Network Reference Model

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 Foreword
⚫ In the digital era, various information is presented as data in our life. What is data?
How is data transmitted?
⚫ In this course, we will use the network reference model to understand the "life" of
data.

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 Objectives
⚫ On completion of this course, you will be able to:
 Understand the data definition and transmission process.
 Understand the concepts and advantages of the network reference model.
 Understand common standard protocols.
 Understand the data encapsulation and decapsulation processes.

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 Contents
1. Applications and Data

2. Network Reference Model and Standard Protocols

3. Data Communication Process

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 Origin of the Story - Applications
⚫ Applications are used to meet various requirements of people, such as web page
access, online gaming, and online video playback.
⚫ Information is generated along with applications. Texts, pictures, and videos are all
information presentation modes.

Application

Information

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 Application Implementation - Data
⚫ Data generation
 In the computer field, data is the carrier of all kinds of information.
⚫ Data transmission
 Data generated by most applications needs to be transmitted between devices.

Does an application
Data need to complete
the entire process
Network from data
generation to data
transmission?

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• A computer can identify only digital data consisting of 0s and 1s. It is incapable of
reading other types of information, so the information needs to be translated into data
by certain rules.

• However, people do not have the capability of reading electronic data. Therefore, data
needs to be converted into information that can be understood by people.

• A network engineer needs to pay more attention to the end-to-end data transmission
process.
 Contents
1. Applications and Data

2. Network Reference Model and Standard Protocols

3. Data Communication Process

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 OSI Reference Model

7. Application Layer Provides interfaces for applications.

Translates data formats to ensure that the application-layer data of one
6. Presentation Layer system can be identified by the application layer of another system.
Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between communicating
5. Session Layer parties.
Establishes, maintains, and cancels an end-to-end data transmission
4. Transport Layer process; controls transmission speeds and adjusts data sequences.

3. Network Layer Defines logical addresses and transfers data from sources to destinations.
Encapsulates packets into frames, transmits frames in P2P or P2MP mode,
2. Data Link Layer and implements error checking.
Transmits bitstreams over transmission media and defines electrical and
1. Physical Layer physical specifications.

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• The Open Systems Interconnection Model (OSI) was included in the ISO 7489 standard
and released in 1984. ISO stands for International Organization for Standardization.

• The OSI reference model is also called the seven-layer model. The seven layers from
bottom to top are as follows:

▫ Physical layer: transmits bit flows between devices and defines physical
specifications such as electrical levels, speeds, and cable pins.

▫ Data link layer: encapsulates bits into octets and octets into frames, uses MAC
addresses to access media, and implements error checking.

▫ Network layer: defines logical addresses for routers to determine paths and
transmits data from source networks to destination networks.

▫ Transport layer: implements connection-oriented and non-connection-oriented

data transmission, as well as error checking before retransmission.

▫ Session layer: establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between entities at

the presentation layer. Communication at this layer is implemented through
service requests and responses transmitted between applications on different
devices.

▫ Presentation layer: provides data encoding and conversion so that data sent by
the application layer of one system can be identified by the application layer of
another system.

▫ Application layer: provides network services for applications and the OSI layer
closest to end users.
 TCP/IP Reference Model
⚫ The OSI protocol stack is complex, and the TCP and IP protocols are widely used in
the industry. Therefore, the TCP/IP reference model becomes the mainstream
reference model of the Internet.

Application Layer

Application Layer Presentation Layer Application Layer

Session Layer

Host-to-Host Layer Transport Layer Transport Layer

Internet Layer Network Layer Network Layer

Network Access Data Link Layer Data Link Layer

Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer

Standard TCP/IP model OSI model Equivalent TCP/IP model

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• The TCP/IP model is similar to the OSI model in structure and adopts a hierarchical
architecture. Adjacent TCP/IP layers are closely related.

• The standard TCP/IP model combines the data link layer and physical layer in the OSI
model into the network access layer. This division mode is contrary to the actual
protocol formulation. Therefore, the equivalent TCP/IP model that integrates the
TCP/IP standard model and the OSI model is proposed. Contents in the following slides
are based on the equivalent TCP/IP model.
 Common TCP/IP Protocols
⚫ The TCP/IP protocol stack defines a series of standard protocols.

Telnet FTP TFTP SNMP

Application Layer
HTTP SMTP DNS DHCP
Transport Layer TCP UDP
ICMP IGMP
Network Layer
IP
PPPoE
Data Link Layer
Ethernet PPP
Physical Layer ...

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• Application Layer
▫ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): is used to access various pages on web
servers.
▫ File Transfer Protocol (FTP): provides a method for transferring files. It allows
data to be transferred from one host to another.
▫ Domain name service (DNS): translates from host domain names to IP addresses.
• Transport layer
▫ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): provides reliable connection-oriented
communication services for applications. Currently, TCP is used by many popular
applications.
▫ User Datagram Protocol (UDP): provides connectionless communication and does
not guarantee the reliability of packet transmission. The reliability can be ensured
by the application layer.
• Network layer
▫ Internet Protocol (IP): encapsulates transport-layer data into data packets and
forwards packets from source sites to destination sites. IP provides a
connectionless and unreliable service.
▫ Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP): manages multicast group
memberships. Specifically, IGMP sets up and maintains memberships between IP
hosts and their directly connected multicast routers.
▫ Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): sends control messages based on the
IP protocol and provides information about various problems that may exist in
the communication environment. Such information helps administrators diagnose
problems and take proper measures to resolve the problems.
• Data link layer

▫ Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP): is a data link layer protocol that works in point-to-
point mode. PPP is mainly used on wide area networks (WANs).

▫ Ethernet: is a multi-access and broadcast protocol at the data link layer, which is
the most widely used local area network (LAN) technology.

▫ Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE): connects multiple hosts on a

network to a remote access concentrator through a simple bridge device (access
device). Common applications include home broadband dialup access.
 Common Protocol Standardization Organizations
⚫ Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 IETF is a voluntary organization responsible for developing and promoting Internet protocols (especially
protocols that constitute the TCP/IP protocol suite), and releasing new or replacing old protocol standards
through RFCs.

⚫ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

 IEEE has formulated about 30% of standards in the electronics, electrical, and computer science fields
worldwide. Those standards include well-known IEEE802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE802.11 (Wi-Fi).

⚫ International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

 ISO is an international organization that plays an important role in the formulation of computer network
standards, such as the OSI model defined in ISO/IEC 7498-1.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Application Layer
• The application layer provides interfaces for application software so that applications can use network
services. The application layer protocol designates transport layer protocols and ports.
• PDUs transmitted at the application layer are called data.

Application • HTTP 80 (TCP)

Layer Hypertext transfer protocol, which provides web browsing services.
(Data) • Telnet 23 (TCP)
Remote login protocol, which provides remote management services.
Transport Layer
• FTP 20 and 21 (TCP)
File transfer protocol, which provides Internet file resource sharing
Network Layer services.
• SMTP 25 (TCP)
Data Link Layer Simple mail transfer protocol, which provides Internet email services.
• TFTP 69 (UDP)
Physical Layer Simple file transfer protocol, which provides simple file transfer services.

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• The TCP/IP suite enables data to be transmitted over a network. The layers use packet
data units (PDUs) to exchange data, implementing communication between network
devices.

• PDUs transmitted at different layers contain different information. Therefore, PDUs

have different names at different layers.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Common Application Layer Protocols - FTP

⚫ The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) transfers files from one host to another to implement file
download and upload. This protocol adopts the client/server (C/S) structure.

FTP client FTP server

Network

FTP client: provides commands for local users to FTP server: a device that runs the FTP service.
operate files on a remote server. A user can It provides the access and operation functions
install an FTP client program on a PC and set up for remote clients, allowing users to access
a connection with an FTP server to operate files the FTP server through the FTP client program
on the server. and access files on the server.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Common Application Layer Protocols - Telnet

⚫ Telnet is a standard protocol that provides remote login services on a network. It provides
users with the ability to operate remote devices through local PCs.

Telnet server

Telnet connection A user connects to a Telnet server

AP Router
through the Telnet client program.

Network The commands entered on the Telnet

Telnet client
SW Firewall
client are executed on the server, as if
... the commands were entered on the
Server console of the server.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Common Application Layer Protocols - HTTP

⚫ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): is one of the most widely used network protocols on the
Internet. HTTP was originally designed to provide a method for publishing and receiving
HTML pages.

Network
HTTP client HTTP server

Visits www.huawei.com.

Returns the HTML file of the page.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Transport Layer
⚫ A transport layer protocol receives data from an application layer protocol, encapsulates the
data with the corresponding transport layer protocol header, and helps establish an end-to-
end (port-to-port) connection.
⚫ PDUs transmitted at the transport layer are called segments.

Application
Layer
Transport layer protocols:
Transport TCP: a connection-oriented reliable
Layer protocol defined by IETF in RFC 793.
(Segment) UDP: a simple connectionless
protocol defined by IETF in RFC 768.
Network Layer

Data Link Layer

Physical Layer

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP and UDP - Header Formats

Source Port (16) Destination Port (16)

Sequence Number (32)
Acknowledgement Number (32) TCP header
Header Reserved Control Window (16) 20 bytes
Length (4) (3) Bits (9)

Checksum (16) Urgent (16)

Options
Data (varies)

Source Port (16) Destination Port (16) UDP header

Length (16) Checksum (16) 8 bytes
Data (if any)

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• TCP header:
▫ Source Port: identifies the application that sends the segment. This field is 16 bits
long.
▫ Destination Port: identifies the application that receives the segment. This field is
16 bits long.
▫ Sequence Number: Every byte of data sent over a TCP connection has a sequence
number. The value of the Sequence Number field equals the sequence number of
the first byte in a sent segment. This field is 32 bits long.
▫ Acknowledgment Number: indicates the sequence number of the next segment's
first byte that the receiver is expecting to receive. The value of this field is 1 plus
the sequence number of the last byte in the previous segment that is successfully
received. This field is valid only when the ACK flag is set. This field is 32 bits long.
▫ Header Length: indicates the length of the TCP header. The unit is 32 bits (4
bytes). If there is no option content, the value of this field is 5, indicating that the
header contains 20 bytes.
▫ Reserved: This field is reserved and must be set to 0. This field is 3 bits long.
▫ Control Bits: control bits, includes FIN, ACK, and SYN flags, indicating TCP data
segments in different states.
▫ Window: used for TCP flow control. The value is the maximum number of bytes
that are allowed by the receiver. The maximum window size is 65535 bytes. This
field is 16 bits long.
▫ Checksum: a mandatory field. It is calculated and stored by the sender and
verified by the receiver. During checksum computation, the TCP header and TCP
data are included, and a 12-byte pseudo header is added before the TCP
segment. This field is 16 bits long.
 ▫ Urgent: indicates the urgent pointer. The urgent pointer is valid only when the
URG flag is set. The Urgent field indicates that the sender transmits data in
emergency mode. The urgent pointer indicates the number of urgent data bytes
in a segment (urgent data is placed at the beginning of the segment). This field
is 16 bits long.

▫ Options: This field is optional. This field is 0 to 40 bytes long.

• UDP header:

▫ Source Port: identifies the application that sends the segment. This field is 16 bits
long.

▫ Destination Port: identifies the application that receives the segment. This field is
16 bits long.

▫ Length: specifies the total length of the UDP header and data. The possible
minimum length is 8 bytes because the UDP header already occupies 8 bytes.
Due to the existence of this field, the total length of a UDP segment does not
exceed 65535 bytes (including an 8-byte header and 65527-byte data).

▫ Checksum: checksum of the UDP header and UDP data. This field is 16 bits long.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP and UDP - Port Numbers

Web browser HTTP server

HTTP application Telnet HTTP application Telnet

TCP port 1024 TCP port 1231 TCP port 80 TCP port 23

House number: 1.1.1.1 (IP address) House number: 2.2.2.2 (IP address)

Network

HTTP client HTTP server

Source IP address: 1.1.1.1

Source port number: 1024 HTTP
Destination IP address:
Destination port number: 80 Payload
2.2.2.2
IP header TCP header

• Generally, the source port used by a client is randomly allocated, and the destination port is specified by the
application of a server.
• The system generally selects a source port number that is greater than 1023 and is not being used.
• The destination port number is the listening port of the application (service) enabled on the server. For example,
the default port number for HTTP is 80.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP Connection Setup - Three-Way Handshake

• Before sending data, a TCP-based application needs to establish a connection through three-
way handshake. PC1 PC2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23

IP header TCP header

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a Ack=0

Destination=2.2.2.2 (Flags: SYN is set.)

Seq=b Ack=a+1
Source = 2.2.2.2
(Flags: SYN is set, and ACK
Destination=1.1.1.1
is set.)

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+1 Ack=b+1

Destination=2.2.2.2 (Flags: ACK is set.)

A TCP connection is established.

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• The TCP connection setup process is as follows:

▫ The TCP connection initiator (PC1 in the figure) sends the first TCP segment with
SYN being set. The initial sequence number a is a randomly generated number.
The acknowledgment number is 0 because no segment has ever been received
from PC2.

▫ After receiving a valid TCP segment with the SYN flag being set, the receiver
(PC2) replies with a TCP segment with SYN and ACK being set. The initial
sequence number b is a randomly generated number. Because the segment is a
response one to PC1, the acknowledgment number is a+1.

▫ After receiving the TCP segment in which SYN and ACK are set, PC1 replies with a
segment in which ACK is set, the sequence number is a+1, and the
acknowledgment number is b+1. After PC2 receives the segment, a TCP
connection is established.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical

TCP Sequence Number and

Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Acknowledgment Number
⚫ TCP uses the Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number fields to implement
reliable and ordered data transmission.

PC1 PC2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23
1 A TCP connection is
2
3 established.
4
5
6 …… IP header TCP header

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+1 Payload

Destination = 2.2.2.2 Ack=b+1 Length = 12 bytes

Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=b+1 Payload

Destination = 1.1.1.1 Ack=a+1+12 Length =0 bytes

Data to be sent Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+13 Payload

Destination = 2.2.2.2 Ack=b+1 Length = 66 bytes Question: Why does the
value of the
Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=b+1 Payload Acknowledgment Number
Destination = 1.1.1.1 Ack=a+13+66 Length = 0 bytes field in the segment sent
by PC1 not increase?

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• Assume that PC1 needs to send segments of data to PC2. The transmission process is
as follows:

1. PC1 numbers each byte to be sent by TCP. Assume that the number of the first
byte is a+1. Then, the number of the second byte is a+2, the number of the third
byte is a+3, and so on.

2. PC1 uses the number of the first byte of each segment of data as the sequence
number and sends out the TCP segment.

3. After receiving the TCP segment from PC1, PC2 needs to acknowledge the
segment and request the next segment of data. How is the next segment of
data determined? Sequence number (a+1) + Payload length = Sequence number
of the first byte of the next segment (a+1+12)

4. After receiving the TCP segment sent by PC2, PC1 finds that the
acknowledgment number is a+1+12, indicating that the segments from a+1 to
a+12 have been received and the sequence number of the upcoming segment to
be sent should be a+1+12.

• To improve the sending efficiency, multiple segments of data can be sent at a time by
the sender and then acknowledged at a time by the receiver.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP Window Sliding Mechanism

⚫ TCP uses the sliding window mechanism to control the data transmission rate.

PC1 PC2

Buffer of the receiver

seq=100 win=3 flags=SYN
1
Three-way seq=200 Ack=101 win=3 flags=SYN,ACK
handshake
seq=101 Ack=201 win=3 flags=ACK

Data to be sent
2 seq=101 win=3

Data seq=102 win=3

transmission 3
seq=103 win=3
Question: Why does
the Window field of
Ack=104 win=1 ctl=ACK 4 the segment sent by
PC1 remain
seq=104 win=3 unchanged?
5

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1. During the TCP three-way handshake, both ends notify each other of the maximum
number of bytes (buffer size) that can be received by the local end through the
Window field.

2. After the TCP connection is set up, the sender sends data of the specified number of
bytes based on the window size declared by the receiver.

3. After receiving the data, the receiver stores the data in the buffer and waits for the
upper-layer application to obtain the buffered data. After the data is obtained by the
upper-layer application, the corresponding buffer space is released.

4. The receiver notifies the current acceptable data size (window) according to its buffer
size.

5. The sender sends a certain amount of data based on the current window size of the
receiver.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

TCP Shutdown - Four-Way Handshake

⚫ After data transmission is complete, TCP needs to use the four-way handshake mechanism to
disconnect the TCP connection and release system resources.
PC1 PC2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23
A TCP connection is
established.
TCP segment
exchange
IP header TCP header

Sends a Seq=101 Ack=301

Source = 1.1.1.1
1 connection (Flags: FIN is set, and ACK is
Destination = 2.2.2.2
teardown set.)
request with
FIN being set. Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=301 Ack=102 Sends ACK. 2
Destination = 1.1.1.1 (Flags: ACK is set.)

Seq=301 Ack=102 Sends a

Source = 2.2.2.2 3
(Flags: FIN is set, and ACK connection
Destination = 1.1.1.1
is set.) teardown
request with
Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=102 Ack=302 FIN being set.
4 Sends ACK.
Destination = 2.2.2.2 (Flags: ACK is set.)

The TCP connection

is torn down.

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• TCP supports data transmission in full-duplex mode, which means that data can be
transmitted in both directions at the same time. Before data is transmitted, TCP sets
up a connection in both directions through three-way handshake. Therefore, after data
transmission is complete, the connection must be closed in both directions. This is
shown in the figure.

1. PC1 sends a TCP segment with FIN being set. The segment does not carry data.

2. After receiving the TCP segment from PC1, PC2 replies with a TCP segment with
ACK being set.

3. PC2 checks whether data needs to be sent. If so, PC2 sends the data, and then a
TCP segment with FIN being set to close the connection. Otherwise, PC2 directly
sends a TCP segment with FIN being set.

4. After receiving the TCP segment with FIN being set, PC1 replies with an ACK
segment. The TCP connection is then torn down in both directions.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Network Layer
⚫ The transport layer is responsible for establishing connections between processes on hosts,
and the network layer is responsible for transmitting data from one host to another.
⚫ PDUs transmitted at the network layer are called packets.

Application
Layer

Transport Layer
• The network layer is also called the Internet layer.
Network It sends packets from source hosts to
Layer destination hosts.
(Packet) • Functions of the network layer:
Provides logical addresses for network devices.
Data Link Layer Routes and forwards data packets.
Common network layer protocols include IPv4,
IPv6, ICMP, and IGMP.
Physical Layer

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• Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the most widely used network layer protocol.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Working Process of a Network Layer Protocol

Packet Encapsulation Packet Forwarding Based on Network Layer Addresses
Letter: data sent by an upper layer (for Router 1
example, the transport layer)
GE0/0/0

PC1 GE0/0/1

PC2
The PC encapsulates the IP header
(envelope).
The key information is about source and
destination IP addresses. Network A

Routing table of Router 1 • The network layer header of a packet sent by a source
device carries the network layer addresses of the
Outbound source and destination devices.
Network •
Interface Each network device (such as a router) that has the
routing function maintains a routing table (like a
Network A GE0/0/1 map of the network device).
Envelope: IP packet header • After receiving a packet, the network device reads the
Sender: source IP address … … network layer destination address of the packet,
Receiver: destination IP address searches the routing table for the matching entry of
the destination address, and forwards the packet
… …
according to the instruction of the matching entry.

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• When IP is used as the network layer protocol, both communication parties are
assigned a unique IP address to identify themselves. An IP address can be written as a
32-bit binary integer. To facilitate reading and analysis, an IP address is usually
represented in dot-decimal notation, consisting of four decimal numbers, each ranging
from 0 to 255, separated by dots, such as, 192.168.1.1.

• Encapsulation and forwarding of IP data packets:

▫ When receiving data from an upper layer (such as the transport layer), the
network layer encapsulates an IP packet header and adds the source and
destination IP addresses to the header.

▫ Each intermediate network device (such as a router) maintains a routing table

that guides IP packet forwarding like a map. After receiving a packet, the
intermediate network device reads the destination address of the packet,
searches the local routing table for a matching entry, and forwards the IP packet
according to the instruction of the matching entry.

▫ When the IP packet reaches the destination host, the destination host determines
whether to accept the packet based on the destination IP address and then
processes the packet accordingly.

• When the IP protocol is running, routing protocols such as OSPF, IS-IS, and BGP are
required to help routers build routing tables, and ICMP is required to help control
networks and diagnose network status.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Data Link Layer

⚫ The data link layer is located between the network layer and the physical layer and provides
services for protocols such as IP and IPv6 at the network layer. PDUs transmitted at the data
link layer are called frames.
⚫ Ethernet is the most common data link layer protocol.

Application
Layer

Transport Layer
The data link layer is located between the network layer
Network Layer and the physical layer.
• The data link layer provides intra-segment
Data Link communication for the network layer.
Layer • The functions of the data link layer include
(Frame) framing, physical addressing, and error control.
Physical Layer
• Common data link layer protocols include
Ethernet, PPPoE, and PPP.

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 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Ethernet and Source MAC Addresses

Ethernet Definition Ethernet Source MAC Addresses

Switch A I have a MAC

address when I Name: Host A
leave the factory.
Switch B MAC address/Ethernet
address/physical address:
Host A Host B
Host A

Network A
Host C Host D • A media access control (MAC) address uniquely identifies
• Ethernet is a broadcast multiple access protocol that a NIC on a network. Each NIC requires and has a unique
works at the data link layer protocol. MAC address.
• The network interfaces of PCs comply with the • MAC addresses are used to locate specific physical devices
Ethernet standard. in an IP network segment.
• Generally, a broadcast domain corresponds to an IP • A device that works at the data link layer, such as an
network segment. Ethernet switch, maintains a MAC address table to guide
data frame forwarding.

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• A MAC address is recognizable as six groups of two hexadecimal digits, separated by

hyphens, colons, or without a separator. Example: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP
⚫ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):
 Discovers the MAC address associated with a given IP address.

ARP request
Destination IP address: 192.168.1.2
Destination MAC address: ?
Host A Host B
192.168.1.1/24 192.168.1.2/24
3C-52-82-49-7E-9D ARP reply 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Source IP address: 192.168.1.2
Source MAC address: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F

Page 28 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a TCP/IP protocol that discovers the data link
layer address associated with a given IP address.

• ARP is an indispensable protocol in IPv4. It provides the following functions:

▫ Discovers the MAC address associated with a given IP address.

▫ Maintains and caches the mapping between IP addresses and MAC addresses
through ARP entries.

▫ Detects duplicate IP addresses on a network segment.

 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (1)

Host 1 checks Host 1 Host 2

cached ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2:192.168.1.2/24
Host 2 adds an ARP MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
entry.
1

Host 2 sends an ARP Step 1:

reply.
Host 1>arp -a • Before sending a datagram, a device searches
Internet Address Physical Address Type its ARP table for the destination MAC address
Host 1 adds an ARP of the datagram.
entry.
• If the destination MAC address exists in the
ARP table, the device encapsulates the MAC
The ARP cache address in the frame and sends out the frame.
table is empty. If the destination MAC address does not exist
in the ARP table, the device sends an ARP
request to discover the MAC address.

Page 29 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• Generally, a network device has an ARP cache. The ARP cache stores the mapping
between IP addresses and MAC addresses.

• Before sending a datagram, a device searches its ARP table. If a matching ARP entry is
found, the device encapsulates the corresponding MAC address in the frame and sends
out the frame. If a matching ARP entry is not found, the device sends an ARP request
to discover the MAC address.

• The learned mapping between the IP address and MAC address is stored in the ARP
table for a period. Within the validity period (180s by default), the device can directly
search this table for the destination MAC address for data encapsulation, without
performing ARP-based query. After the validity period expires, the ARP entry is
automatically deleted.

• If the destination device is located on another network, the source device searches the
ARP table for the gateway MAC address of the destination address and sends the
datagram to the gateway. Then, the gateway forwards the datagram to the
destination device.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (2)

Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2

ARP entries.
3 GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
Host 2 adds an ARP MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2:48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
entry.
Step 2:
Host 2 sends an ARP • Host 1 sends an ARP request to discover
2
reply. Eth_II ARP Request FCS the MAC address of Host 2.
• The destination MAC address in the ARP
Host 1 adds an ARP request is 0 because the destination MAC
entry. address is unknown.
Destination MAC
address: Operation type: ARP request
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF MAC address of the sender: MAC 1
Source MAC address: IP address of the sender: IP 1 Step 3:
MAC 1 Destination MAC address: 00-00-00-00-00-00 • The ARP request message is a broadcast
Destination IP address: IP 2 data frame. After receiving the ARP request
message, the switch floods it.

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• In this example, the ARP table of Host 1 does not contain the MAC address of Host 2.
Therefore, Host 1 sends an ARP request message to discover the destination MAC
address.

• The ARP request message is encapsulated in an Ethernet frame. The source MAC
address in the frame header is the MAC address of Host 1 at the transmit end. Because
Host 1 does not know the MAC address of Host 2, the destination MAC address is the
broadcast address FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF.

• The ARP request message contains the source MAC address, source IP address,
destination MAC address, and destination IP address. The destination MAC address is
all 0s. The ARP request message is broadcast to all hosts on the network, including
gateways.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (3)

Host 1 checks Host 1 Host 2

cached ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
Host 2 adds an ARP MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
entry.
4
Step 4:
Host 2 sends an ARP
reply. • After receiving the ARP request message, each host Host 2>arp -a
checks whether it is the destination of the message Internet Address Physical Address Type
based on the carried destination IP address. 192.168.1.1 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D Dynamic
Host 1 adds an ARP
• Host 2 finds that it is the destination of the message
entry.
and then records the mapping between the sender's
MAC and IP addresses in its ARP table.

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• After receiving the ARP request message, each host checks whether it is the destination
of the message based on the carried destination IP address. If not, the host does not
respond to the ARP request message. If so, the host adds the sender's MAC and IP
addresses carried in the ARP request message to the ARP table, and then replies with
an ARP reply message.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (4)

Host 1 checks Host 1 Host 2

cached ARP entries. 6
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
Host 2 adds an ARP MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
entry.
Step 5: 5
Host 2 sends an ARP • Host 2 sends an ARP reply to Host 1.
reply. • In this step, Host 2 has discovered the MAC address of Host Eth_II ARP Reply FCS
1, so the ARP reply is a unicast data frame.
Host 1 adds an ARP
entry. Destination MAC
address: MAC-1 Operation type: ARP reply
Step 6: Source MAC address: Sender's MAC address: MAC 2
MAC 2 Sender's IP address: IP 2
• After receiving the unicast data frame, the switch forwards
Receiver's MAC address: MAC 1
the frame.
Receiver's IP address: IP 1

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• Host 2 sends an ARP reply message to Host 1.

• In the ARP reply message, the sender's IP address is the IP address of Host 2 and the
receiver's IP address is the IP address of Host 1. The receiver's MAC address is the MAC
address of Host 1 and the sender's MAC address is the MAC address of Host 2. The
operation type is set to reply.

• ARP reply messages are transmitted in unicast mode.

 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (5)

Host 1 checks Host 1 Host 2

cached ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP

request.
IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
Host 2 adds an ARP MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
entry.
7
Step 7:
Host 2 sends an ARP
reply. Host 1>arp -a • After receiving the ARP reply message, Host 1 checks
Internet Address Physical Address Type whether it is the destination of the message based
192.168.1.2 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F Dynamic on the carried destination IP address.
Host 1 adds an ARP
• If so, Host 1 records the carried sender's MAC and IP
entry.
addresses in its ARP table.

Page 33 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• After receiving the ARP reply message, Host 1 checks whether it is the destination of
the message based on the carried destination IP address. If so, Host 1 records the
carried sender's MAC and IP addresses in its ARP table.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Physical Layer
⚫ After data arrives at the physical layer, the physical layer converts a digital signal into an optical signal,
an electrical signal, or an electromagnetic wave signal based on the physical media.
⚫ PDUs transmitted at the physical layer are called bitstreams.

Application
Layer

Transport Layer

Network Layer

The physical layer is at the bottom of the model.

Data Link Layer • This layer transmits bitstreams on media.
• It standardizes physical features such as cables, pins,
Physical voltages, and interfaces.
Layer • Common transmission media include twisted pairs,
(Bitstream) optical fibers, and electromagnetic waves.

Page 34 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Application Transport Network Data Link Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer

Common Transmission Media

Fiber Optical module

Twisted pair RJ45 connector

Data transmission through twisted pairs Data transmission through optical fibers
1 2

3 4

Synchronous/asynchronous
serial cable: V.24 on the left
and V.35 on the right PAD Mobile phone Laptop Wireless router

Data transmission between terminal and

Data transmission through serial cables wireless routers through wireless signals

Page 35 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• Twisted pairs: most common transmission media used on Ethernet networks. Twisted
pairs can be classified into the following types based on their anti-electromagnetic
interference capabilities:

▫ STP: shielded twisted pairs

▫ UTP: unshielded twisted pairs

• Optical fiber transmission can be classified into the following types based on functional
components:

▫ Fibers: optical transmission media, which are glass fibers, used to restrict optical
transmission channels.

▫ Optical modules: convert electrical signals into optical signals to generate optical
signals.

• Serial cables are widely used on wide area networks (WANs). The types of interfaces
connected to serial cables vary according to WAN line types. The interfaces include
synchronous/synchronous serial interfaces, ATM interfaces, POS interfaces, and CE1/PRI
interfaces.

• Wireless signals may be transmitted by using electromagnetic waves. For example, a

wireless router modulates data and sends the data by using electromagnetic waves,
and a wireless network interface card of a mobile terminal demodulates the
electromagnetic waves to obtain data. Data transmission from the wireless router to
the mobile terminal is then complete.
 Contents
1. Applications and Data

2. Network Reference Model and Standard Protocols

3. Data Communication Process

Page 36 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Data Encapsulation on the Sender

DATA Application Layer Data

www.huawei.com

TCP Header DATA Transport Layer Segment

Network Layer Packet

IP Header Payload

Data Link Layer Frame

Eth Header Payload FCS

... Physical Layer Bit

Transmission
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ...
Media Transmission Media
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• Assume that you are using a web browser to access Huawei's official website. After
you enter the website address and press Enter, the following events occur on your
computer:
1. The browser (application program) invokes HTTP (application layer protocol) to
encapsulate the application layer data. (The DATA in the figure should also
include the HTTP header, which is not shown here.)
2. HTTP uses TCP to ensure reliable data transmission and transmits encapsulated
data to the TCP module.
3. The TCP module adds the corresponding TCP header information (such as the
source and destination port numbers) to the data transmitted from the
application layer. At the transport layer, the PDU is called a segment.
4. On an IPv4 network, the TCP module sends the encapsulated segment to the
IPv4 module at the network layer. (On an IPv6 network, the segment is sent to
the IPv6 module for processing.)
5. After receiving the segment from the TCP module, the IPv4 module encapsulates
the IPv4 header. At this layer, the PDU is called a packet.
▫ Ethernet is used as the data link layer protocol. Therefore, after the IPv4 module
completes encapsulation, it sends the packet to the Ethernet module (such as the
Ethernet NIC) at the data link layer for processing.
▫ After receiving the packet from the IPv4 module, the Ethernet module adds the
corresponding Ethernet header and FCS frame trailer to the packet. At this layer,
the PDU is called a frame.
▫ After the Ethernet module completes encapsulation, it sends the data to the
physical layer.
▫ Based on the physical media, the physical layer converts digital signals into
electrical signals, optical signals, or electromagnetic (wireless) signals.
▫ The converted signals start to be transmitted on the network.
 Data Transmission on the Intermediate
Network
⚫ Encapsulated data is transmitted on the network.
Data

Data

Application Application
Layer Layer

Transport Layer Transport Layer

Network Layer Network Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer Data Link Layer Data Link Layer Data Link Layer
Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer

Page 39 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

• In most cases:

▫ A Layer 2 device (such as an Ethernet switch) only decapsulates the Layer 2

header of the data and performs the corresponding switching operation
according to the information in the Layer 2 header.

▫ A Layer 3 device (such as a router) decapsulates the Layer 3 header and

performs routing operations based on the Layer 3 header information.

▫ Note: The details and principles of switching and routing will be described in
subsequent courses.
 Data Decapsulation on the Receiver

Application Layer DATA Data

Web server

Transport Layer DATA Segment

Network Layer Payload Packet

Data Link Layer Payload Frame

Physical Layer …… Bit

Transmission 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ...
Media

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• After being transmitted over the intermediate network, the data finally reaches the
destination server. Based on the information in different protocol headers, the data is
decapsulated layer by layer, processed, transmitted, and finally sent to the application
on the web server for processing.
 Summary
⚫ Both the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model adopt the layered
design concept.
 Clear division of functions and boundaries between layers facilitates the development,
design, and troubleshooting of each component.

 The functions of each layer can be defined to impel industry standardization.

 Interfaces can be provided to enable communication between hardware and software on

various networks, improving compatibility.

⚫ Data generation and transmission require collaboration between modules.

Meanwhile, each module must fulfill its own responsibilities.

Page 41 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Quiz
1. What are the benefits of the layered model?

2. What are the common protocols at the application layer, transport layer, network layer,
and data link layer?

Page 42 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Answer:

▫ Clear division of functions and boundaries between layers facilitates the

development, design, and troubleshooting of each component.

▫ The functions of each layer can be defined to impel industry standardization.

▫ Interfaces can be provided to enable communication between hardware and

software on various networks, improving compatibility.

2. Answer:

▫ Application layer: HTTP, FTP, Telnet, and so on

▫ Transport layer: UDP and TCP

▫ Network layer: IP, ICMP, and so on

▫ Data link layer: Ethernet, PPP, PPPoE, and so on

 Thank You
www.huawei.com

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