Pol 303 by Mr Samuel

Research methodology
Course outlines
1. Introduction to research methodology
2. How to select research topic (researchable topic)
3. How to write a proposal (proposal writing)
4. Issue of Literature review
5. Methodology (Research Design)
6. Data analysis, conclusion and recommendation
7. Citation and references
8. Ethical issues (Research Issues)

Generally, undergraduate research is classified into (5) chapters

Chapter 1

(Introduction)

Chapter 2

(Literature review)

Chapter 3

(Research methodology or design)

Chapter 4(Data presentation and analysis)

Chapter 5(conclusion, recommendation and references)*

WHAT IS RESEARCH.
. *The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful
investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge*.”

*According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis*

*Research is defined as “a systematic inquiry whose objective is to provide information to solve

problems and meet the challenges of a fast decision-making environment”

* QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH*
*Quantitative research is an inquiry into an identified problem, based on testing a theory, measured
with numbers, and analyzed using statistical techniques. The goal of quantitative methods is to
determine whether the predictive generalizations of a theory hold true.Quantitative research is based
on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity.*

* QUALITATIVE RESEARCH*
*Qualitative process of inquiry has the goal of understanding a social or human problem from multiple
perspectives. Qualitative research is conducted in a natural setting and involves a process of building a
complex and holistic picture of the phenomenon of interest.Qualitative research also is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we
are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain
things),*

*The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:*

OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH.
*1. It enable us to understand, explain, predict and control the empirical phenomena that interest us.*

*2. It provides accumulative body of verifiable knowledge*

*3. It provide a link between what is logical and actually expected between theory and practice.*
*4. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it*

*5. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group(studies with
this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);*

*6. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);*

*7. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies

RESEARCH APPLICATION.
1. Research can be applied in personnel functions in the recruitment and selection of new employees.*

*2. It can be used to generate information to guide in promotion and preparation of job analysis and
job evaluation.*

*3. To generate information for decision making for policy makers.*

*4. To collect, organise, analyse, present and interpret the available information.*

*5. To introduce the readers to the logic and skills of social research*

*6. To enable the readers to be able to evaluate effectively the findings of other researchers.*

*7. To explain ways of examining and understanding the operation of human affairs.*

*8. To enable a manager plan ahead through the amassed substantial data that may be used in many
ways.*

*9. Research is needed to generate information for decision making in business. It helps in finding the
best way to gain competitive advantage, make more profit and expand the business.*

*10. By a way of systematic gathering and storage of information used by the organisation, research
helps in planning (small, medium and long term) and decision making.*

*11. Research is play a vital role in several fields in solving operational problems.*

*12. Research provides basis for most of the government's policies in economic system especially in the
budget analysis
 What is a Researchable topic

**Researchable is a hypothetical topic that contains both independent variable and dependent variable
plus a case study.*

1. Background Study:*
*It is necessary to do background reading of the topic.* *Discuss the topic with assigned supervisor to
avoid choosing un-researchable topics or technical topics that are difficult to research.*

*2. Past Research Work:*

*Research project reports produced by students in previous years will help you gain insight into the
style and standard of a research project.*

*3. Personal Interest:*

*It is interesting that you find your study area interesting and that there is enough about the topic that
is novel and challenging for you.* *This will act as motivation and sustain you through any problems you
encounter.*

*4. Research Feasibility:*

*The student will also think about the feasibility of his/her research project. This is a matter of common
sense and experience. A beginner is, however, unlikely to be aware of this. Such problems that may
need to be considered by the researcher are (Eneanya, 2012):*

Guidelines for Selecting a Researchable Topic (Sources and

Procedures)*
*Many students, after much exploration, abandon their topic and start afresh, while others continue
despite its unsuitability and end up having nothing worthwhile but the satisfaction of having met
another requirement.* *Inability to select a researchable topic is a common weakness of student who
engaged in a research study.*

SOURCES OF RESEARCHABLE TOPIC

*There are many sources of researchable topics, some of which are listed below according to (Ajala,
1996):*

*1. Literature e.g. journals, books, newspapers, magazines, reports of researches conducted for
professional studies and texts etc.*
*2. Personal experience (influenced by researcher’s value judgment).*

*3. Experts in the field e.g. consultation with lecturers of research and chartered personnel in different
fields.*

*4. Research Institutions*

*5. Friends and contemporaries.*

*6. The prevailing social, political and economic conditions (changes or innovation) and the researcher’s
environment.*

*7. Theoretical sources e.g. discovery of a gap in the knowledge of theories by a researcher.*

PROCEDURES OF A RESEARCHABLE TOPIC*

*The procedure or steps in selecting a researchable topic are listed below;*

*1. The topic must be of interest to the researcher in order to develop familiarity with the topic.*

*2. The topic should be sufficiently original that it does not involve objectionable duplication.*

*3. The topic must be researchable not of a philosophical nature that can only be discussed but to the
point where objective evidence can provide a solution.*

*4. The topic must be significant, having capability of adding new information to the present state of
knowledge.*

*5. The research in the problem must be feasible, that is there are sufficient data for the situation the
researcher finds himself.*

*Research topic should satisfy the following criteria:*

*1. State the key variables (independent and dependent) included in the study.*

*2. State the relationship between these variables.*

*3. State the population to which the results would be applicable.(case study or selected case study).*

*4. Avoidd redundant or repetitive words.*

*5. Use only acceptable scientific terms.(hypothetical in nature).*

*RESEARCH PROPOSAL (How to write a proposal)*

*Meaning of Research Proposal*
*Research proposal is a blueprint of the study which simply outlines the steps that researcher will
undertake in the course of study.*

*Research proposal is also a document which will outline the scope and a method of the research you
intend to carryout and in some cases, will indicate how you plan to organise your writing.*

*At the early stage in the research proposal, a supervisor assigned to you would approve it, offer
feedback in form of advice and give a go-ahead to proceed with your studies. In this topic, we shall
examine how students can write good research proposals.*

COMPONENTS OF AN ACADEMIC RESEARCH PROPOSAL*

*There is a difference between academic research proposal and project research proposal.* *The
following are typical components of academic research proposal.* *However, the choice of each
component depends on the discipline and level of study.* *For political science discipline, the following
components are outlined (Eneanya, 2012:137-148):*

*1. Carry out an appropriate amount of background reading beforehand and selecting the sources
carefully.* *Try to gain an up-date of key topics and trends in your chosen field.* *Choose recently
published reviews of the area especially those likely to prompt ideas about key aspects that need to be
looked at in more detail.*

*2. Try to formulate a key hypothesis or idea to investigate. Use brainstorming techniques as you read
sources to help you develop your ideas and potential topics.*

*3. Remember that your proposal is only a proposal.* *You do not need to write the complete work at
this stage.* *You merely need to establish for the benefit of the reviewing group, that you have chosen
a reasonable topic and are likely to succeed in producing a dissertation or project report that meets that
regulations or learning outcomes of your discipline.*

*4. Discuss your proposal with your supervisor beforehand.*

*5. Get feedback from your peers:* *Show an early draft of the proposal to a friend or colleague.* *Ask
for comments and respond to them.*

*6. Use appropriate language.*

(I) INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY*

*The researcher introduces the subject matter of the research, the background, essential components of
the topic and the build up to the identifies problem area should be stated; his interest in the research
area, particular circumstances surrounding the problem, but without giving a complete history of the
particular subject matter involved.* *After giving the general background of the study, the researcher
carefully establishes the need for the study, telling why the information resulting from the study is
needed.*
*(II) STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM*
*The statement of the problem serves to elaborate upon the information implies in the title of the
study.* *There should be a clear statement of the research problem.* *The statement of the problem
should be set forth in brief but quite specific terms so that even an uninformed reader may secure an
idea of the problem which underlies the rationale of the study.* *So, to find a good research problem,
do what experienced researchers do: talk to teachers, friends, colleagues, classmates and anyone who
might be interested in your topic.* *Look for problem as you read previous studies on the subject.* *As
you read, look critically for incomplete explanations, contradictions or inconsistencies.* *Read areas for
future research, where researchers suggest more questions than answers, especially area of future
studies.*

*(III) OBJECTIVE(s) or PURPOSE OF THE STUDY*

*This entails listing of specific outcomes; the researcher expects to fulfill in order to achieve the
objectives.* *It is written in clear and concise manner.* *The language must be as coherent and simple
as possible.*

*Objectives of study flows naturally from the problem statement, giving the reader specific, concrete
and achievable goals.* *It is best to list the objectives either in order of importance or in general terms
first, moving to specific terms (that is, research question followed by underlying investigative
questions.* *Objectives of study are the basis for judging others of the study – the research design, data
analysis, results and conclusions.* *It should be noted that the purpose or objectives of study depends
on research design.*

*(iv) SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY*

*This gives indication of the value of the research for others.* *The contribution to be made by the
study to knowledge, society and company should be unambiguously stated.*

*(V) LITERATURE REVIEW*

*Usually, the review of literature serves two purpose:*

*( a) To set the theoretical base of the research.*

*( b) To set the current research into perspective to show the “state of the art in the discipline.”*

*Literature review shows how present research fits into the whole scheme of things.* *The review of
literature surveys the research previously done on the problem and evaluates what the research has and
has not accomplished in solving the problem currently understudy (gap to be filled or new area to be
explored).*
 *The review of related literature should be in an organised form, with appropriate subheads to indicate
the areas or topics covered.* *There should be a short introduction to the body of the chapter and a
short summary at the end.*

*THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK*
*In selecting the theoretical framework, the investigator would have reviewed research theories of past
work, and identify the theory or theories or construct models that are relevant to his study and test of
research questions or hypotheses.*

*(vii) RESEARCH QUESTIONS*

*Having covered some literature and interacted widely with the problem area, the researcher is
expected to be able to guess or make some conjectural statements or questions bordering on the
problem.* *A problem really cannot be scientifically solved* *if it is not reduced to hypothesis form
because a problem is a question, usually of a broad nature and is, in and of itself not directly testable.*
*Answering research questions enable us to define the unit of analysis.* *The unit of analysis is derived
from the research questions. To answer and measure our research questions, we define the unit of
analysis by identifying the information needed to answer the research problem.*

*(viii) SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY*

*The scope of the study means the areas of interest which the study intends to cover while the
limitations are the constraints(time,fund e.t.c) which can distort the collection of relevant data needed
for the research investigation.*

*Techniques for Producing a Good Research Proposal*

*According to McMillan and Weyers (2007:26), the following techniques would assist a researcher to
produce a good research proposal.*

*1. Carry out an appropriate amount of background reading beforehand and selecting the sources
carefully.* *Try to gain an up-date of key topics and trends in your chosen field.* *Choose recently
published reviews of the area especially those likely to prompt ideas about key aspects that need to be
looked at in more detail.*

*2. Try to formulate a key hypothesis or idea to investigate. Use brainstorming techniques as you read
sources to help you develop your ideas and potential topics.*

*3. Remember that your proposal is only a proposal.* *You do not need to write the complete work at
this stage.* *You merely need to establish for the benefit of the reviewing group, that you have chosen
a reasonable topic and are likely to succeed in producing a dissertation or project report that meets that
regulations or learning outcomes of your discipline.*
*4. Discuss your proposal with your supervisor beforehand.*

*5. Get feedback from your peers:* *Show an early draft of the proposal to a friend or colleague.* *Ask
for comments and respond to them.*

*6. Use appropriate language.*

To this point we done with the below outlines.

*In our previous classes we have done the following topics*

*introduction to research methodology whereby we did justice to the following

sub topics:*

*Meaning of research*

*Types of research*

*Objectives of research*

*Importance of research*

*A researchable topic*

*How to write a research proposal (Proposal writing)*

*ISSUE OF LITERATURE REVIEW*

*Meaning of literature review*

*According to Fagbohungbe, (1993) literature review can be defined as the critical evaluation of past but
relevant works to the research under study with a view to identifying areas of convergence and
divergence in such past work.*

*Hassan (1995) defines literature review as an essential step in research activities.*

*The literature review means the work that an investigator consulted in order to understand and
investigate his/her research problem.*

*A literature review is the identification, readings, summarization and evaluation of the previously
published articles, books, reports or Internet entries on a particular research topic.*

*Sometimes, literature review may also encompass unpublished documents such as dissertations,
manuals, or personal correspondence (Barzun & Graff 1977).*
*However,a literature review goes beyond the search for information,it includes the identification and
articulation of relationships between the literature and the investigator's field of research.*

*PURPOSE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW*

*(1) To identify and outline flaws/gaps in the previous research.*

*(2) To show where the research can be placed in the existing body of knowledge.*

*(3) To justify a research conducted.*

*(4) To support the identification of a research topic, question or hypothesis.*

*(5) To distinguish what has been done from what needs to be done.*

(6) To help refine, refocus, or even change the research topic.*

*(7)To permit meaningful synthesis of existing work, thus leading one to gain perspective of the current
study.*

*(8)To help the research delimit and define the problem.*

*(9)To find out whether the methodology used in the study or the techniques developed from the study
of one problem may be applied to the investigation of another problem.*

*(10) To help the researchers in identifying variables which have proven important and unimportant in a
given field of study.*

*THE STRATEGIES FOR ORGANISING THE REVIEW ARE;*

*(a) An introduction that justifies the study of the topic in the field and previews the rest of the paper.*

*(b) The content of the problem that isolate the role of the concepts in communication problem.* *By
such methods is meant quoting authoritative sources that refer to past research work that calls for new
work or arguing directly for a need for this work.*

*(c) The background definition of terms which provides the meanings to technical words, including
problems that the researchers have faced when measuring or observing the concept or variable.*

*(d) The relevant theories reviewed to explain how and why the variable or concept works.*

*(e) The research survey usually is the longest part of the study.*

*(f) A list of the opportunities for future research that gives the significant merit of the research.*

*(g) A conclusion that summarised the main point and state a bottom– line conclusion.*
*SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEWS*

*(1) Journal articles*

*It is good for up-to-date information also they are frequently used in literature reviews because they
offer a relatively concise, up-to-date format for research and because all reputable journals are
referred.*

*(2) Conference proceeds*

*These can be used in providing latest research or research that has not been published.* *They are also
useful in providing information on which people are currently involved in their research area.*

*(3) Government corporate reports*

*Many government department and corporation carry out research.* *Their published findings can
provide a useful source of information to the research based on the fields of study.*

*(4) Internet: This is the fastest growing source of information for research works.*

*(5)Textbooks and newspaper: are also useful source of literature reviews.*

*(6) Thesis and dissertation are also important source of literature reviews.

*ADVANTAGE OF LITERATURE REVIEWS*

*(1) Literature reviews are versatile because they can be conducted for almost any topic and can also
provide information either at the summary level or details level.*

*(2) Literature reviews are relatively inexpensive because large amount of data can be collected quickly
at minimal cost.*

*(3) Literature reviews are easy to access because the main resources needed are a good library or
online data base and a competent reviewer.*

*(4) Literature reviews can be an excellent step in a project or study because they provide a conceptual
framework for further planning and study.*

*DISADVANTAGES OF LITERATURE REVIEWS*

*(1) An effective literature reviews requires a high level of skills in identifying resources, analysing the
sources to identify relevant information and writing a meaningful summary.*
*(2) Literature reviews are limited to collect information about what has happened in the past and they
cannot provide data about current actually behaviour.*

*Other disadvantages of literature review are: Insufficient information, irrelevant materials, omission of
recent works e.t.c.*

*RESEARCH DESIGN (METHODOLOGY)*

*CONCEPT OF RESEARCH DESIGN*

*A research design is a plan of study or a lay out of the structure and strategy adopted for a particular
inquiry.* *Research design is theological structure of the research enquiry that the political scientist is
engaged upon.* *It is the plan, the structure and the strategy of the investigation, so conceived as to
obtain answers to research questions or problems (Kerlinger, 1986).*

*Research design provides the framework for the collection and analysis of data according to the
priorities set by the researcher (Bryman, 2001).* *Hakin argues that ‘research design is the point where
questions raise in theoretical or policy debates are converted into feasible research projects and
research programmes that provide answers to these questions’ (Hakim, 2000).

Whatever the research strategy adopted, whether it is a sample survey, comparative analysis, a case
study or participant observation, the political scientist has to consider what is the most appropriate and
logical structure for the research project about to be started,The objective is to develop a clear and
logical framework for the research project.*

*A major practical consideration in choosing a research design is provided by the research training and
skills of the researcher.* *It is natural for a behavioural political scientist trained in statistical analysis to
formulate research problems and research designs amenable to survey research, because this
methodology is closely associated with voting behaviour and opinion polling, which are central areas of
the behavioural approach.*

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN*

*(i) It helps to clarify the research method, enabling an objective evaluation of the appropriateness of
the methodology employed as well as the reliability of the forthcoming results of the study.*

*(ii) Research design identifies the research instruments used during the course of the study and the
type of analysis to be employed.*

*(iii) It also identifies and defines the key variables of the investigation.*

*(iv) It depicts the population, the sample size, the sampling method and procedure.* *It describes the
study setting and the area covered by the study.*
*(v) Research design also makes easier an identification of the problem of validity and reliability and
helps to spell out how totackle them.*

*(vi) It helps to provide answers to research question and hypotheses.*

*(vii) It facilitates and controls the variance ensuing in the investigation.*

*(viii) Research design fulfills two principal purposes, namely: to provide answers to research questions
and hypotheses and to minimise errors of variance.*

*Types of Research Design*

*There are five major types of research design, namely- experimental design, cross-sectional design,
longitudinal design, case study design and comparative design. Let us examine each design:*

*(1) Experimental Design*

*Experiments are widely considered to be the way of determining cause and effect in scientific
research.* *Experimental method involves a “sample of two”, (a control sample and an experimental
sample) drawn (ideally randomly) from the population under study.*

*Experimental research is rarely used in politics research.* *However, one particular type of
experimental research is the Pilot project where a change of policy is tested on a particular group or
area before the initiative is rolled out (extended).*

*(2) Cross-Sectional Design*

*Cross-sectional design involves the collection of information on a large number of cases at a single
point in time.* *This is to accumulate a body of quantitative or qualitative data in relation to a number
of variables in order to discover patterns of association (Bryman, 2001).*

*Cross-sectional design is strongly associated with quantitative analysis due to the large number of
cases on which the date is collected and the ease of carrying out statistical test on them.* *The data is
collected over a short period of time and then analysed for patterns of association between the
variables.*

*(3) LONGITUDINAL DESIGN*

*Longitudinal design is an extension of survey research.* *A sample is selected and interviewed at a
particular time, t1 and the identical sample as far as possible, is re-interviewed at subsequent intervals,
perhaps a year later, t2, and then a year after that, t3.* *The researcher can then compare the data
from different periods and discover what changes have taken place. He/she will then attempt to explain
why the changes have taken place.*
*Longitudinal method seeks data from the observations of a Cohort, a group of people, states or
organisations, etc., sharing one or more common characteristics over an extensive period of time.* *The
researcher may wish to interview the Cohort about, for example, their occupations, or their experiences
of family life.* *These data may be related to their parents’ background, the area they come from and
other factors.* *However, Cohort studies are frequently based on age cohorts: that is, groups of people
born at around the same time.* *Data collected can be used for research on child development, health,
education progress and attainment (Burnham, et al., 2004:50-52

*(4) Case Study Design*

*Case studies are extremely popular form of research design and are widely used throughout the social
sciences.* *The researcher will usually have a number of research questions or hypotheses to give focus
to the research and organise the data collection, analysis and presentation of the material.* *Both
quantitative and qualitative data can be generated by case study design, the approach has more of a
qualitative feel to it as it generates a wealth of data relating to one specific case.* *The data cannot be
used to generalise about thepopulation as a whole as the case study is unique and not a representative
sample of the institution or policy area.*

*Both quantitative and qualitative data can be generated by case study design, the approach has more
of a qualitative feel to it as it generates a wealth of data relating to one specific case.*

*(5) Comparative Design*

*Comparative research or method is the approach most widely adopted by comparative politics,
international relations, public policy and developmental politics.* *In this approach, political events and
processes are often clarified and illuminated by comparison with similar events and processes in other
contexts.*

*The major methodological task in comparative research is to devise and select theoretical problems,
conceptual schemes, samples and measurement and analysis strategies that are comparable or
equivalent across the societies involved in a particular study (Armer, 1973:51).*

In our last class, we did research design whereby we discussed the following:*

*Meaning of research design*

*Importance of research design*

*Types of research design*

* we are going to discuss components of research design*

COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN*

*(a) Specification of the population, which is the subject of the investigation in it’s entirely.*

*(b) Specification of the sample, the proportion of the population involved in the inquiry.*

*(c) Indication of the instrumentation or the apparatus employed: This

includes the data collection instruments, the measuring instruments, as well as their functions in the
research process.*

*(d) A research design should also indicate the method of analysis of the data collected from the field of
inquiry and the modes of their presentation on the report.* *Here, the researcher also discloses the
plan for statistical analysis of the data that will lead to objective confirmation or rejection of the
hypothesis earlier stated.*

DATA COLLECTION
*Data collection and analysis will be divided into parts*

*First part Collection of data*

*Second part Data analysis*

*DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS*

*The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design/plan
chalked out.* *While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the
researcher should keep in mind two types of data, primary and secondary.*

*PRIMARY DATA*
*The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character.* *They can be refer to as raw data which can be collected by the researchers.*

*SECONDARY DATA*
*The secondary data are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have
already been passed through the statistical process.*

*Note: The researcher would have to decide what sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his
study and accordingly he will have to select one or the other method of data collection.* *The methods
of collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally collected, while in
case of secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation.*

COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA*

*We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but in
case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys or census
surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication
with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews.*

*Note*

*An experiment refers to an investigation in which a factor or variable under test is isolated and its
effect(s) measured.*

*Survey refers to the method of securing information concerning a phenomena under study from all or a
selected number of respondents of the concerned universe.*

METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION*

*They are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive researches.
Important ones are:*

*(A) observation method.*

*(B) interview method.*

*(C) through questionnaires.*

*FURTHER READINGS,OTHER METHOD OF RESEARCH INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:*

*(1) through schedules*

*(2) warranty cards*

*(3) distributor audits*

*(4) pantry audits*

*(5) consumer panels*

*(6) using mechanical devices*

*(7) through projective techniques*

*(8) depth interviews*

*(9) content analysis.*

*Therefore, I will explain the following important methods because they are relevant to our fied,
observation method, interviews method and questionnaires method.*
OBSERVATION METHOD*
*The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to
behavioural sciences.* *In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not
scientific observation.* *Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the
researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected beto checks and controls on validity and reliability.*

ADVANTAGES OF DATA COLLECTION THROUGH OBSERVATION

METHOD*
*(1) This method is important because subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.*

*(2) The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening;* *it is not
complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.*

*(3) This method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively less
demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents.*

*DISADVANTAGES DATA COLLECTION THROUGH OBSERVATION

METHOD*
*(1) it is an expensive method.*

*(2)The information provided by this method is very limited.*

*(3) Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.* *At times, the fact that
some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data
effectively.*

*INTERVIEW METHOD*
*The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms
of oral-verbal responses.* *This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible
through telephone interviews.*

*(a) PERSONAL INTERVIEWS*

*Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a
face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.* *(At times the interviewee may also ask certain
questions and the interviewer responds to these, but usually the interviewer initiates the interview and
collects the information.)* *This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or
it may be indirect oral investigation.*
ADVANTAGES OF DATA COLLECTION THROUGH PERSONAL INTERVIEW*
*(i) It provides more information at greater depth can be obtained.*

*(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the interview
method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.*

*(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is always
there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.*

*(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.*

*(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method and control of interviewers.*

DISADVANTAGES DATA COLLECTION THROUGH INTERVIEW*

*(i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken.*

*(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent; there also
remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.*

*(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high income
groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove
inadequate.*

*(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is large and recalls upon
the respondents are necessary.*

*(v) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to
the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.*

*(b) TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS*

*This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself.* *It is not
a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys,particularly in developed
regions.*

*ADVANTAGES OF DATA COLLECTION THROUGH TELEPHONE

INTERVIEW*
*1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.*

*2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.*

*3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low.*

*4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.*

*5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response is
generally very low.*

*Disadvantage of Telephone Interview*

*1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to exceed
five minutes in most cases.*

*2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.*

*3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.*

*4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various
questions.*

*5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.*

ADVANTAGES OF DATA COLLECTION THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRES

*1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.*

*2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.*

*3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.*

*4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.*

*5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.

*DISADVANTAGES OF DATA COLLECTION THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRES*

*1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.*

*2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.*

*3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.*

*4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires
have been despatched.*
*5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain
questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.*

*COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA*

*Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already
been collected and analysed by someone else.* *When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he
has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them.* *In this case he is certainly not
confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data.* *

*Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.*

The published Data can be found in the following;

*(a)various publications of the central, state are local governments;*

*(b) various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary
organisations;*

*(c) technical and trade journals;*

*(d) books, magazines and newspapers*

*(e) reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock
exchanges, etc.*

*(f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields.*

*(g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information.*

*Unpublished data are found in the following:*

*They may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be
available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/
private individuals and organisations.*

CHARACTERISTICS OF SECONDARY DATA*

*1. Reliability of Data:* *The reliability can be tested by finding out the quality of reliability.*

*2. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable
in another enquiry.* *Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be used by
the researcher.*
*3. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose of
the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher.*

*THE FOLLOWING FACTORS SHOULD BE CONSIDER BY RESEARCHER

BEFORE CHOOSING METHOD OF COLLECTION OF DATA.*

*1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry:* *This constitutes the most important factor
affecting the choice of a particular method. The method selected should be such that it suits the type of
enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher.* *This factor is also important in deciding whether
the data already available (secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available (primary data)
are to be collected.*

*2. Availability of funds:* *Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large
extent the method to be used for the collection of data.* *When funds at the disposal of the researcher
are very limited, he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient
and effective as some other costly method.* *Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the
researcher has to act within this limitation.*

*3. Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular
method of data collection.* *Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data
can be collected in a comparatively shorter duration.* *The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus,
affects the selection of the method by which the data are to be collected.*

*4. Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at
the time of selecting the method of collection of data.*