glossary

Appointed person Person with the training, practical and theoretical knowledge and experience
required to comply with clause 3.3 of BS 7121-1:2016.
Competent person Person who has such practical and theoretical knowledge and such experience of
the crane, the equipment used in the lifting operation, the design of supporting
structures and other related tasks as is necessary to carry out the function to which
the term relates in each particular context.
Cruciform A steel structure, normally in a cruciform shape, carrying loads from the tower
crane mast out to concrete pad footings.
Equilibrium Loss of static equilibrium of the structure or any part of it considered as a rigid
body, where:
„„ minor variations in the value or the spatial distribution of permanent actions
from a single source are significant
„„ the strengths of construction materials or ground are generally not governing.

Eurocodes Eurocodes are supported by a suite of testing and execution standards covering site
practice that become requirements when they are published.
Fatigue Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members.
Foundation anchor An embedded fixing between a tower crane and its foundation.
Geotechnical Failure or excessive deformation of the ground where the strengths of soil or rock
are significant in providing resistance.
Hydraulic heave Internal erosion and piping in the ground caused by hydraulic gradients.
Owner The company, firm or person owning the crane for their use or letting the plant out
on hire.
Permanent works Competent person with responsibility for the design of permanent works.
designer
Principal contractor A contractor appointed by the client to control the construction phase of any project
involving more than one contractor (CDM2015).
Principal designer A designer who is an organisation or individual (on smaller projects) appointed
by the client to manage and monitor the design stages (including design changes
and modifications) of a construction project from concept to completion to
ensure that relevant health and safety risks are properly identified, considered
and controlled (CDM2015).
Reconfiguration A change in the crane configuration after the crane has been installed (for example
raising the crane height or altering the jib length).
Second-order effects These result from the deflection of structures under load and increase the
deflections, moments and forces beyond those calculated by first-order analysis.
Strength Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or structural members,
including footings, piles, basement walls etc, where the strength of construction
materials of the structure governs.
Temporary works Competent person with responsibility for the co-ordination of all activities related
co-ordinator to the temporary works (BS 5975:2008+A1:2011).
Temporary works Competent person with responsibility for the design of temporary works (BS 5975:
designer 2008+A1:2011).

viii CIRIA, C761

Tie fixing A fixing between a tie and the supporting structure.
Tower Vertical element of a tower crane structure.
Uplift Loss of equilibrium of the structure or the ground due to uplift by water pressure
(buoyancy) or other vertical actions.
User The organisation, corporation, person or public authority owning and using the
crane or taking the owner’s plant on hire and using it.
Weathervane The ability of a tower crane to slew freely when out of service and align itself with the
wind blowing from the rear of the crane, which presents a minimum area to the wind.

Tower crane foundation and tie design ix

Abbreviations and acronyms

BS EN British version of standard issued by CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation) the

European committee for standardisation
CE European Conformity (Conformité Européene)
c/l Centre line
CONIAC Construction Industry Advisory Committee
DA Design approach
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung (German standards body)
EC Eurocode
EQU Equilibrium
FAT Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members
FAV Favourable
FEM Fédération Européenne de la Manutention (European organisation of material handling
suppliers)
FoS Factor of safety
GGBFS ground-granulated blast-furnace slag
GEO Geotechnical
HYD Hydraulic heave
INS In-service
NA National Annex
NCCI Non contradictory complementary information
NDT Non-destructive testing
OOS Out-of-service
P Permanent
PC Principal contractor
PD Principal designer
prEN Draft CEN standard
PWD Permanent works designer
RC Reinforced concrete
SI Site investigation
SLS Serviceability limit state
STR Strength class
TC Tower crane
TWC Temporary works co-ordinator
TWD Temporary works designer
UB Universal beam
ULS Ultimate limit state
UNF Unfavourable
UPL Uplift
UPS Uninterrupted power source
V Variable

x CIRIA, C761
Notation

While the authors have endeavoured to include most of the common notation in this section, not all notation
has been provided especially partial factors because of the extensive use of them throughout the guide.

e Eccentricity
d Effective depth of base

d
Design (ultimate)

er
Erection
F Vertical load from tower crane including permanent, variable etc loads
h Overall depth of base
H Horizontal load from tower crane including wind, dynamic effects etc

k
Characteristic
L Length of side of pad base or pile cap (see Worked examples 1 and 2)
Length of ‘nominal pad base’ for rail-mounted bogie (see Worked example 3)
M Moment from tower crane
Ω Ohm (unit of electrical resistance)
s Spacing of piles
T Torque moment from tower crane

TC
Tower crane (where required)
Ψ Factor for combination value of a variable action
γF Partial factor for actions, also accounting for model uncertainties and dimensional variations

Tower crane foundation and tie design xi

xii CIRIA, C761
1 Introduction

This guide provides information to all those:

„„ involved in the planning and management of tower crane use
„„ designing and constructing temporary works for tower cranes.

It has been revised to take account of the Eurocodes and the tower crane design standard BS EN 14439:
2006+A2:2009, together with the revision of the BS 7121 series on installation, maintenance, inspection,
examination and use of tower cranes. Foundation design examples that relate to the Eurocodes are
included.

While this guide articulates good practice based on the experience of a wide cross-section of the
industry, it does not deal with daily lifting operations. Its remit is limited to temporary works design and
the interface with the permanent works, taking account of the process of planning, communicating and
managing the use of tower cranes.

1.1 CAUSES OF FAILURE

Tower crane collapses are rare however accidents and near misses do occur. Generally these result from
events (singly or in combination) that are not anticipated, events or actions that cause unexpected loads,
or from errors during foundation/tie construction, erection, use or dismantling. Failures of any part of
the crane or load carrying systems may cause serious accidents, which may involve the crane operators,
other site workers and the public. Some tower crane collapses are attributable to errors in design and
workmanship of the crane foundation. Crane collapses, from whatever cause, may be sufficiently serious
to be referred to as ‘catastrophic events’ and are explained in HSE (2011) and Gilbertson et al (2011). The
Construction Industry Advisory Committee (CONIAC) has produced guidance on the factors determining
catastrophic potential. A version of this guidance focusing on tower cranes is given in Table 1.1.

1.2 HAZARDS
Operations that involve erection, reconfiguring and dismantling cranes are particularly hazardous.
When a crane is in use, poor operation or failure of warning devices or structural members are most
likely to result in a serious incident.

All workers involved in specifying, procuring, planning, erecting and operating tower cranes, as well as
those on site around it, should understand the major hazards associated with their safe use and stability.

Some safety critical devices may require a tower crane to have an uninterrupted power source (UPS) and
this must be taken into account early in the planning.

The hazards described in the following sub-sections are not exhaustive. Further hazards may
be identified by a site-specific risk assessment. See Appendix A4 for risks relating to foundation
construction.
Notes
It is vital that site workers carrying out the erection, reconfiguration, use and dismantling of tower cranes have the
necessary knowledge, skills and experience to ensure competence.
The particular hazards associated with tower cranes alongside railways are addressed in CPA (2014a).

Tower crane foundation and tie design 1

Figure 1.1 Tower crane erection

1.2.1 Erection, climbing or

dismantling
Failure of cranes during these critical operations
is the most common cause of tower crane related
fatal accidents in the UK. The weather conditions
under which these operations can be carried out, in
particular relating to maximum wind speed, must
be adhered to (and for this the wind speed should
be assessed at a suitable location, see BS 7121-
1:2016). During these operations, the crane cannot
be used for lifting.

Crane components may be lifted by a second crane (Figure 1.1) and may be in an inherently unstable
condition until properly bolted together or when unbolted and disassembled. The correct sequence of
component assembly or dismantling is vital to ensure that the part-completed crane remains stable.

Climbing a tower (increasing its height) using an external frame involves particular hazards relating to
the carrying of an unbalanced load during the operation. These hazards are described in a HSE (2003)
discussion paper.

1.2.2 Overload
The use of rated capacity indicators or limiters has reduced cases of overload. However, the structure of
the crane and its stability can be impaired when loads are lifted that are in excess of the rated capacity
at the given radius, or are inappropriate in the wind conditions or for the crane configuration, such as
lifting objects with a large wind area/mass ratio. So it is vital that all lifts are covered by a lifting plan and
that such activities are controlled by an appointed person (BS 7121-1:2016).

1.2.3 High wind loads

The crane structure and any load are both subject to wind forces. Loads in excess of design can impair
the stability of the crane. For example advertising banners fixed to cranes can add significantly to the
jib wind loading and may change the ratio of jib to counter-jib wind areas. This reduces or prevents the
crane’s ability to present a minimum wind area in the out-of-service (OOS) condition.

It is important that luffing jib tower cranes are left OOS at a radius not less than that specified by the
manufacturer, unless they have allowed a smaller radius in specified circumstances. For saddle jib tower
cranes the trolley should be parked at the jib foot. For both types of crane, loads should not be left
attached to the hook block.

2 CIRIA, C761
1.2.4 Structural failure
Tower crane collapse could be caused by the failure of elements of the structure and its foundations.
For example:
„„ The tower crane foundation not being correctly designed or errors made during the foundation
construction.
„„ Incorrect assembly of the tower crane.
„„ The tower crane being subjected to overloading, either through exceeding the rated capacity or
storm wind load.
„„ Issues with manufacturing quality of the tower crane.
„„ Fatigue damage. According to standard classification, tower cranes are generally designed for
moderate use according to typical construction work. Fatigue failure can happen in less than a year if
a brand new tower crane lifts at or near its rated capacity with a very high frequency (see CPA, 2014b).

It is important that the magnitude and frequency that loads will be lifted is established at the planning
stage to assist selection of a suitable crane.

1.2.5 Load failures or impact

Although not related to tower crane stability, a significant number of injuries have been caused by
loads either slipping or lifting accessories failing, resulting in the load falling to the ground or into
the structures under construction. Other hazards are related to poor control of the load during lifting
and moving such that it may hit workers or structures. A crane could be damaged or have its stability
impaired by the resulting sudden change in loading or by the impact of a falling load.

1.2.6 Hazards
Tower crane collapses or failures have been caused by crane impacts with other cranes (Figure 1.2),
plant or buildings. It is critical that the crane’s operational procedures take into account the location of
hazards and that a safe choice of crane and system of work have been developed. It is important not to
rely on anti-collision systems alone to warn of a crane’s location in relation to other cranes and plant.
Zoning systems are a useful aid in preventing the load and/or parts of a tower crane from entering a
prohibited space or striking structures (see BS 7121-5:2006).

At the time of writing, a new European standard related to anti-collision and zoning system is under
preparation by a CEN/TC147 sub-commitee (CEN, in prep).

1.2.7 Overhead power lines

Collision with power lines is not a common cause of accidents involving tower cranes in the UK, but it
is critically important to place a crane such that both the crane and its loads avoid power lines, or to
ensure that, where possible, lines are powered down when lifting. There should be protection against
electrocution for the crane operator, slinger, signaller and other site workers.

Devices are available that are designed to be fitted on cranes to determine the presence and give
warning of overhead electric lines and cables. Such devices should not be used as a substitute for a safe
system of work and safe clearances as set out in HSE (2013).

1.3 HEALTH AND SAFETY LEGISLATION,

STANDARDS AND GUIDANCE
The hiring, erection, use and dismantling of tower cranes must be carried out to the requirements of UK
health and safety legislation. The responsibilities outlined in the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 and

Tower crane foundation and tie design 3

the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2015 (CDM 2015) provide the framework under
which cranes on construction sites must be operated. Standards and guidance provide information to
meet the requirements of the regulations. The Further reading section lists other regulations, standards
and guidance that apply to the management of plant operations, including ground conditions and
stability issues.

Other requirements, such as those applied by the rail network and operating companies, airports, ports,
underground railway or tram owners and operators, must also be adhered to where relevant.

1.4 CATASTROPHIC EVENTS IN CONSTRUCTION –

FACTORS TO CONSIDER
Catastrophic events are characterised by two
key features:
1 The low probability of their occurrence.
2 The potential or realised high level of
damage that can be caused when they do
occur.

It is both difficult and potentially over-

simplistic to provide a list of the types of events
that fall within or outside any given definition
of a catastrophic event. However, those involved
in construction need to be able to identify
those projects and activities where catastrophic
potential might exist, to ensure appropriate
risk management techniques ‘above and
beyond’ the normal systems are adopted to
manage risk. In general, consultation with an
asset owner will be required if the crane or
its load can collapse within four metres of the
asset boundary.

Engineered safety is the focus of engineering

and management skills on preventing
catastrophic incidents and near misses,
particularly the uncontrolled release of energy Figure 1.2 Nearby hazards
or dispersion of contaminants sufficient to cause
or risk significant harm. All sources of energy must be considered, even if not under the direct control of
the operational management, and must be considered throughout the project life cycle. The skills required
exceed those needed for managing workplace safety, and must embrace the ability to apply engineering
science in practice. Particular hazards to consider include structural stability and integrity, behaviour of
heavy moving objects including vehicles, electrical power isolation and containment, errant and unthinking
behaviour, fail safe design, redundancy and time-related degradation.

Table 1.1 sets out factors tending towards or away from events with catastrophic potential in order to
ensure attention and resources can be focused where they are most needed. A single factor may be
sufficient to indicate catastrophic potential but it may also arise from a combination of factors.

Ultimately, tower crane companies will have to make appropriate judgements and record significant
issues, for each project.

4 CIRIA, C761
Table 1.1 Factors tending towards or away from events with catastrophic potential (from Cross, 2013)

Factors tending towards Factors tending away

High potential energy within system: Limited potential energy in system:

„„ tower cranes liable to complete collapse. „„ none.
All potential energy released instantaneously: Potential energy could be released progressively:
„„ no early warning signs detectable before failure occurs „„ signs of distress or failure evident before collapse
„„ complete collapse of the structure is likely to occur „„ collapse likely to be restricted to only relatively
„„ energy release will be uncontrolled and unpredictable in small sections of building or structure
terms of distribution and direction. „„ energy release could occur in a predictable way.

Potential domino effect: Low potential domino effect:

„„ adjoining buildings, structures, services and transport „„ adjoining buildings, structures, services or
corridors transport corridors a considerable distance away
„„ plant and materials may be ejected as far as adjoining „„ any ejected plant or materials unlikely to reach
structures adjoining structures.
„„ inter-dependence of one structure on another.
High off-site casualty potential: Low off-site casualty potential:
„„ ejected plant or materials likely to breach site boundary. „„ crane sited away from densely populated areas
„„ crane close to major railway lines or high speed roads „„ no transport corridors close to site
„„ crane close to densely populated areas or buildings, eg in „„ ejected plant or materials likely to be contained
town or city centres. within site boundary.
„„ vulnerable groups close by, eg hospitals or schools.

Innovative materials/techniques involved: Standard materials and techniques involved:

„„ new materials being used or traditional materials being „„ traditional materials being used in traditional ways
used in new ways „„ structures of this type widely constructed
„„ structures of this type never previously constructed „„ standard construction methods employed
(internationally or by UK contractors)
„„ no last-minute changes.
„„ novel construction methods employed
„„ last-minute changes.

Poor escape options: Good escape options:

„„ limited means of escape for workers due to factors such as „„ alternative means of escape available for workers
restricted alternative means of escape, eg tunnels. „„ short distance to place of safety
„„ method of escape relatively slow, eg necessitating use „„ all workers can evacuate quickly
of limited capacity plant such as hoists or specialist
„„ escape possible on foot.
equipment, eg airlocks
„„ long distance to place of safety
„„ large numbers of workers might be required to evacuate
simultaneously.

Poor processes: Good processes:

„„ inadequate risk management „„ good risk management
„„ lack of independent checks and reviews „„ competent team
„„ inadequate time „„ adequate time to consider and implement
„„ lack of team competency. „„ suitable independent advice and review.

Tower crane foundation and tie design 5