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 CHAPTER 6

MANAGERIAL DECISION MAKING

CHAPTER OUTLINE
New Manager Self-Test: How Do You Make Decisions?
I. Types of Decisions and Problems
A. Programmed and Nonprogrammed Decisions
B. Facing Certainty and Uncertainty
New Manager Self-Test: Intolerance of Ambiguity
II. Decision-Making Models
A. The Ideal, Rational Model
B. How Managers Actually Make Decisions
C. The Political Model
III. Decision-Making Steps
A. Recognition of Decision Requirement
B. Diagnosis and Analysis of Causes
C. Development of Alternatives
D. Selection of the Desired Alternative
E. Implementation of the Chosen Alternative
F. Evaluation and Feedback
IV. Personal Decision Framework
V. Why Do Managers Make Bad Decisions?
VI. Innovative Decision Making
A. Start with Brainstorming
B. Use Hard Evidence
C. Engage in Rigorous Debate
D. Avoid Groupthink
E. Know When to Bail
F. Do a Postmortem

ANNOTATED LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this chapter, students should be able to:

1. Explain why decision making is an important component of good management.

Every organization grows, prospers, or fails as a result of decisions made by its managers.
Managers are often referred to as decision makers. Good decision making is a vital part of good
management. Decisions determine how the organization solves its problems, allocates resources,
and accomplishes its objectives. Decision making is not easy. It must be done amid
ever-changing factors, unclear information, and conflicting points of view. Plans and strategies
are arrived at through decision making. The better the decision making, the better the strategic
planning.

© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managerial Decision Making •

2. Discuss the difference between programmed and nonprogrammed decisions and the decision
characteristics of certainty and uncertainty.

Programmed decisions involve situations that have occurred often enough to enable decision
rules to be developed and applied in the future. Once managers formulate decision rules,
subordinates and others can make the decision, freeing managers for other tasks.

Nonprogrammed decisions are made in response to situations that are unique, are poorly defined
and largely unstructured, and have important consequences for the organization. Many
nonprogrammed decisions involve strategic planning because uncertainty is great and decisions
are complex.

Every decision situation can be organized on a scale according to the availability of information
and the possibility of failure. Certainty means that all the information the decision maker needs
is fully available. However, few decisions are certain in the real world. Most contain some
uncertainty. Uncertainty means that managers know which goals they wish to achieve, but
information about alternatives and future events is incomplete.

3. Describe the ideal, rational model of decision making and the political model of decision
making.

The classical model of decision making is considered to be normative, which means it defines
how a decision maker should make decisions. It is based on rational economic assumptions and
manager beliefs about what ideal decision making should be. It does not describe how managers
actually make decisions so much as it provides guidelines on how to reach an ideal outcome for
the organization. The classical model is most valuable when applied to programmed decisions
and to decisions characterized by certainty or risk because information is available and
probabilities can be calculated. The classical model is often associated with high performance
for organizations in stable environments.

The political model of decision making is useful for making nonprogrammed decisions when
conditions are uncertain, information is limited, and managers may disagree about what goals to
pursue or what course of action to take. The political model closely resembles the real
environment in which most managers and decision makers operate. Managers often engage in
coalition building for making complex organizational decisions. Coalition building is the
process of forming alliances among managers. The inability of managers to build coalitions
often makes it difficult or impossible for managers to get their decisions implemented. This
model is associated with high performance in unstable environments in which decisions must be
made rapidly and under more difficult conditions.

4. Explain the process by which managers actually make decisions in the real world.

The administrative model describes how managers actually make decisions such as those
characterized by nonprogrammed decisions, uncertainty, and ambiguity. The administrative
model is considered to be descriptive. It assumes that managers do not have the time or
resources to make the optimal decision and therefore will be satisfied with the first decision that
meets the minimal criteria. Intuition based on past practice and experience is often used in this
model to make decisions. The application of the administrative model has been associated with
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managerial Decision Making •

high performance in unstable environments in which decisions must be made rapidly and under
more difficult conditions.

5. Identify the six steps used in managerial decision making.

Whether a decision is programmed or nonprogrammed, and regardless the manager follows the
classical, political, or administrative model of decision making, six steps typically are associated
with effective decision-making processes. These six steps are:
• recognition of decision requirement;
• diagnosis and analysis of causes;
• development of alternatives;
• selection of desired alternative;
• implementation of chosen alternative; and
• evaluation and feedback.

6. Describe four personal decision styles used by managers, and explain the biases that
frequently cause managers to make bad decisions.

The directive style is used by people who prefer simple, clear-cut solutions to problems.
Managers with an analytical style like to consider complex solutions based on as much data as
they can gather. People who tend toward a conceptual style also like to consider a broad amount
of information. The behavioral style is characterized by having a deep concern for others as
individuals.

Most bad decisions are errors in judgment that originate in the human mind’s limited capacity
and in the natural biases managers display during decision making. Awareness of the following
six biases can help managers make more enlightened choices:

Being influenced by initial impressions. The mind often gives disproportionate weight to the
first information it receives when considering decisions. These initial impressions act as an
anchor to subsequent thoughts and judgments. Past events and trends also act as anchors. Giving
too much weight to the past can lead to poor forecasts and misguided decisions.

Justifying past decisions. People don’t like to make mistakes, so they continue to support a
flawed decision in an effort to justify or correct the past.

Seeing what you want to see. People frequently look for information that supports their existing
instinct or point of view and avoid information that contradicts it, affecting where they look for
information as well as how they interpret the information they find.

Perpetuating the status quo. Managers may base decisions on what has worked in the past and
fail to explore new options, dig for additional information, or investigate new technologies.

Being influenced by emotions. Managers make better decision when—to the extent possible—
they take emotions out of the decision-making process.

© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managerial Decision Making •

Overconfidence. Most people overestimate their ability to predict uncertain outcomes. Before
making a decision, managers have unrealistic expectations of their ability to understand the risk
and make the right choice.

7. Identify and explain innovative techniques for decision making, including brainstorming,
evidence-based management, and after-action reviews.

One of the best known techniques for rapidly generating creative alternatives is brainstorming.
Brainstorming uses a face-to-face interactive group to spontaneously suggest a broad range of
alternatives for decision making. The keys to effective brainstorming are that people can build
on one another’s ideas, all ideas are acceptable no matter how crazy they seem, and criticism and
evaluation are not allowed. The goal is to generate as many ideas as possible.

Evidence-based decision making is founded on a commitment to examining potential biases,

seeking and examining evidence with rigor, and making informed and intelligent decisions based
on the best available facts and evidence.

An important key to better decision making under conditions of uncertainty is to encourage a

rigorous debate of the issue at hand. Good managers recognize that constructive conflict based
on different points of view can focus a problem, clarify ideas, and stimulate creative thinking. It
can also create a broader understanding of issues and alternatives, and improve broader decision
quality. Two common ways to accomplish this are having a devil’s advocate to challenge the
group’s assumptions and assertions, and engaging in point-counterpoint by giving two subgroups
competing responsibilities.

Avoiding groupthink helps groups make better decisions. Groupthink refers to the tendency of
people in groups to suppress contrary opinions. When people slip into groupthink, the desire for
harmony outweighs concerns over decision quality. Group members emphasize maintaining
unity rather than realistically challenging problems and alternatives. Some disagreement and
conflict is much healthier than blind agreement.

Managers need to know when to bail; i.e., they must be able to discern when to pull the plug on
something that isn’t working. Escalating commitment means that organizations often continue to
invest time and money in a solution despite strong evidence that it is not appropriate to do so.
Managers might block or distort negative information because they don’t want to be responsible
for a bad decision, or might not accept that their decision is wrong.

To improve decision making people review the results of their decisions, they learn valuable
lessons for how to do things better in the future. A technique adopted from the U.S. Army, the
after-action review is a disciplined procedure whereby managers review the results of decisions
to evaluate what worked, what didn’t, and how to do things better.

© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managerial Decision Making •

LECTURE OUTLINE
NEW MANAGER SELF-TEST: HOW DO YOU MAKE DECISIONS?

Most of us make decisions automatically and without realizing that people have diverse decision-
making behaviors, which they bring to management positions. New managers typically use a
different decision behavior than seasoned executives. They often start out with a more directive,
decisive, command-oriented behavior and gradually move toward more openness, diversity of
viewpoints, and interactions with others as they move up the hierarchy. This exercise helps
students determine whether they typically make decisions more like new managers or more like
senior managers.

I. TYPES OF DECISIONS AND PROBLEMS

A decision is a choice made from available alternatives. Decision making is the process of
identifying problems and opportunities and then resolving them. Decision making involves
effort both before and after the actual choice.

A. Programmed and Nonprogrammed Decisions

1. Programmed decisions involve situations that have occurred often enough to enable
decision rules to be developed and applied in the future. Once managers formulate
decision rules, subordinates and others can make decisions freeing managers for other
tasks.

2. Nonprogrammed decisions are made in response to situations that are unique,

poorly defined, largely unstructured, and likely to have important consequences for
the organization. Nonprogrammed decisions often involve strategic planning because
uncertainty is great and decisions are complex.

B. Facing Certainty and Uncertainty Exhibit 6.1

1. One difference between programmed and nonprogrammed decisions relates to the

degree of certainty or uncertainty that managers deal with in making the decision. In
a perfect world, managers have all the information necessary for making decisions.
In reality, some things are unknowable and some decisions will fail. Every decision
situation can be organized on a scale according to the availability of information and
the possibility of failure. The four positions on the scale are certainty, risk,
uncertainty, and ambiguity.

a. Certainty means that all the information the decision maker needs is fully
available. Few decisions are certain in the real world. Most contain risk or
uncertainty.

b. Risk means a decision has clear-cut objectives and good information available.
The future outcomes associated with each alternative are subject to failure;
however, enough information is available to allow the probability of a successful
outcome for each alternative to be estimated.
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managerial Decision Making •

c. Uncertainty means managers know which goals they wish to achieve, but
information about alternatives and future outcomes is incomplete. Factors that
may affect a decision, such as price, production costs, volume, or future interest
rates, are difficult to analyze and predict. Managers may have to come up with
creative approaches to alternatives and use personal judgment to determine which
alternative is best. Many decisions made under uncertainty do not produce the
desired results, but managers face uncertainty every day.

d. Ambiguity means that the goals to be achieved or the problem to be solved is

unclear, alternatives are difficult to define, and information about outcomes is
unavailable. High ambiguous circumstances can create a wicked decision
problem, with conflicts over goals and decision alternatives, rapidly changing
circumstances, fuzzy information, and unclear linkages among decision elements.
Managers have a difficult time coming to grips with the issues and must conjure
up reasonable scenarios in the absence of clear information. Ambiguity is by far
the most difficult decision situation.

Discussion Question #3: Explain the difference between risk and ambiguity. How might
decision making differ for a risky versus an ambiguous situation?

NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

NEW MANAGER SELF-TEST: INTOLERANCE OF AMBIGUITY

This exercise helps students to determine how comfortable they are when dealing with
ambiguity.

II. DECISION-MAKING MODELS Exhibit 6.2

Decisions are usually made using the classical, the administrative, or the political decision
making model. The choice of model used depends on the manager’s personal preference,
whether the decision is programmed or nonprogrammed, and the degree of uncertainty
associated with the decision.

A. The Ideal, Rational Model

1. The classical model of decision making is based on assumptions that managers

should make logical decisions that will be in the organization’s best economic
interests. The four assumptions include:

a. The decision maker operates to accomplish goals that are known and agreed upon.

b. The decision maker strives for conditions of certainty, gathering complete

information.

c. Criteria for evaluating alternatives are known.

© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managerial Decision Making •

d. The decision maker is rational and uses logic to assign values, order preferences,
evaluate alternatives, and make the decision to maximize goals.

2. The classical model is normative, defining how a decision maker should make
decisions, and providing guidelines for reaching an ideal outcome for the
organization. The value of the classical model has been to help decision makers be
more rational.

3. The classical model represents an “ideal” model of decision making that is often
unattainable by real people in real organizations. It works best when applied to
programmed decisions and to decisions characterized by uncertainty or risk because
relevant information is available and probabilities can be calculated.

Discussion Question #8: List some possible advantages and disadvantages to using computer
technology for managerial decision making.

NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

B. How Managers Actually Make Decisions

1. Bounded Rationality and Satisficing

a. The administrative model is considered to be descriptive, meaning that it

describes how managers actually make decisions rather than how they should
make them. Herbert A. Simon proposed two concepts instrumental in shaping the
administrative model: bounded rationality and satisficing.

b. Bounded rationality means people have limits, or boundaries, on the amount of

information they can process in making a decision. Because managers do not
have the time or cognitive ability to process complete information about complex
decisions, they must satisfice.

c. Satisficing means that decision makers choose the first solution alternative that
satisfies minimal decision criteria. Rather than pursue all alternatives, managers
will opt for the first solution that appears to solve the problem. The decision
maker cannot justify the time and expense of obtaining complete information.

d. According to the administrative model:

• Decision goals often are vague, conflicting, and lack consensus among
managers.

• Rational procedures are not always used, and when they are, they are confined
to a simplistic view of the problem that does not capture the complexity of
real events.

© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managerial Decision Making •

• Managers’ searches for alternatives are limited because of human,

information, and resource constraints.

• Most managers settle for a satisficing rather than a maximizing solution.

2. Intuition

a. Intuition is another aspect of administrative decision making. Intuition

represents a quick apprehension of a decision situation based on past experience
but without conscious thought. Intuitive decision making is not arbitrary or
irrational because it is based on years of practice and hands-on experience.

b. Intuition begins with recognition; when people build a depth of experience and
knowledge in a particular area, the right decision often comes quickly and
effortlessly. Research on the validity of intuition in decision making is
inconclusive, suggesting that managers should take a cautious approach to it,
applying intuition only under the right circumstances and in the right way.

Discussion Question #9: Can intuition and evidence-based decision making coexist as valid
approaches within an organization? How might managers combine their intuition with a
rational, data-driven, evidence-based approach?

NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

C. The Political Model

1. This model is for nonprogrammed decisions when conditions are uncertain,

information is limited, and there is disagreement about the goals to pursue or the
action to take. Managers often engage in coalition building for making complex
organizational decisions. A coalition is an informal alliance among managers who
support a specific goal. Coalition building is the process of forming alliances among
managers. The inability of managers to build coalitions often makes it difficult or
impossible for them to get their decisions implemented. The political model closely
resembles the real environment in which most managers and decision makers operate.
The political model begins with four basic assumptions.

a. Organizations are made up of groups with diverse interests, goals, and values.

b. Information is ambiguous and incomplete.

c. Managers do not have time, resources, or mental capacity to identify all

dimensions of the problem and process all relevant information.

d. Managers engage in the push and pull of debate to decide goals and discuss
alternatives.

© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managerial Decision Making •

2. Recent research has found rational, classical procedures to be associated with high
performance for organizations in stable environments. Administrative and political
decision-making procedures and intuition have been associated with high
performance in unstable environments when decisions must be made rapidly.

Discussion Question #4: Analyze three decisions you made over the past six months. Which of
these were programmed and which were nonprogrammed? Which model—the classical,
administrative, or political—best describes the approach you took to making each decision?

NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

III. DECISION-MAKING STEPS Exhibit 6.3

Whether a decision is programmed or nonprogrammed, and regardless of whether the manager

follows the classical, political or administrative model of decision making, six steps typically are
associated with effective decision-making processes. These six steps are:

A. Recognition of Decision Requirement

1. Managers confront a decision requirement in the form of either a problem or an

opportunity. A problem occurs when organizational accomplishment is less than
established goals. Some aspect of performance is unsatisfactory. An opportunity
exists when managers see potential accomplishments that exceed current goals.

2. Awareness of a problem or opportunity is the first step in the decision-making

sequence and requires surveillance of the internal and external environment for issues
that merit executive attention. Recognizing decision requirements is difficult because
it often means integrating information in novel ways.

B. Diagnosis and Analysis of Causes

1. Diagnosis is the step in which managers analyze the underlying causal factors
associated with the decision situation. Managers make a big mistake if they jump
right into generating alternatives without first exploring the cause of the problem
more deeply. Studies recommend that managers ask a series of questions to specify
underlying causes, including:

a. What is the state of disequilibrium affecting us?

b. When did it occur?

c. Where did it occur?

d. How did it occur?

e. To whom did it occur?

© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managerial Decision Making •

f. What is the urgency of the situation?

g. What is the interconnectedness of events?

h. What result came from which activity?

C. Development of Alternatives

1. Once the problem or opportunity has been recognized and analyzed, decision makers
begin to consider taking action. The next step is to develop possible alternative
solutions that will respond to the needs of the situation and correct the underlying
causes.

2. For a programmed decision, feasible alternatives are often available within the
organization’s rules and procedures. Nonprogrammed decisions require developing
new courses of action that will meet the needs of the company.

D. Selection of the Desired Alternative

1. The best alternative is one in which the solution best fits the firm’s overall goals and
values and achieves the desired results using the fewest resources. The manager tries
to select the choice with the least amount of risk and uncertainty. Making choices
also depends on managers’ personality factors and willingness to accept risk and
uncertainty. Risk propensity is the willingness to undertake risk with the
opportunity of gaining an increased payoff.

E. Implementation of Chosen Alternative Exhibit 6.4

1. The implementation stage involves the use of managerial, administrative, and

persuasive abilities to ensure that the chosen alternative is carried out. The success of
the chosen alternative depends on whether or not it is translated into action.
Sometimes an alternative never becomes reality because managers lack resources or
energy needed to make things happen. Communication, motivation, and leadership
skills must be used to see that the decision is carried out.

F. Evaluation and Feedback

1. In the evaluation step, decision makers gather information or feedback to determine

how well the decision was implemented and whether it achieved its goals. Feedback
is important because decision making is a continuous, never-ending process.
Feedback provides decision makers with information that can start a new decision
cycle.

2. By learning from decision mistakes, managers can turn problems into opportunities.

Discussion Question #1: You are a busy partner in a legal firm, and an experienced
administrative assistant complains of continued headaches, drowsiness, dry throat, and
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managerial Decision Making •

occasional spells of fatigue and flu. She tells you she believes that the air quality in the building
is bad and would like something to be done. How would you respond?

NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

IV. PERSONAL DECISION FRAMEWORK Exhibit 6.5

Not all managers make decisions in the same way. These differences can be explained by the
concept of personal decision styles. Personal decision style refers to differences between people
with respect to how they perceive problems and make decisions. Research has identified four
major decision styles.

• The directive style is used by people who prefer simple, clear-cut solutions to problems.
• With an analytical style, managers like to consider complex solutions based on as much data
as they can gather.
• People who tend toward a conceptual style also like to consider a broad amount of
information.
• The behavioral style is characterized by having a deep concern for others as individuals.

Most managers have a dominant decision style. The most effective managers are able to shift
among styles as needed to meet the situation.

Discussion Question #10: What do you think is your dominant decision style? Is your style
compatible with group techniques such as brainstorming and engaging in rigorous debate?
Discuss.

NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

V. WHY DO MANAGERS MAKE BAD DECISIONS?

Even the best manager will make mistakes, but managers can increase their percentage of good
decisions by understanding some of the factors that cause people to make bad ones. Most bad
decisions are errors in judgment that originate in the human mind’s limited capacity and in the
natural biases managers display during decision making. Awareness of the following six biases
can help managers make more enlightened choices:

• Being influenced by initial impressions. The mind often gives disproportionate weight to the
first information it receives when considering decisions. These initial impressions act as an
anchor to subsequent thoughts and judgments. Past events and trends also act as anchors.
Giving too much weight to the past can lead to poor forecasts and misguided decisions.

• Justifying past decisions. People don’t like to make mistakes, so they continue to support a
flawed decision in an effort to justify or correct the past.

© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managerial Decision Making •

• Seeing what you want to see. People frequently look for information that supports their
existing instinct or point of view and avoid information that contradicts it, affecting where
they look for information as well as how they interpret the information they find.

• Perpetuating the status quo. Managers may base decisions on what has worked in the past
and fail to explore new options, dig for additional information, or investigate new
technologies.

• Being influenced by emotions. Managers make better decision when—to the extent
possible—they take emotions out of the decision-making process.

• Overconfidence. Most people overestimate their ability to predict uncertain outcomes. Before
making a decision, managers have unrealistic expectations of their ability to understand the
risk and make the right choice.

VI. INNOVATIVE DECISION MAKING

A. Start with Brainstorming

1. One of the best known techniques for rapidly generating creative alternatives is
brainstorming. Brainstorming uses a face-to-face group to spontaneously suggest a
broad range of alternatives for decision making. The keys to effective brainstorming
are that people can build on one another’s ideas, all ideas are acceptable no matter
how crazy they seem, and criticism and evaluation are not allowed. The goal is to
generate as many ideas as possible.

2. Electronic brainstorming, called brainwriting, brings people together in an

interactive group over a computer network. Recent studies show that electronic
brainstorming generates about 40 percent more ideas than individual brainstorming
alone and 25 to 200 percent more than groups.

B. Use Hard Evidence

1. Using evidence can help take emotion out of decision-making process, preventing
managers relying on faulty assumptions or point of view.

2. Evidence-based decision making means a commitment to make more informed and

intelligent decisions based on the best available facts and evidence. Managers should
be alert to potential biases, past assumptions, or intuitions and seek and exam the
evidence with rigor, thus making careful and thoughtful decision.

C. Engage in Rigorous Debate

An important key to better decision making under conditions of uncertainty is to

encourage a rigorous debate of the issue at hand. Good managers recognize that
constructive conflict based on different points of view can focus a problem, clarify ideas,
and stimulate creative thinking. It can also create a broader understanding of issues and
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Managerial Decision Making •

alternatives, and improve broader decision quality. There are several ways to stimulate
rigorous debate.

a. One way is by ensuring diversity in terms of age and gender, functional area of
expertise, hierarchical level, and experience with the business.

b. Some groups assign a devil’s advocate, who has the role of challenging the
assumptions and assertions made by the group.

c. Another approach is to have group members develop as many alternatives as they

can as quickly as they can.

d. Another approach is technique called point-counterpoint, a technique in which

two subgroups assigned competing points of view. The two groups then develop
and exchange proposals and discuss the various options until they arrive at a
common set of understandings and recommendations.

D. Avoid Groupthink

Avoiding groupthink helps groups make better decisions. Groupthink refers to the
tendency of people in groups to suppress contrary opinions. When people slip into
groupthink, the desire for harmony outweighs concerns over decision quality. Group
members emphasize maintaining unity rather than realistically challenging problems and
alternatives. Some disagreement and conflict is much healthier than blind agreement.

E. Know When to Bail

In a fast-paced environment, good manager encourages risk taking and learning from
mistakes, it also teaches a person to know when to pull the plug on something that isn’t
working. Escalating commitment means that organizations often continue to invest
time and money in a solution despite strong evidence that it is not appropriate to do so.
Managers might block or distort negative information because they don’t want to be
responsible for a bad decision, or might not accept that their decision is wrong.

F. Do a Postmortem

To improve decision making, managers need to reflect and learn from every decision they
make.

1. A technique many companies have adopted from the U.S. Army to encourage
examination of the evidence and continuous learning is the after-action review, a
disciplined procedure whereby managers invest time to review the results of decision
on a regular basis and learn from them. After implementing the decision, managers
meet to evaluate what worked, what didn’t, and how to do things better. Many
problems are solved by trial and error.

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 Managerial Decision Making •

2. A similar technique was applied by managers at Lenovo called fu pan, which means
“replaying the chess board,’ reviewing every move to improve the next one.

Answers To End Of Chapter Discussion Questions

1. You are a busy partner in a legal firm and an experienced administrative assistant complains
of continued headaches, drowsiness, dry throat, and occasional spells of fatigue and flu. She
tells you she believes that the air quality in the building is bad and would like something to
be done. How would you respond?

Students should apply the decision-making steps to solve this problem. The first step is
recognition of decision requirement. The manager must determine if there truly is a problem
with the air quality that needs to be solved. Discussions with others and, if warranted, testing
the air quality should help make this determination. If a problem does indeed exist, the next
step is the diagnosis and analysis of the causes of the poor air quality. The testing may reveal
this. If needed, further tests by experts in the field should be made to determine the cause.
Once the cause has been determined, the development of alternatives to eliminate the cause
should be developed. The selection of desired alternatives is the next step during which the
risk must be considered and the pros and cons of each alternative must be weighed. After an
alternative has been chosen, the chosen alternative should be implemented. After an
appropriate time evaluation of the alternative should be made and feedback provided.

2. Managers at Gap Inc., a once- popular retail chain, are reported to have made a series of
decisions that hurt the company: they expanded so rapidly that the chain lost touch with
customers; they tried to copy the successful approach of rivals rather than charting their own
course; they cut quality to reduce costs; they shifted from one fashion approach to another as
each failed to appeal to customers, and so on. What techniques would you recommend Gap
managers use to improve the quality of their decisions?

Decision making is especially important to effectiveness because it underlies all manager

activity. Managers are faced with limited resources, competing demands, and a continuous
stream of problems and opportunities. As a result, managers make decisions every day—and
hence are often referred to as decision makers. They make decisions about virtually every
aspect of an organization including its strategy, structure, control systems, innovations, and
human resources. They must make decisions to perform the basic functions of planning,
organizing, motivating, and controlling. Managerial decision making ultimately determines
how well the organization solves its problems, allocates resources, and accomplishes its
objectives.

Some of the techniques that the managers of Gap can use to improve the quality of their
decisions may include:
a. Start with brainstorming
b. Use hard evidence
c. Engage in rigorous debate
d. Avoid groupthink
e. Know when to bail
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 Managerial Decision Making •

f. Do a postmortem

3. Explain the difference between risk and ambiguity. How might decision making differ for a
risky versus an ambiguous situation?

Risk means that the decision maker has most of the necessary information. The objectives of
the decision are clear-cut, and alternatives can be identified. However, the future outcome of
each alternative is not known for certain, although the probability of outcomes can be
calculated, which is the source of risk. Ambiguity means the almost complete absence of
information pertaining to a decision. Managers do not agree on the objectives to be achieved
by the decision, alternatives are difficult to find, and outcomes cannot be predicted.

Decision-making approaches differ considerably for each situation. For decisions under risk,
a rational, calculative approach is preferred. The managers’ responsibility is to obtain the
available information and run necessary computations in order to predict outcomes and select
the best alternative. Decisions under ambiguity are more difficult. In these cases managers
do not have sufficient information to perform computations. They must rely on personal
judgment and experience to define alternatives and to anticipate possible outcomes of each
alternative. Under ambiguity, managers have to take a chance and push ahead with
decisions, even though they have poor information and will be wrong a substantial
percentage of the time.

4. Analyze three decisions you made over the past six months. Which of these were
programmed and which were nonprogrammed? Which model—the classical, administrative,
or political—best describes the approach you took to making each decision?

A programmed decision would refer to a situation that has occurred often enough so that a
student can use past experience and similar decision rules over and over again. Programmed
decisions are considered routine. A nonprogrammed decision would refer to a novel,
unique, and largely unstructured decision situation that requires a student to search for
possible alternatives and information and to make a decision that has not been made
previously.

An example of a programmed decision might be where to go to lunch or where to park the

car. A nonprogrammed decision could be the choice of a major field of study, a decision that
the student may have made after taking aptitude tests and investigating a number of career
choices. Although the student may already be studying for the chosen career field, whether
the decision was correct still may not be perfectly clear.

The specific decisions students choose, and the decision-making processes they used, will
determine their answers to the last part of this question, but they should be able to explain
why they believe a particular model best describes their approach.

5. What opportunities and potential problems are posed by the formation of more than one
coalition within an organization, each one advocating a different direction or alternatives?
What steps can you take as a manager to make sure that dueling coalitions result in
constructive discussion rather than dissension?

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 Managerial Decision Making •

When more than one coalition forms within an organization, with each advocating a different
direction or alternative, there are significant opportunities for constructive dialogue and
enhanced decision making, but only if the coalitions are able to come together and work
toward a direction or alternative that both coalitions can support. If that does not happen, the
potential exists for serious fractures to develop among managers. The situation could
devolve into widespread backbiting and undermining of coworkers, which would lead to
substantial performance and morale problems in the organization.

If dueling coalitions develop over a single issue, relevant managers should immediately
begin working to bring the two (or more) coalitions together to work out a plan both can
accept. This may initially mean working with the coalitions individually to find common
ground that can later be emphasized in trying to work out an agreement. Once some
common ground is identified, the individual coalitions can be brought together to work out a
direction or alternative that both (all) coalitions can accept.

6. Can you think of a bad decision from your own school or work experience or from the recent
business or political news that was made in an effort to correct or justify a past decision? As
a new manager, how might you resist the urge to choose a decision alternative based on the
idea that it might correct or validate a previous decision?

Students’ descriptions of past bad decisions will obviously vary. As new managers, it will be
important for them to avoid making decisions based on the idea that they might correct or
validate previous decisions. This might be accomplished by first acknowledging that the
original decision was a mistake, which is difficult for people to do. However, once this
acknowledgment is made, managers can then move on to make decisions based on the facts
at hand rather than in an attempt to correct or validate previous decisions. Another way to
avoid making this mistake might be to have someone in the decision-making process tasked
with challenging the assumptions related to the current decision; i.e., to specifically raise the
question of whether the current decision is being made to justify some previous decision that
was in error.

7. Experts advise that most catastrophes in organizations result from a series of small problems
or mistakes. As a new, entry-level manager, how might you apply this understanding to help
your organization avoid making major mistakes?

Finding ways to compensate for inexperience in decision making is critical to identifying the
alternative most likely to succeed. A new, entry-level manager who fails to do so will soon
be marginalized or even fired as a result of making too many poor decisions. Such a person
simply does not have the requisite knowledge or wisdom to sort out the complex issues
involved in many managerial decisions.

New, entry-level managers can seek advice from a variety of coworkers as part of their
decision-making process. They can also try to research the many facets of the decision at
hand, including collecting information on how such decisions have been handled in the past.
One of the best ways to meet the challenge of inexperience is to find someone in the
organization who has substantial experience in the company and the industry who is willing
to serve as a mentor. A mentor can serve as a sounding board for the new manager, offering
suggestions for improvement of an idea or explaining why the idea should be dismissed
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 Managerial Decision Making •

altogether. Mentors have substantial wisdom that they can share with new managers to help
them “learn the ropes”, including learning the ropes of decision making.

8. List some possible advantages and disadvantages to using computer technology for
managerial decision making.

Advantages of using computers in making managerial decisions would be increased

accuracy, timeliness, and reliability of information to improve managerial decision making.
A disadvantage of using computers in managerial decision making is that inputting the wrong
data produces incorrect information that will be used in substantial managerial decisions.

9. Can intuition and evidence-based decision making coexist as valid approaches within an
organization? How might managers combine their intuition with a rational, data-driven,
evidence-based approach?

Intuition or a “gut” feeling, especially where it is forthcoming from experience, can be useful
in management decision making. When time is of the essence, intuition can be a valid
predictor of decision making. Individuals can use intuition to become more creative and risk
taking in making decisions. Intuition can be combined with a rational decision-making
approach to improve decision making. A rational approach is developing a decision-making
style that is based on more complete data. This approach, when utilized, develops criteria,
alternative options, evaluation of alternatives, and attempts to improve decision making
based on more complete data. This, in turn, minimizes risks and improves decision making
when combining intuition with a rational approach.

10. What do you think is your dominant decision style? Is your style compatible with group
techniques such as brainstorming and engaging in rigorous debate? Discuss.

Students’ responses will, of course, be very different. They should, however, demonstrate an
understanding of the various decision styles.

The directive style is used by people who prefer simple, clear-cut solutions to problems.
Managers who use this style often make decisions quickly because they do not like to deal
with a lot of information and may consider only one or two alternatives. People who prefer
the directive style generally are efficient and rational and prefer to rely on existing rules or
procedures for making decisions. These students may be more comfortable with jobs in
which the work is fairly regimented and where most decisions will be programmed decisions.

People with an analytical style like to consider complex solutions based on as much data as
they can gather. These individuals carefully consider alternatives and often base their
decisions on objective, rational data from management control systems and other sources.
They search for the best possible decision based on the information available. These students
may be more comfortable in highly technical jobs where large volumes of data can be
gathered and applied to the decision-making process.

People who tend toward a conceptual style also like to consider a broad amount of
information. However, they are more socially oriented than those with an analytical style and
like to talk to others about the problem and possible alternatives for solving it. Managers
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 Managerial Decision Making •

using a conceptual style consider many broad alternatives, rely on information from both
people and systems, and like to solve problems creatively. These students may be more
comfortable in jobs that involve many nonprogrammed decisions that require strong
conceptual skills.

The behavioral style is often the style adopted by managers having a deep concern for others
as individuals. Managers using this style like to talk to people one-on-one, understand their
feelings about the problem, and consider the effect of a given decision upon them. People
with a behavioral style usually are concerned with the personal development of others and
may make decisions that help others achieve their goals. These students may be more
comfortable in flatter, more participative organizations where employees are heavily
involved in decision making and are empowered to generate innovative solutions.

Apply Your Skills: Experiential Exercise

What’s Your Personal Decision Style?

Student responses will vary regarding their own decision-making style. For additional
information, one is encouraged to review decision-making styles in the chapter. Personal
decision style refers to differences among people with respect to how they perceive problems and
make decisions. A suggestion would be to discuss the four decision-making styles: directive,
analytical, conceptual, and behavioral.

The directive style is used by people who prefer simple, clear-cut solutions to problems.
Managers who use this style often make decisions quickly because they do not like to deal with a
lot of information and may consider only one or two alternatives. People who prefer the
directive style generally are efficient and rational and prefer to rely on existing rules or
procedures for making decisions.

People with an analytical style like to consider complex solutions based on as much data as they
can gather. These individuals carefully consider alternatives and often base their decisions on
objective, rational data from management control systems and other sources. They search for the
best possible decision based on the information available.

People who tend toward a conceptual style also like to consider a broad amount of information.
However, they are more socially oriented than those with an analytical style and like to talk to
others about the problem and possible alternatives for solving it. Managers using a conceptual
style consider many broad alternatives, rely on information from both people and systems, and
like to solve problems creatively.

The behavioral style is often the style adopted by managers having a deep concern for others as
individuals. Managers using this style like to talk to people one-on-one, understand their
feelings about the problem, and consider the effect of a given decision on them. People with a
behavioral style usually are concerned with the personal development of others and may make
decisions that help others achieve their goals.

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 Managerial Decision Making •

Apply Your Skills: Small Group Breakout

A New Approach to Making Decisions

Managers are typically effective at focusing on problems and diagnosing what is wrong and how
to fix it when they have to make a decision. A new approach to decision making known as
outcome-directed thinking focuses on future outcomes and possibilities rather than on the causes
of the problem.

This exercise asks students to think of problems they have in their lives at the present time and
write a brief summary of the problems, then answer four questions provided in the text. Finally,
students should share their answers to the questions in small groups.

Apply Your Skills: Ethical Dilemma

The No-Show Consultant

1. Give Carpenter a month’s notice and terminate. He’s known as a good consultant, so he
probably won’t have any trouble finding a new job, and you’ll avoid any further problems
associated with his emotional difficulties and his possible alcohol problem.

Option 1 is not the course of action to take. Alcoholism is not an uncommon disease, and it
can be treated; however, the urgency of this matter is the important factor. It is important to
recognize that Andrew can have a future with this organization if he seeks help. Acceptable
behavior is an important requirement of this job.

2. Let it slide. Missing the New York appointment is Carpenter’s first big mistake. He says he
is getting things under control, and you believe that he should be given a chance to get
himself back on track.

Option 2 is not desirable. Care must be taken and concerns expressed to Andrew. He is
beginning to develop a pattern of behavior. If the alcohol abuse continues, require him to
attend a treatment program or find another job. There should be an employee assistance
program to permit Andrew to get help and external counseling.

3. Let Carpenter know that you care about what he’s going through, but insist that he take a
short paid leave and get counseling to deal with his emotional difficulties and evaluate the
seriousness of his problems with alcohol. If the alcohol abuse continues, require him to
attend a treatment program or find another job.

This is probably the best course of action. Andrew needs support and help, but cannot
continue his present pattern of behavior.

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 Managerial Decision Making •

Apply Your Skills: Case for Critical Analysis

The Office

1. What mistakes do you think John Mitchell made with the way he solved the problem of
limited office space? Explain.

It seems obvious that John Mitchell settled for a satisficing rather than a maximizing solution for
the problem. His approach to decision making is based on the administrative model, which is
considered to be descriptive, meaning that it describes how managers actually make decisions
rather than how they should make them. The concept of bounded rationality and satisficing
shapes this model.

Bounded rationality means people have limits, or boundaries, on the amount of information they
can process in making a decision. Because managers do not have the time or cognitive ability to
process complete information about complex decisions, they must satisfice. Satisficing means
that decision makers choose the first solution alternative that satisfies minimal decision criteria.
Rather than pursue all alternatives, managers will opt for the first solution that appears to solve
the problem. The decision maker cannot justify the time and expense of obtaining complete
information.

Mitchell knew his decision would affect Acklen and her staff; in spite of which he ignored all the
factors and the complete information regarding the issue. He did not consider it important to
consult the matter with Acklen to pursue other possible alternatives.

2. What approach would you have used if you were Mitchell? Why?

The classical model of decision making would have been a better approach for Mitchell. This
model is considered to be normative, which means it defines how a decision maker should make
decisions. It is based on rational economic assumptions and manager beliefs about what ideal
decision making should be. It does not describe how managers actually make decisions so much
as it provides guidelines on how to reach an ideal outcome for the organization.

The classical model is most valuable when applied to programmed decisions and to decisions
characterized by certainty or risk because information is available and probabilities can be
calculated. The classical model is often associated with high performance for organizations in
stable environments. The four assumptions of this model include:
a. The decision maker operates to accomplish goals that are known and agreed upon.
b. The decision maker strives for conditions of certainty, gathering complete information.
c. Criteria for evaluating alternatives are known.
d. The decision maker is rational and uses logic to assign values, order preferences, evaluate
alternatives, and make the decision to maximize goals.

3. What are Krista Acklen’s options for responding to Mitchell’s decision? What should she do
now? Why?

Following are the possible ways in which Krista Acklen can respond to Mitchell’s decision:
a. Start with brainstorming
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 Managerial Decision Making •

b. Use hard evidence

c. Engage in rigorous debate
d. Avoid groupthink
e. Know when to bail
f. Do a postmortem

One of the best known techniques for rapidly generating creative alternatives is brainstorming,
which possibly could also be the best option for Acklen to pursue now in order to come up with a
solution. Brainstorming uses a face-to-face interactive group to spontaneously suggest a broad
range of alternatives for decision making. The keys to effective brainstorming are that people can
build on one another’s ideas, all ideas are acceptable no matter how crazy they seem, and
criticism and evaluation are not allowed. The goal is to generate as many ideas as possible.

On the Job Video Case Answers

Plant Fantasies

1. Did Plant Fantasies owner Teresa Carleo follow the rational decision-making process to
launch Plant Fantasies? Explain.

According to Carleo, the decision to quit her old job and start Plant Fantasies was characterized
by whim and emotion. Her process was not consistent with the rational decision making model.
She was emotionally upset at her former employer, and she had little experience with
horticulture or operating a business. Nevertheless, she made a choice: “I just made the decision, I
just went for it,” Carleo states. In the rational decision-making process, the decision maker
strives for conditions of certainty, gathers complete information, and evaluates all known
alternatives to ensure good results.

In real management settings, however, decision making can never purely rational due to time
constraints, limited knowledge of possible alternatives, bias, and human error. In addition,
people and groups encounter decision-related problem areas like groupthink, escalating
commitment, and uncertainty. In most decision making situations, people employ bounded
rationality and end up satisficing—making a satisfactory rather than optimal decision. Satisficing
causes managers to select the first acceptable alternative that meets minimal decision criteria,
even though better alternatives may exist.

2. List an example of a programmed decision at Plant Fantasies. Identify a nonprogrammed

decision at Plant Fantasies.

A programmed decision is a decision made in any situation that has occurred often enough to
enable decision rules to be developed and applied in the future. Programmed decisions tend to
involve simple routine matters for which a manager has a familiar set of options. One
programmed decision at Plant Fantasies is the daily process of maintaining healthy plants for
clients: a maintenance manager examines plants at client location, determines if the landscape
has a healthy or unhealthy garden condition, and sends a purchase order to Teresa Carleo for new
replacement plants. This routine activity is a core function of the Plant Fantasies service. Another
example of a programmed decision is discussed when Carleo says she selects tulips for a client
that has a long history of ordering and reordering the same plants and colors.

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 Managerial Decision Making •

A nonprogrammed decision is a decision made in any situation that is unique, unstructured,

unpredictable, or highly consequential. These decision situations involve complex challenges
that require creative solutions. A nonprogrammed decision at Plant Fantasies occurs whenever
Teresa Carleo has to collaborate with an outside landscape architect to install a garden. There are
many complicated and unknown factors that arise when working with an outside firm or
designer. As a result, a typical and routine garden installation may require creative thinking,
negotiation, and group consensus to get the job done.

3. How might managers at Plant Fantasies conduct the final evaluation stage of the decision-
making process when installing a new garden for a client?

Answers will vary, but maintenance teams can observe and track their progress during
installations. In addition, Teresa Carleo can conduct customer satisfaction surveys over a period
of months to ensure that clients remain satisfied with landscaping solutions. Evaluation and
feedback is an important part of the decision making process because feedback provides
managers with useful information that can precipitate a new decision cycle. If an evaluation
determines that a decision failed to meet its objectives, this information will stimulate a new
problem analysis and evaluation of alternatives.

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Other documents randomly have
different content
On such journeys, parents may not see their sons for hours at a time. The
homogeneous character of the group, and the sense of security which faith
gives, especially at such times, present no occasion for anxiety concerning
the dear ones.

The saying of Luke that Joseph and Mary "went a day's journey" before
they discovered that Jesus was not in the company must, it seems to me,
include also the time consumed in their return journey to Jerusalem to seek
their son. Perhaps they discovered his absence about noontime when the
company halted by a spring of water to partake of the zad (food for the
way). At such a time families gather together to break bread. And what I
feel certain of also is that the boy Jesus must have been with his parents
when they first set out on their homeward journey early in the morning
from Jerusalem, and that he detached himself from his kinsfolk and
returned to the holy city shortly after the company had left that place. No
Syrian family ever would start out on a journey before every one of its
members had been accounted for. The evangelist's omission of these details
is easily understood. His purpose was not to give a photographic account of
all that happened on the way. It was rather to reveal the lofty spiritual ideals
which led the boy Jesus to return to the temple, where he was found by his
anxious parents "sitting in the midst of the doctors, both hearing them, and
asking them questions."

In this brief but significant record of all the filial graces which Jesus
must have possessed one only is mentioned in the second chapter of the
Gospel of Luke, where it is stated that he went down to Nazareth with his
parents "and was subject unto them."

This seemingly casual remark is full of significance. With us in Syria,

ta'at-el-walideen (obedience to parents) has always been youth's crowning
virtue. Individual initiative must not overstep the boundary line of this
grace. Only in this way the patriarchal organization of the family can be
kept intact. In my boyhood days in that romantic country, whenever my
father took me with him on a "visit of homage" to one of the lords of the
land, the most fitting thing such a dignitary could do to me was to place his
hand upon my head and say with characteristic condescension, "Bright boy,
and no doubt obedient to your parents."
 As regards the grace of filial obedience, I am not aware of a definite
break between the East and the West. But there is a vital difference. To an
Oriental who has just come to this country, the American youth seem to be
indifferent to filial obedience. The strong passion for freedom, the
individualistic sense which is a pronounced characteristic of the aggressive
Anglo-Saxon, and the economic stress which ever tends to scatter the
family group, and which the East has never experienced so painfully as the
West has, all convey the impression that parental love and filial obedience
are fast disappearing from American society. But to those of us sons of the
East who have intimate knowledge of the American family, its cohesion
does not seem to be so alarmingly weak. The mad rush for "business
success" is indeed a menace to the American home, but love and obedience
are still vital forces in that home. The terms "father," "mother," "brother,"
and "sister," have by no means lost their spiritual charms in American
society. The deep affection in which the members of the better American
family hold one another and the exquisite regard they have for one another
command profound respect.

But the vital difference between the East and the West is that to
Easterners filial obedience is more than a social grace and an evidence of
natural affection. It is a religious duty of far-reaching significance. God
commands it. "Thou shalt honor thy father and thy mother" is a divine
command. The "displeasure" of a parent is as much to be feared as the
wrath of God. This sense permeates Syrian society from the highest to the
lowest of its ranks.

The explanation of the origin of sin in the third chapter of Genesis

touches the very heart of this matter. The writer ascribes the "fall of man,"
not to any act which was in itself really harmful, but to disobedience. Adam
was commanded by his divine parent not to eat of the "tree of knowledge of
good and evil"; but he did eat, and consequently became a stranger to the
blessings of his original home.

This idea of filial obedience has been at once the strength and weakness
of Orientals. In the absence of the restraining interests of a larger social life
this patriarchal rule has preserved the cohesion of the domestic and clannish
group, and thus safeguarded for the people their primitive virtues. On the
other hand, it has served to extinguish the spirit of progress, and has thus
made Oriental life a monotonous repetition of antiquated modes of thought.

And it was indeed a great blessing to the world when Jesus broke away
from mere formal obedience to parents, in the Oriental sense of the word,
and declared, "Whosoever shall do the will of my Father in heaven, the
same is my brother, and sister, and mother."

[1] See above, p. 14.

CHAPTER VI

FEAST AND SACRAMENT

Of Jesus' public ministry and his characteristics as an Oriental teacher, I

shall speak in later chapters. Here I will give space only to a portrayal of the
closing scenes in his personal career. The events of the "upper room" on
Mount Zion, and of Gethsemane, are faithful photographs of striking
characteristics of Syrian life.

The Last Supper was no isolated event in Syrian history. Its fraternal
atmosphere, intimate associations, and sentimental intercourse are such as
characterize every such gathering of Syrian friends, especially in the
shadow of an approaching danger. From the simple "table manners" up to
that touch of sadness and idealism which the Master gave that meal,—
bestowing upon it the sacrificial character that has been its propelling force
through the ages,—I find nothing which is not in perfect harmony with
what takes place on such occasions in my native land. The sacredness of the
Last Supper is one of the emphatic examples of how Jesus' life and words
sanctified the commonest things of life. He was no inventor of new things,
but a discoverer of the spiritual significance of things known to men to be
ordinary.

The informal formalities of Oriental life are brimful of sentiment. The

Oriental's chief concern in matters of conduct is not the correctness of the
technique, but the cordiality of the deed. To the Anglo-Saxon the Oriental
appears to be perhaps too cordial, decidedly sentimental, and over-
responsive to the social stimulus. To the Oriental, on the other hand, the
Anglo-Saxon seems in danger of becoming an unemotional intellectualist.

Be that as it may, the Oriental is never afraid to "let himself go" and to
give free course to his feelings. The Bible in general and such portions of it
as the story of the Last Supper in particular illustrate this phase of Oriental
life.

In Syria, as a general rule, the men eat their fraternal feasts alone, as in
the case of the Master and his disciples at the Last Supper, when, so far as
the record goes, none of the women followers of Christ were present. They
sit on the floor in something like a circle, and eat out of one or a few large,
deep dishes. The food is lifted into the mouth, not with a fork or spoon,—
except in the case of liquid food,—but with small "shreds" of thin bread.
Even liquid food is sometimes "dipped up" with pieces of bread formed like
the bowl of a spoon. Here may be readily understood Jesus' saying, "He that
dippeth his hand with me in the dish, the same shall betray me."[1]

In his famous painting, The Last Supper, Leonardo da Vinci presents an

Oriental event in an Occidental form. The high table, the chairs, the
individual plates and drinking-glasses are European rather than Syrian
appointments. From a historical standpoint, the picture is misleading. But
Da Vinci's great production was not intended to be a historical, but a
character, study. Such a task could not have been accomplished if the artist
had presented the Master and his disciples as they really sat in the "upper
room"—in a circle. He seats them on one side of the table, divides them
into four groups of three each—two groups on each side of the Master. As
we view the great painting, we feel the thrill of horror which agitated the
loyal disciples when Jesus declared, "Verily, I say unto you, that one of you
shall betray me."[2] The gestures, the sudden change of position, and the
facial expression reveal the innermost soul of each disciple. This is the
central purpose of the picture. The artist gave the event a European rather
than an Oriental setting, in order to make it more intelligible to the people
for whom it was intended.

But the appointments of the Great Supper were genuinely Oriental. The
Master and his disciples sat on the floor and ate out of one or a few large,
deep dishes. In Mark's account of that event[3] we read: "And when it was
evening he cometh with the twelve. And as they sat and were eating, Jesus
said, Verily I say unto you, One of you shall betray me, even he that eateth
with me." The fact that they were all eating with him is shown in the
statement, "They began to be sorrowful, and to say unto him, Is it I? And he
said unto them, It is one of the twelve, he that dippeth with me in the dish."

The last sentence, "He that dippeth with me in the dish," has been
construed to mean that it was Judas only (who was sitting near to Jesus)
who was dipping in the dish out of which the Master was eating. This is
altogether possible, but by no means certain. The fact is that according to
Syrian customs on such occasions each of the few large dishes contains a
different kind of food. Each one of the guests is privileged to reach to any
one of the dishes and dip his bread in it. From this it may be safely inferred
that several or all of the disciples dipped in turn in the dish which was
nearest to Jesus. The fact that the other disciples did not know whom their
Master meant by his saying that one of them should betray him, even after
he had said, "He that dippeth with me in the dish," shows plainly that Judas
was eating in the same fashion as all the other disciples were.

Therefore the saying, "He that dippeth with me," etc., was that of
disappointed love. It may be thus paraphrased: "I have loved you all alike. I
have chosen you as my dearest friends. We have often broken bread and
sorrowed and rejoiced together, yet one of you, my dear disciples, one who
is now eating with me as the rest are, intends to betray me!"

And that forlorn but glorious company who met in the upper room on
Mount Zion on that historic night had certainly one cup out of which they
drank. At our feasts we always drank the wine out of one and the same cup.
We did not stay up nights thinking about microbes. To us the one cup meant
fellowship and fraternal communion. The one who gives drink (sacky) fills
the cup and passes it to the most honored member of the company first. He
drinks the contents and returns the cup to the sacky, who fills it again and
hands it to another member of the group, and so on, until all have been
served once. Then the guests drink again by way of nezel. It is not easy to
translate this word into English. The English word "treating" falls very short
of expressing the affectionate regard which the nezel signifies. The one
guest upon receiving the cup wishes for the whole company "health,
happiness, and length of days." Then he singles out one of the group and
begs him to accept the next cup that is poured as a pledge of his affectionate
regard. The pourer complies with the request by handing the next cup to the
person thus designated, who drinks it with the most effusive and
affectionate reciprocation of his friend's sentiments. It is also customary for
a gracious host to request as a happy ending to the feast that the contents of
one cup be drunk by the whole company as a seal of their friendship with
one another. Each guest takes a sip and passes the cup to the one next to
him until all have partaken of the "fruit of the vine."

I have no doubt that it was after this custom that the disciples drank
when Jesus "took the cup, and when he had given thanks, he gave to them:
and they all drank of it."[4]

No account of fraternal feasting in Syria can be complete without

mention of the zĭkreh (remembrance). To be remembered by his friends
after his departure from them is one of the Syrian's deepest and dearest
desires. The zĭkreh plays a very important part in the literature of the East,
and expresses the tenderest spirit of its poetry. The expressions "I
remember," "remember me," "your remembrance," "the remembrance of
those days" and like phrases are legion among the Syrians. "O friends,"
cries the Arabian poet, "let your remembrance of us be as constant as our
remembrance of you; for such a remembrance brings near those that are far
away."

Rarely do friends who have been feasting together part without this
request being made by those of them who do not expect to meet with their
friends again for a time. "Remember me when you meet again," is said by
the departing friend with unspeakable tenderness. He is affectionately
grateful also when he knows that he is held in remembrance by his friends.
So St. Paul pours out his soul in grateful joy for his friends' remembrance of
him. "But now when Timotheus came from you unto us, and brought us
good tidings of your faith and charity, and that ye have good remembrance
of us always, desiring greatly to see us, as we also to see you."[5]

This affectionate request, "remember me," signifies, "I love you,

therefore I am always with you." If we love one another, we cannot be
separated from one another. The z[)i]ikreh is the bond of fraternity between
us.

Was not this the very thing which the Master meant when he said, "This
do in remembrance of me"?[6] The disciples were asked never to allow
themselves to forget their Master's love for them and for the world: never to
forget that if his love lived in their hearts he was always with them, present
at their feasts, and in their struggles in the world to lead the world from
darkness into light. "This do in remembrance of me," is therefore the
equivalent of "Lo, I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world."[7]

"Now there was leaning on Jesus' bosom one of his disciples, whom
Jesus loved."[8] The posture of the "beloved disciple," John,—so
objectionable to Occidental taste,—is in perfect harmony with Syrian
customs. How often have I seen men friends in such an attitude. There is
not in it the slightest infringement of the rules of propriety; the act was as
natural to us all as shaking hands. The practice is especially indulged in
when intimate friends are about to part from one another, as on the eve of a
journey, or when about to face a dangerous undertaking. They then sit with
their heads leaning against each other, or the one's head resting upon the
other's shoulder or breast.

They talk to one another in terms of unbounded intimacy and

unrestrained affection. The expressions, "My brother," "My eyes," "My
soul," "My heart," and the like, form the life-centers of the conversation.
"My life, my blood are for you; take the very sight of my eyes, if you will!"
And lookers-on say admiringly, "Behold, how they love one another! By the
name of the Most High, they are closer than brothers."

Was it, therefore, strange that the Master, who knew the deepest secret of
the divine life, and whose whole life was a living sacrifice, should say to his
intimate friends, as he handed them the bread and the cup on that
momentous night, "Take, eat; this is my body"; and "Drink ye all of it; for
this is my blood"? Here again the Nazarene charged the ordinary words of
friendly intercourse with rare spiritual richness and made the common
speech of his people express eternal realities.

But let me here call attention to Da Vinci's master-stroke which changes

for a moment John's posture and relieves the Last Supper of a feature which
is so objectionable to Occidental taste. The artist seizes the moment when
Peter pulled John from Jesus' breast by beckoning to the beloved disciple
"that he should ask who it should be of whom he spoke" (the one who
should betray him). John remains in the attitude of loving repose; he simply
lifts his body for an instant, and inclines his head to hear Peter.

The treachery of Judas is no more an Oriental than it is a human

weakness. Traitors can claim neither racial nor national refuge. They are
fugitives in the earth. But in the Judas episode is involved one of the most
tender, most touching acts of Jesus' whole life. To one familiar with the
customs of the East, Jesus' handing the "sop" to his betrayer was an act of
surpassing beauty and significance. In all my life in America I have not
heard a preacher interpret this simple deed, probably because of lack of
knowledge of its meaning in Syrian social intercourse.

"And when he had dipped the sop, he gave it to Judas Iscariot, the son of
Simon."[9] At Syrian feasts, especially in the region where Jesus lived, such
sops are handed to those who stand and serve the guests with wine and
water. But in a more significant manner those morsels are exchanged by
friends. Choice bits of food are handed to friends by one another, as signs of
close intimacy. It is never expected that any person would hand such a sop
to one for whom he cherishes no friendship.

I can never contemplate this act in the Master's story without thinking of
"the love of Christ which passeth knowledge." To the one who carried in his
mind and heart a murderous plot against the loving Master, Jesus handed
the sop of friendship, the morsel which is never offered to an enemy. The
rendering of the act in words is this: "Judas, my disciple, I have infinite pity
for you. You have proved false, you have forsaken me in your heart; but I
will not treat you as an enemy, for I have come, not to destroy, but to fulfill.
Here is my sop of friendship, and 'that thou doest, do quickly.'"
 Apparently Jesus' demeanor was so cordial and sympathetic that, as the
evangelist tells us, "Now no man at the table knew for what intent he spake
this unto him. For some of them thought, because Judas had the bag, that
Jesus had said unto him, Buy those things that we have need of against the
feast, or that he should give something to the poor."[10]

Thus in this simple act of the Master, so rarely noticed by preachers, we

have perhaps the finest practical example of "Love your enemies" in the
entire Gospel.

Is it therefore to be wondered at that in speaking of Judas, the writer of

St. John's Gospel says, "And after the sop Satan entered into him"? For,
how can one who is a traitor at heart reach for the gift of true friendship
without being transformed into the very spirit of treason?

Again, Judas's treasonable kiss in Gethsemane was a perversion of an

ancient, deeply cherished, and universally prevalent Syrian custom. In
saluting one another, especially after having been separated for a time, men
friends of the same social rank kiss one another on both cheeks, sometimes
with very noisy profusion. When they are not of the same social rank, the
inferior kisses the hand of the superior, while the latter at least pretends to
kiss his dutiful friend upon the cheek. So David and Jonathan "kissed one
another, until David exceeded." Paul's command, "Salute one another with a
holy kiss," so scrupulously disobeyed by Occidental Christians, is
characteristically Oriental. As a child I always felt a profound reverential
admiration for that unreserved outpouring of primitive affections, when
strong men "fell upon one another's neck" and kissed, while the women's
eyes swam in tears of joy. The passionate, quick, and rhythmic exchange of
affectionate words of salutation and kisses sounded, with perhaps a little
less harmony, like an intermingling of vocal and instrumental music.

So Judas, when "forthwith he came to Jesus, and said, Hail, Master, and
kissed him,"[11] invented no new sign by which to point Jesus out to the
Roman soldiers, but employed an old custom for the consummation of an
evil design. Just as Jesus glorified the common customs of his people by
using them as instruments of love, so Judas degraded those very customs by
wielding them as weapons of hate.
 [1] Matt. xxvi: 23.

[2] Matt. xxvi: 21.

[3] Revised Version, xiv: 17-20.

[4] Mark xiv: 23.

[5] 1 Thess. iii: 6.

[6] Luke xxii: 19.

[7] Matt. xxviii: 10.

[8] John xiii: 23.

[9] John xiii: 26.

[10] John xiii: 28, 29.

[11] Matt. xxvi: 49.

CHAPTER VII

THE LAST SCENE

Perhaps nowhere else in the New Testament do the fundamental traits of

the Oriental nature find so clear an expression as in this closing scene of the
Master's life. The Oriental's dependence, to which the world owes the
loftiest and tenderest Scriptural passages, finds here its most glorious
manifestations.

As I have already intimated, the Oriental is never afraid to "let himself

go," whether in joy or sorrow, and to give vent to his emotions. It is of the
nature of the Anglo-Saxon to suffer in silence, and to kill when he must,
with hardly a word of complaint upon his lips or a ripple of excitement on
his face. He disdains asking for sympathy. His severely individualistic
tendencies and spirit of endurance convince him that he is "able to take care
of himself." During my early years in this country the reserve of Americans
in times of sorrow and danger, as well as in times of joy, was to me not only
amazing, but appalling. Not being as yet aware of their inward fire and
intensity of feeling, held in check by a strong bulwark of calm calculation,
as an unreconstructed Syrian I felt prone to doubt whether they had any
emotions to speak of.

It is not my purpose here to undertake a comparative critical study of

these opposing traits, but to state that, for good or evil, the Oriental is
preëminently a man who craves sympathy, yearns openly and noisily for
companionship, and seeks help and support outside himself. Whatever
disadvantages this trait may involve, it has been the one supreme
qualification that has made the Oriental the religious teacher of the whole
world. It was his childlike dependence on God that gave birth to the twenty-
third and fifty-first Psalms, and made the Lord's Prayer the universal
petition of Christendom. It was also this dependence on companionship,
human and divine, which inspired the great commandments, "Thou shalt
love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and thy neighbor as thyself."

Now it is in the light of this fundamental Oriental trait that we must view
Christ's utterances at the Last Supper and in Gethsemane. The record tells
us that while at the Supper he said to his disciples, "With desire I have
desired to eat this passover with you before I suffer,"[1]—or, as the
marginal note has it, "I have heartily desired," and so forth, which brings it
nearer the original text. Again, "He was troubled in spirit, and testified and
said, Verily, verily, I say unto you, that one of you shall betray me." "This is
my body ... This is my blood ... Do this in remembrance of me." We must
seek the proper setting for these utterances, not merely in the upper room in
Zion, but in the deepest tendencies of the Oriental mind.

And the climax is reached in the dark hour of Gethsemane, in the hour of
intense suffering, imploring need, and ultimate triumph in Jesus' surrender
to the Father's will. How true to that demonstrative Oriental nature is the
Scriptural record, "And being in an agony he prayed more earnestly: and his
sweat was as it were great drops of blood falling down to the ground."[2]

The faithful and touching realism of the record here is an example of the
childlike responsiveness of the Syrian nature to feelings of sorrow, no less
striking than the experience itself. It seems to me that if an Anglo-Saxon
teacher in similar circumstances had ever allowed himself to agonize and to
sweat "as it were great drops of blood," his chronicler in describing the
scene would have safeguarded the dignity of his race by simply saying that
the distressed teacher was "visibly affected"!

The darkness deepened and the Master "took with him Peter and the two
sons of Zebedee, and began to be sorrowful and very heavy. Then saith he
unto them, My soul is exceeding sorrowful, even unto death; tarry ye here,
and watch with me."[3] Three times did the Great Teacher utter that
matchless prayer, whose spirit of fear as well as of trust vindicates the
doctrine of the humanity of God and the divinity of man as exemplified in
the person of Christ: "O my Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass from
me: nevertheless not as I will, but as thou wilt!"[4]

The sharp contrast between the Semitic and the Anglo-Saxon

temperament has led some unfriendly critics of Christ to state very
complacently and confidently that he "simply broke down when the critical
hour came." In this assertion I find a very pronounced misapprehension of
the facts. If my knowledge of the traits of my own race is to be relied on,
then in trying to meet this assertion I feel that I am entitled to the
consideration of one who speaks with something resembling authority.

The simple fact is that while in Gethsemane, as indeed everywhere else

throughout his ministry, Jesus was not in the position of one trying to "play
the hero." His companions were his intimate earthly friends and his
gracious heavenly Father, and to them he spoke as an Oriental would speak
to those dear to him,—just as he felt, with not a shadow of show or sham.
His words were not those of weakness and despair, but of confidence and
affection. The love of his friends and the love of his Father in heaven were
his to draw upon in his hour of trial, with not the slightest artificial reserve.
How much better and happier this world would be if we all dealt with one
another and with God in the warm, simple, and pure love of Christ!
 As the life and words of Christ amply testify, the vision of the Oriental
has been to teach mankind not science, logic, or jurisprudence, but a simple,
loving, childlike faith in God. Therefore, before we can fully know our
Master as the cosmopolitan Christ, we must first know him as the Syrian
Christ.

[1] Luke xxii: 15.

[2] Luke xxii: 44.

[3] Matt. xxvi: 37-38.

[4] Ibid. 39.

PART II
THE ORIENTAL MANNER OF SPEECH

CHAPTER I

DAILY LANGUAGE

The Oriental I have in mind is the Semite, the dweller of the Near East,
who, chiefly through the Bible, has exerted an immense influence on the
life and literature of the West. The son of the Near East is more emotional,
more intense, and more communicative than his Far-Eastern neighbors.
Although very old in point of time, his temperament remains somewhat
juvenile, and his manner of speech intimate and unreserved.
 From the remote past, even to this day, the Oriental's manner of speech
has been that of a worshipper, and not that of a business man or an
industrial worker in the modern Western sense. To the Syrian of to-day, as
to his ancient ancestors, life, with all its activities and cares, revolves
around a religious center.

Of course this does not mean that his religion has not always been beset
with clannish limitations and clouded by superstitions, or that the Oriental
has always had a clear, active consciousness of the sanctity of human life.
But it does mean that this man, serene or wrathful, at work or at play,
praying or swearing, has never failed to believe that he is overshadowed by
the All-seeing God. He has never ceased to cry: "O Lord, Thou hast
searched me, and known me. Thou knowest my downsitting and mine
uprising; Thou understandest my thought afar off. Thou hast beset me
behind and before, and laid thine hand upon me. Such knowledge is too
wonderful for me; it is high, I cannot attain unto it!"[1]

And it is one of the grandest, most significant facts in human history

that, notwithstanding his intellectual limitations and superstitious fears,
because he has maintained the altar of God as life's center of gravity, and
never let die the consciousness that he was compassed about by the living
God, the Oriental has been the channel of the sublimest spiritual revelation
in the possession of man.

The histories of races are the records of their desires and rewards, of
their seeking and finding. The law of compensation is all-embracing. In the
long run "whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap."[2] "He which
soweth sparingly shall reap also sparingly; and he which soweth bountifully
shall reap also bountifully."[3] In the material world the Oriental has sown
but sparingly, and his harvests here have also been very meager. He has not
achieved much in the world of science, industry, and commerce. As an
industrial worker he has remained throughout his long history a user of
hand tools. Previous to his very recent contact with the West, he never knew
what structural iron and machinery were. As a merchant he has always been
a simple trader. He has never been a man of many inventions. His faithful
repetition of the past has left no gulf between him and his remote ancestors.
The implements and tools he uses to-day are like those his forefathers used
in their day.

The supreme choice of the Oriental has been religion. To say that this
choice has not been altogether a conscious one, that it has been the outcome
of temperament, does by no means lessen its significance. From the
beginning of his history on the earth to this day the Oriental has been
conscious above all things of two supreme realities—God and the soul.
What has always seemed to him to be his first and almost only duty was and
is to form the most direct, most intimate connection between God and the
soul. "The fear of the Lord," meaning most affectionate reverence, is to the
son of the East not "the beginning of wisdom" as the English Bible has it,
but the height or acme of wisdom. His first concern about his children is
that they should know themselves as living souls, and God as their Creator
and Father. An unbeliever in God has always been to the East a strange
phenomenon. I never heard of atheism or of an atheist before I came in
touch with Western culture in my native land.

My many years of intimate and sympathetic contact with the more

varied, more intelligent life of the West has not tended in the least to lessen
my reverence for religion nor to lower my regard for culture. Culture gives
strength and symmetry to religious thought, and religion gives life and
beauty to culture. And just as I believe that men should pray without
ceasing, so also do I believe that they should strive to make their religious
faith ever more free and more intelligent.

Yet the history of the Orient compels me to believe that the soil out of
which scriptures spring is that whose life is the active sympathy of religion,
regardless of the degree of acquired knowledge. When the depths of human
nature are thoroughly saturated with this sympathy, then it is prepared both
to receive and to give those thoughts of which scriptures are made. Industry
and commerce have their good uses. But an industrial and commercialistic
atmosphere is not conducive to the production of sacred books. Where the
chief interests of life center in external things, religion is bound to become
only one and perhaps a minor concern in life.

The Oriental has always lived in a world of spiritual mysteries. Fearful

or confident, superstitious or rational, to him God has been all and in all.
"The judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether. In keeping of
them there is great reward."[4] The son of the East has been richly
rewarded. He is the religious teacher of all mankind. Through him all
scriptures have come into being. All the great, living religions of the world
originated in Asia; and the three greatest of them—Judaism, Christianity,
and Mohammedanism—have come into the world through the Semitic race
in that little country called Syria. The perpetual yearning of the Oriental for
spiritual dreams and visions has had its rewards. He sowed bountifully, he
reaped bountifully.

Note the Syrian's daily language: it is essentially Biblical. He has no

secular language. The only real break between his scriptures and the
vocabulary of his daily life is that which exists between the classical and the
vernacular. When you ask a Syrian about his business he will not answer,
"We are doing well at present," but "Allah mûn 'aim" (God is giving
bounteously). To one starting on a journey the phrase is not "Take good care
of yourself," but "Go, in the keeping and protection of God." By example
and precept we were trained from infancy in this manner of speech. Coming
into a house, the visitor salutes by saying, "God grant you good morning,"
or "The peace of God come upon you." So it is written in the tenth chapter
of Matthew, "And as ye enter into the house, salute it. And if the house be
worthy, let your peace come upon it; but if it be not worthy, let your peace
return unto you."

In saluting a day laborer at work we said, "Allah, yaatik-el-afie" (God

give you health and strength). In saluting reapers in the field, or "gatherers
of the increase" in the vineyards or olive groves, we said just the words of
Boaz, in the second chapter of the Book of Ruth, when he "came from
Bethlehem and said unto the reapers, The Lord be with you. And they
answered him, The Lord bless thee." Or another Scriptural expression, now
more extensively used on such occasions, "The blessing of the Lord be
upon you!" It is to this custom that the withering imprecation which is
recorded in the one hundred and twenty-ninth Psalm refers: "Let them all be
confounded and turned back that hate Zion: let them be as the grass upon
the housetops which withereth afore it groweth up: wherewith the mower
filleth not his hand, nor he that bindeth sheaves his bosom. Neither do they
which go by say, The blessing of the Lord be upon you: we bless you in the
name of the Lord."

In asking a shepherd about his flock we said, "How are the blessed
ones?" or a parent about his children, "How are the preserved ones?" They
are preserved of God through their "angels," of whom the Master spoke
when he said, "Take heed that ye despise not one of these little ones; for I
say unto you that in heaven their angels do always behold the face of my
Father."[5] Speaking of a good man we said, "The grace of God is poured
upon his face." So in the Book of Proverbs,[6] "Blessings are upon the head
of the just."

Akin to the foregoing are such expressions as these. In trying to rise

from a sitting posture (the Syrians sit on the floor with their legs folded
under them), a person, using the right arm for leverage, says, as he springs
up, "Ya Allah" (O God [help]). In inquiring about the nature of an object, he
says, "Sho dinû?" (what is its religion?) And one of the queerest
expressions, when translated into English, is that employed to indicate that
a kettleful of water, for example, has boiled beyond the required degree:
"This water has turned to be an infidel" (kaffer). It may be noticed here that
it is not the old theology only which associates the infidel with intense heat.

So this religious language is the Oriental's daily speech. I have stated in

my autobiography that the men my father employed in his building
operations were grouped according to their faith. He had so many Druses,
so many Greek Orthodox, Maronites, and so forth.

The almost total abstinence from using "pious" language in ordinary

business and social intercourse in America may be considered
commendable in some ways, but I consider it a surrender of the soul to the
body, a subordination of the spirit of the things which are eternal to the
spirit of the things which are temporal. In my judgment, the superior culture
of the West, instead of limiting the vocabulary of religion to the one hour of
formal worship on Sunday, and scrupulously shunning it during the
remainder of the week, should make its use, on a much higher plane than
the Orient has yet discovered, coextensive with all the activities of life.
 [1] Ps. cxxxix: 1-6.

[2] Gal. vi: 7.

[3] 2 Cor. ix: 6.

[4] Ps. xix: 9, 11.

[5] Matt. xviii: 10.

[6] x: 6.

CHAPTER II

IMPRECATIONS

Again, the Oriental's consideration of life as being essentially religious

makes him as pious in his imprecations and curses as he is in his
aspirational prayer. Beyond all human intrigue, passion, and force, the great
avenger is God. "Vengeance is mine, I will repay, saith the Lord."[1] "See
now that I, even I, am he, and there is no God with me: I kill and I make
alive; I wound and I heal; neither is there any that can deliver out of my
hand."[2]

By priests and parents these precepts have been transmitted from

generation to generation in the Orient, from time immemorial. We all were
instructed in them by our elders with scrupulous care. Of course as weak
mortals we always tried to avenge ourselves, and the idea of thar (revenge)
lies deep in the Oriental nature. But to us our vengeance was nothing
compared with what God did to our "ungodly" enemies and oppressors.
 The Oriental's impetuosity and effusiveness make his imprecatory
prayers, especially to the "unaccustomed ears" of Americans, blood-
curdling. And I confess that on my last visit to Syria, my countrymen's (and
especially my countrywomen's) bursts of pious wrath jarred heavily upon
me. In his oral bombardment of his enemy the Oriental hurls such missiles
as, "May God burn the bones of your fathers"; "May God exterminate your
seed from the earth"; "May God cut off your supply of bread (yakta
rizkak)"; "May you have nothing but the ground for a bed and the sky for
covering"; "May your children be orphaned and your wife widowed"; and
similar expressions.

Does not this sound exactly like the one hundred and ninth Psalm?
Speaking of his enemy, the writer of that psalm says, "Let his days be few,
and let another take his office. Let his children be fatherless, and his wife a
widow. Let his children be continually vagabonds, and beg; let them seek
their bread also out of their desolate places. Let there be none to extend
mercy unto him; neither let there be any to favor his fatherless children. Let
his posterity be cut off; and in the generation following let their name be
blotted out."

The sad fact is that the Oriental has always considered his personal
enemies to be the enemies of God also, and as such their end was
destruction. Such sentiments mar the beauty of many of the Psalms. The
enemies of the Israelites were considered the enemies of the God of Israel,
and the enemies of a Syrian family are also the enemies of the patron saint
of that family. In that most wonderful Scriptural passage—the one hundred
and thirty-ninth Psalm—the singer cries, "Surely thou wilt slay the wicked,
O God: depart from me, ye bloody men. For they speak against thee
wickedly, and thine enemies take thy name in vain. Do not I hate them, O
Lord, that hate thee? and am I not grieved with those that rise against thee?
I hate them with perfect hatred: I count them mine enemies." Yet this ardent
hater of his enemies most innocently turns to God and says in the next
verse: "Search me, O God, and know my heart: try me and know my
thoughts: and see if there be any wicked way in me, and lead me in the way
everlasting."
 This mixture of piety and hatred, uttered so naïvely and in good faith, is
characteristically Syrian. Such were the mutual wishes I so often heard
expressed in our neighborhood and clan fights and quarrels in Syria. When
so praying, the persons would beat upon their breasts and uncover their
heads, as signs of the total surrender of their cause to an avenging
Omnipotence. Of course the Syrians are not so cruel and heartless as such
imprecations, especially when cast in cold type, would lead one to believe. I
am certain that if the little children of his enemy should become fatherless,
the imprecator himself would be among the first to "favor" them. If you will
keep in mind the juvenile temperament of the Oriental, already mentioned,
and his habit of turning to God in all circumstances, as unreservedly as a
child turns to his father, your judgment of the son of Palestine will be
greatly tempered with mercy.

The one redeeming feature in these imprecatory petitions is that they

have always served the Oriental as a safety-valve. Much of his wrath is
vented in this manner. He is much more cruel in his words than in his deeds.
As a rule the Orientals quarrel much, but fight little. By the time two
antagonists have cursed and reviled each other so profusely they cool off,
and thus graver consequences are averted. The Anglo-Saxon has outgrown
such habits. In the first place the highly complex social order in which he
lives calls for much more effective methods for the settling of disputes, and,
in the second place, he has no time to waste on mere words. And just as the
Anglo-Saxon smiles at the wordy fights of the Oriental, the Oriental
shudders at the swiftness of the Anglo-Saxon in using his fists and his
pistol. Both are needy of the grace of God.

[1] Rom. xii: 19.

[2] Deut. xxxii: 39.

 CHAPTER III

LOVE OF ENEMIES

The preceding chapter makes it very clear why Jesus opened the more
profound depths of the spiritual life to his much-divided and almost
hopelessly clannish countrymen, by commanding them to love their
enemies. He who taught "as one having authority, and not as the scribes,"
knew the possibilities and powers of divine love as no man did. It is in such
immortal precepts that we perceive his superiority to his time and people
and the divinity of his character. His knowledge of the Father was so
intimate and his repose in the Father's love so perfect that he could justly
say, "I and my father are one."

"Ye have heard," he said to his followers, "that it hath been said, Thou
shalt love thy neighbor [in the original, quarib—kinsman] and hate thine
enemy: but I say unto you, love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do
good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you
and persecute you; that ye may be the children of your father which is in
heaven."[1]

Here we have the very heart and soul of the Gospel, and the dynamic
power of Jesus' ministry of reconciliation. Yet to many devout Christians, as
well as to unfriendly critics of the New Testament, the command, "Love
your enemies," offers a serious perplexity. An "independent" preacher in a
large Western city, after reading this portion of the Sermon on the Mount to
his congregation, stated that Jesus' great discourse should be called, "The
Sarcasm on the Mount." Is not love of enemies beyond the power of human
nature?

This question is pertinent. And it is an obvious fact that we cannot love

by command; we cannot love to order. This mysterious flow of soul which
we call love is not of our own making; therefore we cannot will to love.
Such a discussion, however, falls outside the scope of this publication.
What I wish to offer here is a linguistic explanation which I believe will
throw some light on this great commandment.
 The word "love" has been more highly specialized in the West than in
the East. In its proper English use it means only that ardent, amorous
feeling which cannot be created by will and design. In the West the word
"love" has been relieved of the function of expressing the less ardent desires
such as the terms "to like," "to have good-will toward," and "to be well-
disposed toward" imply.

Not so in the East. The word "like," meaning "to be favorably inclined
toward," is not found either in the Bible or in the Arabic tongue. In the
English version it is used in two places, but the translation is incorrect. In
the twenty-fifth chapter of Deuteronomy the seventh verse, "If the man like
not to take his brother's wife," should be rendered, "If the man consent not";
and in the fourth chapter of Amos, the fifth verse, "For this liketh you, O ye
children of Israel," is in the original, "For this ye loved, O ye children of
Israel." In any standard concordance of the Bible, the Hebrew verb Aheb (to
love) precedes these quotations.

So to us Orientals the only word which can express any cordial

inclination of approval is "love." One loves his wife and children, and loves
grapes and figs and meat, if he likes these things. An employer says to an
employee, "If you love to work for me according to this agreement, you
can." It is nothing uncommon for one to say to a casual acquaintance whom
he likes, "I must say, Sahib [friend], that I love you!" I know of no
equivalent in the Arabic for the phrase, "I am interested in you." "Love" and
"hate" are the usual terms by which to express approval and disapproval, as
well as real love and hatred.

The Scriptural passages illustrative of this thought are not a few. In the
ninth chapter of the Epistle to the Romans, the thirteenth verse, it is said,
"As it is written, Jacob have I loved, but Esau have I hated." God does not
"hate." The two terms here, "loved" and "hated," mean "approved" and
"disapproved." It is as a father approves of the conduct of one of his
children and disapproves that of another of them. Another example of this
use of the word "hate" is found in the twenty-first chapter of Deuteronomy,
the fifteenth verse: "If a man have two wives, one beloved, and another
hated, and they have born him children, both the beloved and the hated; and
if the firstborn son be hers that was hated: then it shall be, when he maketh
his sons to inherit that which he hath, that he may not make the son of the
beloved firstborn before the son of the hated, which is indeed the first-born:
but he shall acknowledge the son of the hated for the firstborn, by giving
him a double portion of all that he hath." Here it is safe to infer that the
writer meant to distinguish between the wife who was a "favorite" and the
one who was not. There could be no valid reason why a husband should live
with a wife whom he really hated when he could very easily divorce her,
according to the Jewish law, and marry another. In such a case the husband
was simply partial in his love. The hatred which is felt toward an enemy
and a destroyer does not apply here.

Another Scriptural passage which illustrates the free use of the word
"love" is the story of the rich man in the tenth chapter of St. Mark's Gospel.
Beginning with the seventeenth verse, the passage reads: "And when he was
gone forth into the way, there came one running, and kneeling to him, and
asked him, Good Master, what shall I do that I may inherit eternal life? And
Jesus said unto him, Why callest thou me good? there is none good but one,
that is, God. Thou knowest the commandments, Do not commit adultery,
Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Defraud not, Honor thy
father and mother. And he answered and said unto him, Master, all these
have I observed from my youth. Then Jesus, beholding him, loved him, and
said unto him, One thing thou lackest"; and so forth. Apparently the brief
conversation with the young man showed Jesus that his questioner was both
polite and intelligent, so the Master liked him. Stating the case in Western
phraseology it may be said that the young Hebrew seeker was an agreeable,
or likable man.

Quite different is the import of the word "love" in such of the Master's
sayings as are found in the fifteenth chapter of St. John's Gospel: "As the
Father hath loved me, so have I loved you: continue ye in my love. This is
my commandment, That ye love one another, as I have loved you." Here the
term "love" is used in its truest and purest sense.

From all this it may be seen that when the Great Oriental Teacher said to
his countrymen, who considered all other clans than their own as their
enemies, "Love your enemies," he did not mean that they should be
enamored of them, but that they should have good will toward them. We
cannot love by will and design, but we certainly can will to be well
disposed even toward those who, we believe, have ill will toward us. He
who really thinks this an impossibility gives evidence not of superior
"critical knowledge," but of being still in the lower stages of human
evolution.

But I have something more to say on this great subject. Whether used in
a general or a highly specialized sense the word "Love" speaks indeed of
the "greatest thing in the world."

When the Master of the Art of Living said, "Love your enemies," he
urged upon the minds of men the divinest law of human progress. Yet
compliance with this demand seems, to the majority of men, to be beyond
the reach of humanity. When you are admonished to love your enemies, you
will be likely to think of the meanest, most disagreeable human being you
know and wonder as to how you are going to love such a person. But the
Master's law far transcends this narrow conception of love. Its deeper
meaning, when understood, renders such a conception shallow and childish.
It is to be found, not in the freakish moods of the sensibility, but in the
realm of permanent ideals.

There are in the world two forces at work, love and hatred. Hatred
destroys, love builds; hatred injures, love heals; hatred embitters life, love
sweetens it; hatred is godlessness, love is godliness. The supreme question,
therefore, is, not as to whether there are unlovable persons in the world or
not, but rather, which one of these two forces would you have to rule your
own life and the life of humanity at large, love or hatred? Which nutrition
would you give your own soul and the souls of those who are near and dear
to you, that of hatred, or that of love? Can it be your aim in life to aid that
power which injures, destroys, embitters life and estranges from God, or the
power which heals, builds up, sweetens life and makes one with God?

You say you have been injured through the malicious designs of others,
you are pained by the injury, and a sense of hatred impels you to avenge
yourself. But what formed such designs against you, love or hatred? Hatred!
You enjoy, idealize, adore the love of those who love you. The designs of
love give you joyous satisfaction, and not pain. You know now by actual
personal experience that the fruits of hatred are bitter, and the fruits of love
are sweet. Is it your duty, therefore, to give your life over to the power of
hatred, and thus increase its dominion among men and multiply its bitter,
poisonous fruit in the world, or to consecrate your life to the power of love,
which you idealize and adore, and whose fruits are joy and peace?

This, therefore, is the Master's law of love: Give your life and service to
that power which merits your holiest regard and engages your purest
affections, regardless of the "evil and the undeserving." Recognize no
enemies, and you shall have none. The only power which can defeat the
designs of hatred is love. The foams of hatred and fumes of vengeance are
destined to pass away with all their possessors; only love is permanent and
sovereign good.

The man of hatred is destined, sooner or later, to lose his nobler

qualities, his own self-respect and the respect of others, and to occupy the
smallest and most undesirable social sphere. Therefore love, and do not
hate! Exercise good will toward those even who have injured you.

You may not be able to reach and redeem by your generous thoughts and
designs such persons as have injured you, but a hundred others may learn
from you the law of redeeming love. Let your children grow to know you as
a man of love. Let your employees and fellow citizens think of you as a
man of peace and good will, a builder and not a destroyer. Let your fireside
be ever cheered by the music of love. When the shadows of night fall and
you come to enter into the unknown land of sleep, let loving thoughts be
your companions; let them course into the deepest recesses of your nature
and leaven your entire being. Be a man of love! Love even your blind and
misguided enemies!

[1] Matt. v: 43-45.

 CHAPTER IV

"THE UNVERACIOUS ORIENTAL"

The Oriental's juvenile temperament and his partial disregard for

concrete facts have led his Anglo-Saxon cousin to consider him as
essentially unveracious. "You cannot believe what an Oriental says." "The
Orientals are the children of the 'Father of Lies.'" "Whatever an Oriental
says, the opposite is likely to be the truth"; and so forth.

I do not wish in the least to undertake to excuse or even condone the

Oriental's unveracity, any more than to approve of the ethics of American
politicians during a political campaign. I have no doubt that the Oriental
suffers more from the universal affliction of untruthfulness than does the
Anglo-Saxon, and that he sorely needs to restrict his fancy, and to train his
intellect to have more respect for facts. Nevertheless, I feel compelled to
say that a clear understanding of some of the Oriental's modes of thought
will quash many of the indictments against his veracity. His ways will
remain different from the ways of the Anglo-Saxon, and perhaps not wholly
agreeable to the latter; but the son of the East—the dreamer and writer of
scriptures—will be credited with more honesty of purpose.

It is unpleasant to an Anglo-Saxon to note how many things an Oriental

says, but does not mean. And it is distressing to an Oriental to note how
many things the Anglo-Saxon means, but does not say. To an
unreconstructed Syrian the brevity, yea, even curtness, of an Englishman or
an American, seems to sap life of its pleasures and to place a
disproportionate value on time. For the Oriental, the primary value of time
must not be computed in terms of business and money, but in terms of
sociability and good fellowship. Poetry, and not prosaic accuracy, must be
the dominant feature of speech.

There is much more of intellectual inaccuracy than of moral delinquency

in the Easterner's speech. His misstatements are more often the result of
indifference than the deliberate purpose to deceive. One of his besetting sins
is his ma besay-il—it does not matter. He sees no essential difference
between nine o'clock and half after nine, or whether a conversation took
plate on the housetop or in the house. The main thing is to know the
substance of what happened, with as many of the supporting details as may
be conveniently remembered. A case may be overstated or understated, not
necessarily for the purpose of deceiving, but to impress the hearer with the
significance or the insignificance of it. If a sleeper who had been expected
to rise at sunrise should oversleep and need to be awakened, say half an
hour or an hour later than the appointed time, he is then aroused with the
call, "Arise, it is noon already—qûm sar edh-hir." Of a strong and brave
man it is said, "He can split the earth—yekkid elaridh." The Syrians suffer
from no misunderstanding in such cases. They discern one another's
meaning.

So also many Scriptural passages need to be discerned. The purpose of

the Oriental speaker or writer must be sought often beyond the letter of his
statement, which he uses with great freedom.

In the first chapter of St. Mark's Gospel, the thirty-second and thirty-
third verses, it is said, "And at even, when the sun did set, they brought unto
him all that were diseased, and them that were possessed of devils. And all
the city was gathered together at the door." The swiftness with which the
poor people in Eastern communities bring their sick to a healer, be he a
prophet or only a physician, is proverbial. Because of the scarcity of
physicians, as well as of money with which to pay for medical attendance,
when a healer is summoned to a home many afflicted persons come or are
brought to him. The peoples of the East have always believed also in the
healing of diseases by religious means. When a prophet arises the first thing
expected of him is that he should heal the sick. Both the priest and the
physician are appealed to in time of trouble. To those who followed and
believed in him Jesus was the healer of both the soul and the body. But note
the account of the incident before us. The place was the city of Capernaum,
and we are told that "all the city was gathered together at the door" of the
house where Jesus was bestowing the loving, healing touch upon the sick.
Was the whole city at the door? Were all the sick in that large city brought
into that house for Jesus to heal them? Here we are confronted by a physical
impossibility. An Anglo-Saxon chronicler would have said, "Quite a number
gathered at the door," which in all probability would have been a correct
report.
 But to the Oriental writer the object of the report was not to determine
the number of those who stood outside, nor to insist that each and every
sick person in Capernaum was brought into the humble home of Simon and
Andrew. It was rather to glorify the Great Teacher and his divine work of
mercy, and not to give a photographic report of the attendant circumstances.
The saying, "Quite a number gathered at the door," may be correct, but to
an Oriental it is absolutely colorless and tasteless, an inexcusably
parsimonious use of the imagination.

Take another Scriptural passage. In the seventeenth chapter of St.

Matthew's Gospel, the first verse, we read: "And after six days Jesus taketh
Peter, James, and John his brother, and bringeth them up into an high
mountain apart, and was transfigured before them; and his face did shine as
the sun." "After six days" from what time? In the preceding chapter a
general reference to time is made in the thirteenth verse, where it is said:
"When Jesus came into the coasts of Cæsarea Philippi, he asked his
disciples, saying, Whom do men say that I the Son of man am?" But here no
definite date is given. Chapter sixteenth ends with those great words, "For
whosoever will save his life shall lose it: and whosoever will lose his life
for my sake shall find it. For what is a man profited, if he shall gain the
whole world, and lose his own soul?" The two last verses of this chapter
promise the speedy coming of the Kingdom.

"After six days" from what time? Well, what does it matter from what
time? Do you not see that the object of the record is to give a glimpse of
what happened on that "high mountain" where the light and glory of the
unseen world were reflected in the face of the Christ?

The intelligent lay reader of the New Testament cannot fail to notice,
especially in the Gospels, gaps and abrupt beginnings such as "In those
days"; "Then came the disciples to Jesus"; "And it came to pass"; and many
similar expressions which seem to point nowhere. The record seems to be
rather incoherent. Yes, such difficulties, which are due largely to the
Oriental's indifference to little details, exist in the Bible, but they are very
unimportant. The central purpose of these books is to enable the reader to
perceive the secret of a holy personality, whose mission was, is, and forever
shall be, to emancipate the soul of man from the bondage of a world of fear,
weakness, sin, and doubt, and lead it onward and upward to the realms of
faith, hope, and love. This purpose the Scriptures abundantly subserve.

CHAPTER V

IMPRESSIONS vs. LITERAL ACCURACY

A Syrian's chief purpose in a conversation is to convey an impression by

whatever suitable means, and not to deliver his message in scientifically
accurate terms. He expects to be judged not by what he says, but by what he
means. He does not expect his hearer to listen to him with the quizzical
courtesy of a "cool-headed Yankee," and to interrupt the flow of
conversation by saying, with the least possible show of emotion, "Do I
understand you to say," etc. No; he piles up his metaphors and superlatives,
reinforced by a theatrical display of gestures and facial expressions, in order
to make the hearer feel his meaning.

The Oriental's speech is always "illustrated." He speaks as it were in

pictures. With him the spoken language goes hand in hand with the more
ancient gesture language. His profuse gesticulation is that phase of his life
which first challenges the attention of Occidental travelers in the East. He
points to almost everything he mentions in his speech, and would portray
every feeling and emotion by means of some bodily movement. No sooner
does he mention his eye than his index finger points to or even touches that
organ. "Do you understand me?" is said to an auditor with the speaker's
finger on his own temple. In rebuking one who makes unreasonable
demands upon him, a Syrian would be likely to stoop down and say, "Don't
you want to ride on my back?"

One of the most striking examples of this manner of speech in the Bible
is found in the twenty-first chapter of the Book of Acts. Beginning with the
tenth verse, the writer says: "And as we tarried there [at Cæsarea] many
days, there came down from Judea a certain prophet, named Agabus. And
when he was come unto us, he took Paul's girdle, and bound his own hands
and feet, and said, Thus saith the Holy Ghost, So shall the Jews at
Jerusalem bind the man that owneth this girdle, and shall deliver him into
the hands of the Gentiles." Now an Occidental teacher would not have gone
into all that trouble. He would have said to the great apostle, "Now you
understand I don't mean to interfere with your business, but if I were you I
would n't go down to Jerusalem. Those Jews there are not pleased with
what you are doing, and would be likely to make things unpleasant for
you." But in all probability such a polite hint would not have made Paul's
companions weep, nor caused him to say, "What mean ye to weep and to
break mine heart? for I am ready not to be bound only, but also to die at
Jerusalem for the name of the Lord Jesus."

It is also because the Syrian loves to speak in pictures, and to

subordinate literal accuracy to the total impression of an utterance, that he
makes such extensive use of figurative language. Instead of saying to the
Pharisees, "Your pretensions to virtue and good birth far exceed your actual
practice of virtue," John the Baptist cried: "O generation of vipers, who hath
warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bring forth, therefore, fruits
meet for repentance: and think not to say within yourselves, We have
Abraham to our father: for I say unto you that God is able of these stones to
raise up children unto Abraham."

Just as the Oriental loves to flavor his food strongly and to dress in
bright colors, so is he fond of metaphor, exaggeration, and positiveness in
speech. To him mild accuracy is weakness. A host of illustrations of this
thought rise in my mind as I recall my early experiences as a Syrian youth. I
remember how those jovial men who came to our house to "sit"—that is, to
make a call of indefinite duration—would make their wild assertions and
back them up by vows which they never intended to keep. The one would
say, "What I say to you is the truth, and if it is not, I will cut off my right
arm"—grasping it—"at the shoulder." "I promise you this,"—whatever the
promise might be,—"and if I fail in fulfilling my promise I will pluck out
my right eye."

To such speech we always listened admiringly and respectfully. But we

never had the remotest idea that in any circumstances the speaker would
carry out his resolution, or that his hearers had a right to demand it from
him. He simply was in earnest; or as an American would say, "He meant
that he was right."

Such an Oriental mode of thought furnishes us with the background for

Jesus' saying, "If thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast it from
thee. If thy right hand offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thee."[1]

To many Western Christians, especially in the light of the Protestant

doctrine of the infallibility of the letter of the Bible, these sayings of Christ
present insurmountable difficulties. To such the question, "How can I be a
true disciple of Christ, if I do not obey what he commands?" makes these
misunderstood sayings of Christ great stumbling blocks. Some time ago a
lady wrote me a letter saying that at a prayer-meeting which she attended,
the minister, after reading the fifth chapter of Matthew, which contains
these commands, said, "If we are true Christians we must not shrink from
obeying these explicit commands of our Lord."

My informant stated also that on hearing that, she asked the preacher,
"Suppose the tongue should offend, and we should cut it off; should we be
better Christians than if we did endeavor to atone for the offense in some
other way?" The preacher, after a moment of perplexed silence, said, "If
there is no one here who can answer this question, we will sing a hymn."

The best commentary on these sayings of Christ is given by Paul in the

sixth chapter of his Epistle to the Romans. This is precisely what the Master
meant: "Neither yield ye your members as instruments of unrighteousness
unto sin; but yield yourselves unto God, as those that are alive from the
dead, and your members as instruments of righteousness unto God." Cutting
or mutilation of the body has nothing to do with either passage, nor indeed
with the Christian life. The amputation of an arm that steals is no sure
guaranty of the removal of the desire to steal; nor would the plucking out of
a lustful eye do away with the lust which uses the eye for an instrument.

With this should be classed also the following commands: "Whosoever

shall smite thee on the right cheek, turn to him the other also." "If any man
will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also;
and whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain."[2]
 The command to give the coat and the cloak to a disputant, rather than to
go to law with him, will seem much more perplexing when it is understood
that these words mean the "under garment" and the "upper garment." The
Orientals are not in the habit of wearing a coat and a cloak or overcoat. In
the Arabic version we have the thaub ("th" as in "throw") and the rada'. The
thaub is the main article of clothing—the ample gown worn over a shirt
next to the body. The rada' is the cloak worn on occasions over the thaub.
The Scriptural command literally is, "To one who would quarrel with thee
and would take thy thaub, give him the rada' also." It may be clearly seen
here that literal compliance with this admonition would leave the non-
resistant person, so far as clothes are concerned, in a pitiable condition.

The concluding portion of this paragraph in the fifth chapter of St.

Matthew's Gospel—the forty-second verse—presents another difficulty. It
says, "Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee
turn not thou away." Of all those whom I have heard speak disparagingly of
this passage I particularly recall a lawyer, whom I knew in a Western State,
whose dislike for these words of Christ amounted almost to a mental
affliction. It seems to me that on every single occasion when he and I
discussed the Scriptures together, or spoke of Christianity, I found him
armed with this passage as his most effective weapon against the innocent
Nazarene. "What was Jesus thinking of," he would say, "when he uttered
these words? What would become of our business interests and financial
institutions if we gave to every one that asked of us, and lent money without
good security to every Tom, Dick, and Harry?"

The thought involved in this text suffers from the unconditional manner
in which it is presented, and which gives it its Oriental flavor. Seeing that
he was addressing those who knew what he meant, the writer did not deem
it necessary to state exactly the reason why this command was given. It
seems, however, that when Jesus spoke those words he had in mind the
following passage: "And if thy brother be waxed poor, and his hand fail
with thee; then thou shalt uphold him: as a stranger and a sojourner shall he
live with thee. Take thou no interest of him or increase, but fear thy God:
that thy brother may live with thee. Thou shalt not give him thy money upon
interest, nor give him thy victuals for increase."[3] According to this legal
stipulation, an Israelite could not lawfully charge a fellow Israelite interest