1.

ABO blood types: The classification of human blood based on the presence or
absence of antigens A and B on the surface of red blood cells; includes types A, B, AB, and O.

2. Abiotic factor: Non-living components of an ecosystem, such as temperature,

water, and sunlight, that influence living organisms.

3. Acids / H+: Substances that release hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water;
they have a pH below 7.

4. Active transport: Movement of molecules across a membrane against their

concentration gradient, requiring energy (ATP).

5. Adenine: A nitrogenous base found in DNA and RNA that pairs with thymine
(DNA) or uracil (RNA).

6. Aerobic: Processes or organisms that require oxygen for survival or energy

production.

7. Age structure: The distribution of individuals in a population across different age

groups.

8. Alcohol fermentation (R→P): An anaerobic process where glucose is converted

into ethanol and carbon dioxide, typically by yeast.

9. Allele: Variants of a gene that determine specific traits; each individual inherits
one allele from each parent.

10. Amino acid: Organic molecules that combine to form proteins; composed of an
amino group, carboxyl group, and R group.

11. Anaerobic: Processes or organisms that do not require oxygen for survival or
energy production.

12. Anaphase: A stage of mitosis or meiosis where sister chromatids or homologous

chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite poles.

13. Anti-codons: A sequence of three nucleotides on tRNA that pairs with a

complementary codon on mRNA during translation.

14. Atom: The smallest unit of matter, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

15. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): A molecule that stores and releases energy for
cellular processes.

16. Autotroph: Organisms that produce their own food using light (photosynthesis) or
chemical energy (chemosynthesis).
 17. Avery: Oswald Avery, a scientist who demonstrated that DNA is the molecule
responsible for heredity.

18. Bacterial transformation: The process by which bacteria take up foreign genetic
material from their environment.

19. Bases / OH-: Substances that release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in solution; they have
a pH above 7.

20. Biodiversity: The variety of life forms in an ecosystem or the entire Earth.

21. Biogeochemical cycle: The cycling of elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen,

phosphorus) through biological, geological, and chemical processes.

22. Biological magnification: The increase in concentration of toxins in organisms as

they move up the food chain.

23. Biomass: The total mass of living organisms in a given area or ecosystem.

24. Biosphere: The part of Earth where life exists, including land, water, and air.

25. Biotic factor: Living components of an ecosystem, such as plants, animals, and
bacteria.

26. Calvin Cycle (R→P): The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis that

convert carbon dioxide into glucose.

27. Cancer: A disease caused by the uncontrolled division and growth of abnormal
cells in the body.

28. Carbohydrate: Organic compounds (e.g., sugars, starches) used as a primary

energy source in organisms.

29. Carnivore: An organism that primarily consumes other animals.

30. Carrier: An individual who carries one copy of a recessive allele that causes a
genetic trait or disorder.

31. Carrying capacity: The maximum population size that an environment can
support indefinitely.

32. Catalyst: A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being

consumed in the process.

33. Cell: The basic structural and functional unit of life.

 34. Cell cycle: The series of events that a cell goes through as it grows, replicates its
DNA, and divides.

35. Cell plate: A structure that forms during cytokinesis in plant cells, eventually
becoming the cell wall.

36. Cell wall: A rigid layer outside the plasma membrane of plants, fungi, and
bacteria that provides structural support.

37. Cellular differentiation: The process by which cells become specialized for
specific functions.

38. Cellular respiration (equation): The process of converting glucose and oxygen
into ATP, carbon dioxide, and water:

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP.

39. Centrioles: Cylindrical organelles involved in cell division, helping in the formation
of the spindle fibers.

40. Centromere: The region of a chromosome where sister chromatids are held
together and where spindle fibers attach.

41. Chargaff’s rules (base pairing): Rules stating that DNA has equal amounts of
adenine and thymine, and guanine and cytosine.

42. Chemical reaction: A process where substances (reactants) are transformed into
new substances (products).

43. Chemosynthesis: The process by which certain organisms synthesize organic

compounds using energy from chemical reactions.

44. Chloroplast: An organelle in plant cells where photosynthesis occurs.

45. Cholesterol: A lipid molecule that is an essential component of cell membranes

and precursor for steroid hormones.

46. Chromatin: The complex of DNA and proteins found in the nucleus that
condenses to form chromosomes.

47. Chromosomal mutation: A change in the structure or number of chromosomes,

often leading to genetic disorders.

48. Chromosome: A structure composed of DNA and proteins that carries genetic
information.
 49. Classification: The organization of organisms into hierarchical categories based
on similarities and differences.

50. Climate: The long-term patterns of temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation
in a region.

51. Codominance: A form of inheritance where both alleles are fully expressed in the
phenotype of a heterozygous individual.

52. Codons: A sequence of three nucleotides on mRNA that codes for a specific
amino acid or stop signal during protein synthesis.

53. Commensalism: A type of symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits

while the other is neither helped nor harmed.

54. Community: All the interacting populations of different species living in the same
area.

55. Competitive exclusion: A principle stating that two species competing for the
same resources cannot coexist indefinitely; one will outcompete the other.

56. Compound: A substance composed of two or more elements chemically

combined in fixed proportions.

57. Concentration gradient: The difference in the concentration of a substance

across a space or membrane.

58. Conclusion: A summary based on experimental data, supporting or refuting the

hypothesis.

59. Consumer: An organism that obtains energy by consuming other organisms;

includes herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.

60. Covalent bond: A chemical bond formed when two atoms share one or more
pairs of electrons.

61. Cristae: The folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane, increasing the surface
area for cellular respiration.

62. Crossing-over: The exchange of genetic material between homologous

chromosomes during meiosis, increasing genetic diversity.

63. Cytoplasm: The jelly-like substance within a cell, excluding the nucleus, where
organelles and cellular processes occur.

64. Cytosine: A nitrogenous base found in DNA and RNA that pairs with guanine.
 65. Cytoskeleton - microfilaments: Thin protein fibers that provide structural support
and aid in cell movement.

66. Cytoskeleton - microtubules: Hollow protein tubes that maintain cell shape, assist
in cell division, and form structures like cilia and flagella.

67. Data: Information gathered from observations or experiments, used for analysis
and conclusions.

68. Decomposer: Organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, that break down dead
organisms and recycle nutrients back into the environment.

69. Deforestation: The clearing or removal of forests, often leading to habitat

destruction and climate change.

70. Dehydration synthesis: A chemical reaction that links monomers by removing

water molecules to form polymers.

71. Deletion: A type of mutation where a section of DNA or a chromosome is lost.

72. Denitrification: The conversion of nitrates into nitrogen gas by bacteria, returning
nitrogen to the atmosphere.

73. Density-dependent limiting factor: Factors that limit population size based on
density, such as disease or competition for resources.

74. Density-independent limiting factor: Factors that affect population size regardless
of density, such as natural disasters.

75. Deoxyribose: A five-carbon sugar found in DNA.

76. Dependent variable: The variable in an experiment that is measured and affected
by changes in the independent variable.

77. Desertification: The process by which fertile land becomes desert due to overuse,
deforestation, or climate change.

78. Detritivore: Organisms that feed on dead organic matter, such as earthworms or
certain insects.

79. Diffusion: The movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an

area of lower concentration.

80. Diploid: Cells with two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent; typical of
somatic cells in humans (2n=46).
 81. Disaccharide: A carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharides, such as
sucrose (glucose + fructose).

82. DNA polymerase: An enzyme that synthesizes DNA by adding complementary

nucleotides during replication.

83. DNA replication: The process of copying DNA to ensure each new cell receives
an identical set of chromosomes.

84. Dominant: A trait or allele that is expressed in the phenotype, even when only
one copy is present.

85. Duplication: A mutation where a segment of a chromosome is copied and added,

resulting in extra genetic material.

86. Ecological pyramid: A graphical representation showing the distribution of energy,

biomass, or organism numbers in an ecosystem.

87. Ecological succession: The natural process by which ecosystems change and
develop over time, either through primary or secondary succession.

88. Ecology: The study of interactions between organisms and their environment.

89. Ecosystem: A community of living organisms and their non-living environment

interacting as a system.

90. Electron: A negatively charged subatomic particle orbiting the nucleus of an

atom.

91. Electron transport chain (R→P): A series of protein complexes in cellular

respiration or photosynthesis that generate ATP by transferring electrons.

92. Emigration: The movement of individuals out of a population, reducing its size.

93. Enzyme: A protein that speeds up biochemical reactions by lowering activation

energy.

94. Eukaryotic: Cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, such as
animal and plant cells.

95. Exons: The coding regions of a gene that are expressed and translated into
proteins.

96. Experiment: A controlled procedure used to test a hypothesis by manipulating

variables.
 97. Exponential growth: A rapid increase in population size where the growth rate
becomes ever faster.

98. Facilitated diffusion: Passive transport of molecules across a membrane via

protein channels or carriers.

99. Fat: A type of lipid used for energy storage, insulation, and protection; composed
of glycerol and fatty acids.

100. Food chain: A linear sequence of organisms showing energy transfer through
consumption.

Continuation (Page 1, from term 101 onward):

101. Food web: A complex network of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem,

showing the flow of energy and nutrients.

102. G1 phase: The first stage of interphase in the cell cycle, where the cell grows and
carries out normal functions.

103. G2 phase: The second stage of interphase in the cell cycle, where the cell
prepares for mitosis by producing organelles and molecules required for cell division.

104. Gamete: A haploid reproductive cell, such as sperm or egg, that fuses with
another gamete during fertilization.

105. Gene mutation: A change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene, which may affect
protein function.

106. Genes: Segments of DNA that code for specific proteins and determine inherited
traits.

107. Genome: The complete set of an organism’s DNA, including all of its genes.

108. Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism, represented by its alleles (e.g.,
AA, Aa, or aa).

109. Glucose: A simple sugar (C₆H₁₂O₆) used by cells as a primary energy source.

110. Glycolysis (R→P): The first step of cellular respiration, where glucose is broken
down into pyruvate, yielding ATP and NADH.

111. Golgi apparatus: An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and
lipids for storage or transport out of the cell.

112. Greenhouse effect: The trapping of heat in Earth’s atmosphere by greenhouse

gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane.
 113. Griffith: Frederick Griffith, a scientist who discovered the process of bacterial
transformation in his experiments with pneumonia-causing bacteria.

114. Guanine: A nitrogenous base found in DNA and RNA that pairs with cytosine.

115. Habitat: The natural environment where an organism lives and thrives.

116. Habitat fragmentation: The breaking up of a habitat into smaller, isolated patches,
often due to human activities.

117. Haploid: Cells containing one set of chromosomes (n), such as gametes.

118. Helicase: An enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix during DNA replication.

119. Herbivore: An organism that primarily consumes plants.

120. Herbivory: The act of eating plants, which can influence plant populations and
ecosystem dynamics.

121. Hershey and Chase: Scientists who confirmed that DNA is the genetic material
by using bacteriophages in their experiments.

122. Heterotroph: Organisms that obtain energy by consuming other organisms.

123. Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a particular gene (e.g., Aa).

124. Histone: Proteins around which DNA is coiled to form chromatin.

Page 2

125. Homeostasis: The process by which organisms maintain a stable internal

environment despite external changes.

126. Homologous chromosomes: Pairs of chromosomes, one from each parent, that
have the same genes but may carry different alleles.

127. Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a particular gene (e.g., AA or aa).

128. Hydrogen bond: A weak bond between a hydrogen atom and another atom, such
as in water molecules or between base pairs in DNA.

129. Hydrolysis: A chemical reaction in which water is used to break bonds in

molecules, splitting polymers into monomers.

130. Hypertonic: A solution with a higher solute concentration than the cell, causing
the cell to lose water.

131. Hypothesis: A testable prediction or explanation for an observation.

 132. Hypotonic: A solution with a lower solute concentration than the cell, causing the
cell to gain water.

133. Immigration: The movement of individuals into a population, increasing its size.

134. Independent variable: The variable in an experiment that is deliberately changed

or manipulated to test its effect.

135. Inference: A logical conclusion based on observations and prior knowledge.

136. Insertion: A type of mutation where an extra nucleotide is added to a DNA

sequence.

137. Intermediate inheritance: Inheritance where the heterozygous phenotype is

intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes.

138. Interphase: The phase of the cell cycle where the cell grows, replicates its DNA,
and prepares for division.

139. Introns: Non-coding regions of a gene that are removed during RNA processing.

140. Inversion: A chromosomal mutation where a segment of a chromosome is

reversed.

141. Ion: An atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of
electrons.

142. Ionic bond: A chemical bond formed between oppositely charged ions.

143. Isotonic: A solution with the same solute concentration as the cell, resulting in no
net movement of water.

144. Isotope: Variants of an element with the same number of protons but a different
number of neutrons.

145. Karyotype: A visual representation of an organism’s chromosomes, arranged by

size and shape.

146. Keystone species: A species that has a disproportionately large effect on its
ecosystem relative to its abundance.

147. Kingdom: A high-level taxonomic category that groups organisms sharing basic
traits (e.g., Animalia, Plantae).

148. Krebs cycle (R→P): A series of chemical reactions in cellular respiration that
generate ATP, NADH, and FADH₂ by oxidizing acetyl-CoA.
 149. Light-dependent reaction (R→P): The part of photosynthesis where sunlight is
used to produce ATP and NADPH.

150. Limiting factor: An environmental condition that restricts population growth, such
as food availability or space.

151. Limiting nutrient: A nutrient in short supply that limits the growth of organisms,
such as nitrogen or phosphorus.

152. Lipid: Organic molecules used for long-term energy storage, insulation, and cell
membranes; includes fats, oils, and phospholipids.

153. Logistic growth: Population growth that levels off as it approaches the carrying
capacity of the environment.

154. Lysosome: An organelle containing digestive enzymes that break down waste
materials and cellular debris.

155. M phase: The phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis, where
the cell divides.

156. Meiosis: A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half,
producing four haploid gametes.

157. Metaphase: A stage of mitosis or meiosis where chromosomes align at the cell’s
equatorial plane.

158. Mitochondria: Organelles known as the “powerhouses” of the cell, where ATP is
produced during cellular respiration.

159. Mitosis: A type of cell division that results in two identical diploid daughter cells.

160. Model: A simplified representation of a system, process, or concept used for

understanding and analysis.

161. Monomer: A small molecule that can bond with others to form a polymer.

162. Monosaccharide: The simplest form of carbohydrate, such as glucose or

fructose.

163. mRNA/tRNA/rRNA:

• mRNA (messenger RNA): Carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome
for protein synthesis.

• tRNA (transfer RNA): Brings amino acids to the ribosome during translation.
 • rRNA (ribosomal RNA): A component of ribosomes that aids in protein synthesis.

164. Multicellular: Organisms made of multiple cells that work together to perform life
functions.

165. Mutualism: A type of symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit.

166. N = # of chromosomes in humans: Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes,

totaling 46 (diploid number).

167. Neutral pH: A pH of 7, indicating a substance that is neither acidic nor basic (e.g.,
pure water).

168. Neutron: A subatomic particle with no charge, found in the nucleus of an atom.

169. Niche: The role an organism plays in its ecosystem, including its use of resources
and interactions with other species.

170. Nitrogen fixation: The conversion of nitrogen gas (N₂) into ammonia (NH₃) by
bacteria, making it usable for plants.

171. Nitrogenous base: A component of nucleotides in DNA and RNA, including

adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil.

172. Nondisjunction: An error in meiosis or mitosis where chromosomes fail to

separate properly, leading to aneuploidy.

173. Nonpolar: Molecules with no separation of charge, resulting in no positive or

negative poles (e.g., fats and oils).

174. Nucleotide: The building block of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), consisting of a
sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

175. Nucleus: A membrane-bound organelle in eukaryotic cells that contains the

genetic material (DNA).

176. Nucleus of an atom: The dense, positively charged center of an atom, containing
protons and neutrons.

177. Nutrient: A substance needed by organisms for energy, growth, and

maintenance.

178. Omnivore: An organism that eats both plants and animals.

179. Oncogenes: Mutated or overactive genes that can cause uncontrolled cell
growth, leading to cancer.
 180. Orbital: A region around an atom’s nucleus where electrons are likely to be
found.

181. Organic: Molecules that contain carbon and are found in living organisms.

182. Osmosis: The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from
a region of low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

183. Parasitism: A type of symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits at the
expense of the other.

184. Passive transport: The movement of substances across a cell membrane without
the use of energy.

185. Pedigree: A diagram that shows the inheritance of traits through generations in a
family.

186. pH: A measure of how acidic or basic a solution is, ranging from 0 (acidic) to 14
(basic).

187. Phenotype: The physical traits or characteristics of an organism, resulting from its
genotype.

188. Phosphate group: A component of nucleotides and phospholipids, essential for

energy transfer and membrane structure.

189. Phospholipid: A lipid with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail, forming the
bilayer of cell membranes.

190. Photosynthesis (equation): The process by which plants convert sunlight, water,
and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen:

191. Phytoplankton: Microscopic photosynthetic organisms in aquatic environments

that form the base of the food chain.

192. Pioneer species: The first species to colonize barren or disturbed environments,
starting ecological succession.

193. Plasma membrane: The semi-permeable membrane surrounding the cell,

composed of a phospholipid bilayer.

194. Polar: Molecules with unequal distribution of charges, resulting in positive and
negative poles (e.g., water).
 195. Pollutant: A substance introduced into the environment that causes harm or
imbalance.

196. Polygenic: Traits controlled by multiple genes, such as skin color or height.

197. Polymer: Large molecules composed of repeating monomer units, such as

proteins or DNA.

198. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): A technique used to amplify specific DNA
sequences.

199. Polysaccharide: Complex carbohydrates made of many monosaccharides, such

as starch or cellulose.

200. Population: A group of individuals of the same species living in a specific area.

Final Section (Page 2, from term 201 onward)

201. Population density: The number of individuals per unit area or volume.

202. Predation: An interaction where one organism (predator) kills and eats another
(prey).

203. Primary succession: Ecological succession that occurs in areas with no prior soil,
such as after a volcanic eruption.

204. Principle of independent assortment: Mendel’s law stating that genes for different
traits segregate independently during gamete formation.

205. Principle of segregation: Mendel’s law stating that each organism carries two
alleles for each gene, which segregate during gamete formation.

206. Producer: Organisms, such as plants or algae, that produce energy-rich

compounds through photosynthesis.

207. Products: The substances formed as a result of a chemical reaction.

208. Prokaryotic: Cells without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, such as

bacteria.

209. Prophase: The first stage of mitosis, where chromosomes condense, and the
nuclear envelope breaks down.

210. Protein: Polymers of amino acids that perform various functions, including
enzymatic, structural, and regulatory roles.
 211. Protein channels: Membrane proteins that allow specific molecules to pass
through the cell membrane.

212. Proton: A positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom.

213. Punnett square: A diagram used to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of
offspring based on parental alleles.

214. Qualitative observation: Observations that describe qualities or characteristics,

such as color or texture.

215. Quantitative observation: Observations involving measurements or numbers,

such as length or temperature.

216. Reactants: The starting substances in a chemical reaction.

217. Recessive: An allele that is expressed only when two copies are present
(homozygous recessive).

218. Recombinant DNA: DNA molecules formed by combining genetic material from
different sources.

219. Restriction enzyme: Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences, used in
genetic engineering.

220. Ribose: A sugar found in RNA.

221. Ribosome: Organelles that synthesize proteins by translating mRNA.

222. RNA: Ribonucleic acid, involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation.

223. RNA polymerase: An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during
transcription.

224. Rough ER: Endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes, involved in protein
synthesis.

225. S phase: The phase of the cell cycle where DNA replication occurs.

226. Scavenger: Organisms that consume dead animals.

227. Scientific theory: A well-substantiated explanation of natural phenomena,

supported by evidence.

228. Secondary succession: Succession that occurs in areas where soil remains after
a disturbance.
 229. Selective permeability: The property of the plasma membrane that allows certain
substances to pass while blocking others.

230. Sex-linked gene: A gene located on a sex chromosome, often leading to traits
that differ between sexes.

231. Sister chromatid: Identical copies of a chromosome connected by a centromere.

232. Smooth ER: Endoplasmic reticulum without ribosomes, involved in lipid synthesis
and detoxification.

233. Solute: The substance dissolved in a solvent to form a solution.

234. Solvent: The substance in which a solute is dissolved to form a solution (e.g.,
water).

235. Somatic cell: Any body cell other than gametes.

236. Species: A group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile

offspring.

237. Spindle fibers: Protein structures that separate chromosomes during cell division.

238. Steroids: Lipids with a structure of four fused rings, functioning in hormones and
membranes.

239. Stroma: The fluid inside the chloroplast where the Calvin cycle takes place.

240. Symbiosis: A close relationship between two species that benefits, harms, or
does not affect one or both.

241. Telophase: The final stage of mitosis, where the chromosomes de-condense, and
nuclear envelopes re-form.

242. Thylakoid: Membrane structures in chloroplasts where the light-dependent

reactions of photosynthesis occur.

243. Thymine: A nitrogenous base in DNA that pairs with adenine.

244. Transcription: The process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.

245. Translation: The process where ribosomes synthesize proteins using mRNA as a
template.

246. Translocation: A chromosomal mutation where a segment of one chromosome is

transferred to another.
 247. Triplet: A sequence of three nucleotides in DNA or RNA that codes for a specific
amino acid.

248. Trophic level: The position an organism occupies in a food chain, such as
producer or consumer.

249. True-breeding: Organisms that produce offspring identical to themselves when

self-fertilized.

250. Unicellular: Organisms composed of a single cell.

251. Uracil: A nitrogenous base in RNA that replaces thymine and pairs with adenine.

252. Vacuole: A storage organelle in cells, particularly large in plant cells for storing
water and nutrients.

253. Water: A polar molecule essential for life, involved in many biological processes.

254. Watson and Crick: Scientists who discovered the double-helix structure of DNA.

255. Weather: The day-to-day atmospheric conditions in a specific area.

256. Wilkins and Franklin: Scientists who contributed to discovering DNA structure
through X-ray diffraction.

257. Zooplankton: Microscopic aquatic animals that feed on phytoplankton.