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grammar S2

The document provides an overview of conditionals in English, detailing their definitions, structures, and types, including zero, first, second, third, and mixed conditionals. It explains the use of various conjunctions and expressions to form conditional sentences, as well as the differences between direct and reported speech. Additionally, it covers the formal aspects of reported speech and the importance of reporting verbs.

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26 views

grammar S2

The document provides an overview of conditionals in English, detailing their definitions, structures, and types, including zero, first, second, third, and mixed conditionals. It explains the use of various conjunctions and expressions to form conditional sentences, as well as the differences between direct and reported speech. Additionally, it covers the formal aspects of reported speech and the importance of reporting verbs.

Uploaded by

mohamedouzaga55
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Semester 2 Professor: belhorma sousd ‘Academic Year: 2022-2023 Conditionals A- Definition ° aaa alec ce * The if clause contains a proposition known as the condition, and the result clause contains 2 proposition stating what happens ifthe condition is fulfilled. There are several structures in English that we . call conditionals or if conditionals. The word "condition" means "situation or circumstance". *Conditions also express different degrees of reality. This means that If a particular condition is true, then a particular result happens. THE FORM OF CONDITIONALS - Accondition can be open or unreal. An open condition expresses something which may be true or become true. For example, you may say: If you join the library, you can borrow books. (You may join the library) An unreal condition expresses something which is not true or imaginary. For example: If you had arrived ten minutes later, we would have been closed. (You did not arrive later) > A condition can also be true: I'm tired. — Well, if you're tired, let’s have a rest. ~ While speaking about the conditionals, we often speak about the “if- clause” and the main clause. However, ‘If is not the only conjunction used to express a condition. 1. If and when If the doctor comes, can you let her in? (The doctor might come.) When the doctor comes, can let her in? (The doctor . . wil . Other Conjunctions are used to form the conditionals Td know what to do. (I can't see into the future.) But in some contexts, we can use either if or when: If When I restart the car, it makes a Sunny noise. 2. Short clauses + We can use a short clause with if but without a verb. + I'd like a room facing the street if (that is) possible. * If (vow are) in difficulty, ring this number. * For fs0 and if not: * Have you got transport? If not, I can give you a lift. 7 Devon want your money 0 work for you? Ifs0, you'll be interested in this 3. If..., then... After an if-clause, we can use shen in the main clause. *If the figures don't add up, (then) we must have made a mistake. *If no one else has requested the book, (then) you can renew it. 4. As long as, provided, ete. «+ Provided Providing (that) is litte formal. + NOTE: On condition that is formal + Weare willing 10 accept your offer on condition that payment is made within seven days + We canuse the adverbial in thar case (= if that isso) + ve lost my timetable. ~ Well, in that case I'll give you another one. + We can use the prepositions in case of and inthe event of. + Incase of dificult, rim (= ve wit Nr oe ‘any difficulty,...) The prepositions with, + With a bit more time, we could do 2 proper job. (~ If we had abit more time,..) + But forthe climate, Edinburgh would be a perfect place 10 lve. 5. What if and suppose/supposing *After a conditional clause with these expressions, there is often no main clause. * What if the tickets don't get here in time? + Suppose/Supposing there's nowhere to park? 6. Unless ~Unless means “if... not’ Were gong to havea perc des rains doe rain * Now can renew a book maless nother reader has requesed i. Unless you refnd my money, [shall ake ‘epal ecton. NOTE * The adverb otherwise means ‘if not. * You are obliged o refund my money. Otherwise | shall take legal action. * We can use and and or to express a condition, especially in informal speech. Touch me and scream. (2 Ifyou touch me, Vil scream) * Go-away oP scream. (= Uatess you go away, 11 scream) 7. In case * You should insure your belongings in case they get stolen. * (=... because they might get stoten.) * [took three novels on holiday im case | felt like dog some reading + We can use should. * Take a pill in case the crossing is rough/should be rough * Compare ifand itt case, * [draw some money out of the bank if I need it. * 1 draw some money out of the bank in case | need + (TL draw it out because 1 might need it tatee) & Bren f and whether...or + I wouldn't go on a camping holiday, even if you paid me. * NOT I wouldn't go even you paid me. + Joanne wouldn't want a dog even if she had room to keep one. * She wouldn't want a dog whether she had room for one or not. + Whether it's summer or winter, our neighbor always wears a pullover, Types of conditionals + The conditional sentence is divided into five types: + conditional type 00, + type 01, * type 02, + type 03, « the mixed type. ‘Type Zero conditional. (Always true/for certainty) Examples: ~ Ifyou drink coffee, you concentrate more on your work. ~ If she has a break, she visits her friend in her office. ~ Ifyou stay under the sun, you get sunburned, ~ When/if I reverse the car, it makes a funny noise (= every time I reverse the case, ...) ” ‘ * Note that we are not talking about a specific event but something which i eee Beas other yer the ts Simei este sentence s Feneral truth and scientifn teeta: The Zero Conditional refers to the Uses: ‘Type 1. (for real possibility and Results are in the future) a type nro used when we talk about things that are in general or always true | Here the pauern (orm) means that ose thing always follows automatically from another, We can we when inmead of if = The main cause can so be athe begining of he sentence. nhs cate, dete comma We can ao we Type © fo the asomutic feat of posible fisure ation The verb in the if clause i inthe presen les (ually simple at continous aod pec ao posible) pe proniad a hgherlegee) Lh edecdacactoadend tad, the vet theres casei tn the fur ese. Tis faut tes can be Crm in tect ways Besides wil, the modal verb, going to or present continuous canbe used where mitable + NB. Tas isan open coodiion. I leaves open the question of whether the team wil win or not. Examples: Uses > Witshould (happen to) rin, we are going to the cinema. - In these sentences (or first conditional sentences), there is a : Array tok youl hve god pening in waa strong possibility that the first part (coming after if) is going > them tereqanea aisnuneane to happen. The second part says what will happen in the > The ilk wil go of if you leave it by the radiator, future as a result. conditional type 1 refers to the future. "Sten rae = We don't know for sure whether the condition actually will be fulfilled or not, but the conditions seem rather realistic — so we think itis likely to happen. Exception notes ‘WS can ase shall instead of will after Uwe (if we don't hurry! we will/shall be late.) * (fyou're going out, take your key.) + (Ifyou drink, don't drive.) Examples: > If I were rich, I would buy a Mercedes. > If I were in the USA, I would vote for Clinton. > If I had a lot of money, I wouldn’t stay here. > If I had lots of money, I would travel around the world. - 3 conditional is also called the “unreal” or “contrary to fact” coi + The second conditional is like the first conditional, We - Here the ~_We do not use would for an unreal condition, ‘Type 2. (Not true now/unreal possibility) >. the future, We are thinking about a particular condition in of this condition. But in these sentences, the first part wit is unlikely to happen. + The verb in the if clause is in the past tense form, and the verb in the result clause is preceded by the modal would or could, or might. ~ In English, we often use this type of sentence to talk about hypotheses imaginary future events. For example, “If | was President of the United Stas. ! would change some laws.” But I know that I'll never be the President of the US — F'm just saying what | would do if I was in his/her position. - Note: in American English, it is correct to use “if { were...” In Britise Eng it’s more common to say “if | was...’ ast tense expresses an unreal condition. If | had lots of money === that really I haven't got lots of money, but I am only imagining it. ‘emai clause can also be atthe beginning of the sentence. In this ease, Gonit use a comma not usually mix the patterns for open and unreal conditions. NOT If of + fyolost the book, you would have fo pay for a new one. «fw caught the early train, we'd be in Manchester by lunchtime, _- Here the past tense expresses an imaginary future action such as losing the book. = Were is used instead of Was: In IF Clauses Type II, we usually use ,'were” even if the pronoun is I, he, she or it. (If I were you, I would not do this.) Examples + Afyou had driven slowly, you wouldn’t have had an accident. * -Ifyou had taken a taxi, you would have got here in time. * -If1'd phoned to renew the books, I wouldn't have had to pay a fine. * ~The man would have died if the ambulance hadn't arrived so quickly. *- Wed have gone tothe talk if we'd known about it. (= We would have gone if ‘we had known.) ‘Type 3. (Not true then regret and criticism) Uses: ~ Functionally, this isthe “might have been” conditional, commonly called the past conditional. ~ Both clauses refer to the past time. The ver in the if clause is in the past perfect tease, and the ‘verb in the result clause is preceded by would have (or could/might have, rarely should have). ~ In these sentences (called “third conditional sentences”), the frst part of the seatence with if To emphasis ie: "De you mano ely tine bs” ‘She ake whether > When we we wonder want know: Stal pone hor go and se he” He wondered whee (rh weed Wether — F- Reporting questions and command 2- Orders /commands * A direct command usually has an imperative verb. * When we report the command, this imperative changes into infinitive i: “Get your coat, Tom” id to Tom to get his coat. ha to inf.) ¢.g.: “Don't swim out too far, boys”, said the monitor. {~ told the boys not to swim out too far. imperatives (don‘‘t + infinitive) change to negative infinitives G- Reporting speech in writing and speech + In both writing and speech, it's important to indicate when you are reporting speech by using appropriate phrases, such as “he said," "she asked," or "they exclaimed." + When reporting speech in writing, it's also important to use punctuation, such as quotation marks or commas, to indicate the exact words spoken by someone else. + Style and tone considerations when reporting speech in writing ANSWERS: pict speech My any grandee yesterday.” be pape sch st px bd vee sander the dey =e - rho nhs epee she sid ioe wv fish he ep ie fallow 5. 1+ Reported spech: She said the news lastnight?” he asked. hr. I's very hot outside” that you'll have to drive home.” * He wa ited to know who ld/would deliver t the parcel to. PEM Kno ition and form Erect es cule Ree aed) Pee ee eae ea ec EOE el See Se eure eh eu len eee Why do we use the pasive voice? A Ra ee OR ma eae luli d Ue RU nc CC CaS aa Sue a Cu esl ca) SMR Reece ee une the subject of the sentence. * Steps +1, We look for the subject, verb, and object of the sentence. +2. We write the object of the sentence first. + 3. We should find the tense of the verb in the active sentence. * 4. We write verb (be) in the tense of the verb. * 5. We follow it by the main verb in the past participle. +6. Atthe end, we follow them by the agent (previous subject). Steps to change a sentence from active to passive: + a) move the object (Spanish) to the position of grammatical subject (before the verb); * b) insert the verb be as an auxiliary verb in the tense required (was); * c) follow with the past participle of the main verb (spoken), which must be a transitive verb of course, and, often optionally; * d) end with by and the agent (Mrs. Williams). * The verb/-phrase changes from the active form (spoke) to the passive form (was spoken). * In keeping with subject-verb agreement, the passive sentence verb agrees in number with the NP that has been moved into subject position. * Thus, whereas in the example below: the singular fires agrees with the dean, in passive (b). the plural are agrees with our professors. + Example: a. The dean often fires our professors. Active b. Our professors are often fired by the dean, passive « Active and passive sentences often have similar meanings but different focuses. Consider: Authors write books. (The focus is on authors) Books are written by authors. (The focus is on books) * How do we form the passive sentences? Consider this example: + -Active: (a) Souad discovered the mistake. + -Passive: (b) The mistake was discovered by Souad. * Inthe passive, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the Passive verb: the mistake in (a) becomes the subject of the passive ,, we add a form of the verb to be + past participle. (Be is ‘Conjugated in ‘the tense of the active sentence.) * Notice. We use the passive with by if you mention the agent. -The bill was not paid by Ahmed. | * Do not mention the agent: * a. if it does not add any new information. -All our money and passports were stolen. * b. if itis not important. -The streets are cleaned everyday. +c. if itis difficult to say who the agent is. This king of jacket is considered very fashionable these days. * Notice that only verbs that take an object (transitive verbs) can have a passive form. * Verbs which do not take an object (intransitive verbs) do not have passive forms. G -She will come tomorrow. Accidents happen every day. + © If the verb in the active sentence is in the simple present or simple Past, so is the form of be that precedes the part parti verb. le of the main. * a. The dean fired our professor. (active) + b. Our professor was fired by the dean. (passive) * was in (b) corresponds to the simple past fired in (4a). *Passive sentences can occur in all the tense-aspect combinations. *The form of be is determined by the verb in the active sentence from which the passive sentence is formed, as follows: !f the verb in the active sentence is in the progressive aspect, then deing is inserted between the progressive form of be and the past participle of the main verb. This is strated in (b) for present progressive and in (d) for past progressive. * a. The dean is firing our professor. (active) * b. Our professor being fired by the dean. (passive) +c. The dean was firing our professor. (active) * d. Our professor was being fired by the dean (passive) « « If the verb in the active sentence the perfect aspect, then been is inserted between the form of have and the past participle of the main verb, as is shown in (b) for the present perfect and in (d) for the past perfect. = a, The dean has fired our professor. (active) = b, Our professor has been fired by the dean (passive) + ¢. The dean had fired our professor. (active) * d. Our professor had been fired by the dean, (passive) = Perfect progressives, although rare in passive sentences, include being before the past participle (e.g., active has/had been firing becomes passive has/had been being fired). \f the active sentence contains a modal followed by a baré e verb, as in (a), then in the passive sentence the modal is followed by the bare infinitive form of be, as in (b) and (d). + a. The dean should fire our professor. (active) * b. Our professor should be fired by the dean, (passive) * c. The dean will fire our professor. (active) + d. Our professor will be fired by the dean. (Passive) Tense forms of the passive =a PaSEIVEVO as eae searing is being eater fae vas carer [was eating — pas being eater rar cae has bear ea rosa eaten nad beerrearen going to cat = pomg to Be eaten oun out Be eater ae Ee should have eaten should have been eaten * Present simple + Active: -Laila buys chocolate whenever she goes to school. * Passive: + Past simple + Active: The police caught the burglar. + Passive: | + Present perfect + Active: Someone has stolenher smartphone. * Passive: + Past perfect * Active * Passive: - The kids had broken one of the car windows. + Active: -Laila buys chocolate whenever she goes to schoo! + Passive: Chocolate is bought by Laila .. Past simple + Active:

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