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Prelude to Programming 6th edition Elizabeth Drake

Test Bank for Prelude to Programming Chapter 6

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. If Number = 4, what possible numbers can result from:

Floor(Random()() * 10) + Number

a. 1, 2, 3, 4
b. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
c. 0, 1, 2, 3
d. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13

ANS: D

2. If Number = 4, what possible numbers can result from

Floor(Random() * Number)

a. 1, 2, 3, 4
b. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
c. 0, 1, 2, 3
d. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13
ANS: C

3. What is the output of the code corresponding to the following pseudocode?

Declare X As Integer
Declare Y As Integer
For (X = 1; X <=2; X++)
For (Y = 3; Y <= 4; Y++)
Write X * Y
End For(Y)
End For(X)

a. 3 b. 4 c. 1 d. 3 4
4 5 3 6 8
6 5 2
8 6 4

ANS: A

© 2015 Pearson Education 1

Prelude to Programming 6th edition Elizabeth Drake

4. What is the output of the code corresponding to the following pseudocode?

Declare Y As Integer
Declare X As Integer
For (Y = 1; Y <=2; Y++)
For (X = 3; X <= 4; X++)
Write Y * X
End For(X)
End For(Y)

a. 3 b. 4 c. 1 d. 3 4
4 5 3 6 8
6 5 2
8 6 4

ANS: A

5. What is the output of code corresponding to the following pseudocode?

Declare A As Integer
Declare B As Float
Set A = 2
While <= 3
Set B = 2.5 * A
Write B
Set B = Int(B)
Write B
Set A = A + 1
End While

a. 5 b. 5 c. 5 d. 2
7 5 5 5
7.5 7 3
7 7 7
ANS: B

6. Which of the following loops cannot be nested in a For loop?

a. While
b. For
c. Repeat ... Until
d. Do ... While
e. all of the above can be nested in a For loop

ANS: E

© 2015 Pearson Education 2

Prelude to Programming 6th edition Elizabeth Drake

7. What is the output of the code corresponding to the pseudocode shown?

Declare G As Integer
Declare H As Integer
Set G = 7
While G <= 8
Set H = 6
While H <= 7
Write G + H
Set H = H + 1
End While(H)
Set G = G + 1
End While(G)

a. 13 b. 7 c. 7 6 d. 13
14 6 7 7 14
15 7 8 6 14
8 8 7 15
ANS: D

8. What will be displayed after code corresponding to the following pseudocode is run?
Declare A As Integer
Declare B As Integer
Declare C As Integer
Set A = 3
While A <= 6
Set B = (2 * A) – 1
Write B
Set C = A
While C <= (A+1)
Write C
Set C = C + 1
End While(C)
Set A = A + 2
End While(A)

a. 5 b. 3 c. 5 d. 5
3 5 3 3
9 4 4 3
5 5 9 9
9 5 5
5 6 5
ANS: C

© 2015 Pearson Education 3

Prelude to Programming 6th edition Elizabeth Drake

9. Which of the following statements should be used to validate that a number input by the
user into a variable named Widgets is an integer value?

a. While Widgets != Widgets

Write “Please enter an integer value:”
Input Widgets
End While
b. While Int(Widgets) != Widgets
Write “Please enter an integer value:”
Input Widgets
End While
c. Repeat
Write “Please enter an integer value:”
Input Widgets
End Repeat
d. While Widgets > 0
Write “Please enter an integer value:”
Input Widgets
End While
ANS: B

10. What does the following program segment do?

Declare Count As Integer
Declare Sum As Integer
Set Sum = 0
For (Count = 1; Count < 50; Count++)
Set Sum = Sum + Count
End For

a. It sums all the integers from 0 through 50

b. It sums all the integers from 1 through 50
c. It sums all the integers from 1 through 49
d. It does nothing since there is no Write statement
ANS: C

© 2015 Pearson Education 4

Prelude to Programming 6th edition Elizabeth Drake

11. What is wrong with the following pseudocode?

Declare Count As Integer
Declare TheNumber As Integer
Set TheNumber = 12
For (Count = 10; Count>TheNumber; Count--)
Write TheNumber + Count
End For

a. A counter must start at 0 or 1

b. The limit condition in a For loop cannot be a variable
c. The loop will never be entered since the initial value of Count is less than the
test condition
d. The loop will never end since the test condition will never be met
ANS: D

12. If MyNumber = 7.82, what is the value of Int(MyNumber/2)+ 0.5?

a. 4.41
b. 3.5
c. 3.91
d. 4.5

ANS: B

13. What is the output of the code corresponding to the following pseudocode?
Declare M As Integer
Declare P As Integer
Repeat
Set P = 1
While P < 4
Write M + “ and “ + P
Set P = P + 1
End While(P)
Set M = M + 1
Until M = 3

a. 2 and 1 b. 2 and 1 c. 1 and 1 d. M and P

3 and 1 2 and 2 2 and 2 M and P
2 and 3 3 and 3 M and P
3 and 1
3 and 2
3 and 3
ANS: B

© 2015 Pearson Education 5

Prelude to Programming 6th edition Elizabeth Drake

14. Which statement would produce an output of one of the following numbers:
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

a. Floor(Random() * 5) + 5
b. Floor(Random() * 6) + 5
c. Floor(Random()) + 5
d. Floor(Random() * 9) - 5

ANS: A

15. What is displayed when the following pseudocode is coded and run, given that the input is
“Harold”?

Declare Star As Character

Declare A As Integer
Declare Count As Integer
Declare Name As String
Set Star = “*”
Write “Enter your first name: “
Input Name
Set A = Length_Of(Name)
Set Count = 1
Print Name
Print <NL>
While Count <= A
Print Star
Set Count = Count + 1
End While

a. Harold b. Harold c. ****** d. Harold

* ***** ******
ANS: D

TRUE/FALSE
1. True/False: It is possible to have both a Select Case statement and an If-Then
structure within a single loop.
ANS: T

2. True/False: If Number = 4, is the following statement true or false:

Int(Number * Number) == Number * Number
ANS: T

3. True/False: If Number = 2.7, is the following statement true or false:

Int(Number * Number) == Number * Number
ANS: F
© 2015 Pearson Education 6
Prelude to Programming 6th edition Elizabeth Drake

4. True/False: If one For loop is nested within another, then the limit value for the two loops
must be different.
ANS: F

5. True/False: Two non-overlapping loops can be nested within a third loop.

ANS: T

6. True/False: If Number = 3, indicate whether the following statement is true

or false:
Floor(Random() * Number) may be 0, 1, 2, or 3
ANS: F

7. True/False: A For loop may not be nested within a While loop.

ANS: F

8. True/False: Given that Number = 3:

Floor(Random() * Number) + 4 may be 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, or 13
ANS: F

9. True/False: Given that Number = 3:

Floor(Random() * 4) + Number may be 3, 4, 5, or 6
ANS: T

10. True/False: It is not possible to put a loop inside an If-Then statement.

ANS: F

11. True/False: If Number = 2.3, is the following statement true or false:

Number == Int(Number)
ANS: F

12. True/False: A counter in a loop can count up by fives.

ANS: T

13. True/False: Is the following statement true or false?

Ceiling(6.89) = 6
ANS: F

14. True/False: In a program with nested loops, the inner loop is completed before the outer
loop.
ANS: T

15. True/False: Is the following statement true or false?

Ceiling(4.22) = 5
ANS: T

© 2015 Pearson Education 7

Prelude to Programming 6th edition Elizabeth Drake

SHORT ANSWER

1. Numbers that form an unpredictable sequence in which each number is equally likely to oc-
cur are called __________ __________.
ANS: random numbers

2. ____________ __________ are numbers that belong to a sequence, generated by a

mathematical algorithm, in which each number is equally likely to occur.
ANS: pseudorandom numbers

3. The starting value of an algorithm used to generate a range of numbers is called the
_________.
ANS: seed

4. The expression Floor(Random()*6) produces the numbers _____ through _____

ANS: 0, 5

5. When one loop is contained within another loop, we say these are __________ loops.
ANS: nested

6. The statement
If Int(Number) != Number Then...
checks to see if the value of Number is a(n) _________.
ANS: integer

7. In a program with nested loops, the outer loop is completed __________ (before/after) the
inner loop.
ANS: after

8. If a counter named MyCount in a For loop has the value of 5 on the first pass, 10 on the
second pass, 15 on the third pass, and so on, the increment would be written as
__________.
ANS: MyCount+5

9. If a counter named MyCount in a For loop has the initial value of 5 on the first pass and
we want it to go through 4 iterations, increasing its value by 5 on each pass, the test
condition would be written as __________.
ANS: MyCount <= 20 or MyCount < 21

10. The function that returns the number of characters in a string is the __________ function.
ANS: Length_Of()

© 2015 Pearson Education 8

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 § 16. The Standard Octachord
System.
In the age of the great melic poets the lyre had no more than seven
strings: but the octave was completed in the earliest times of which
we have accurate information. The scale which is assumed as matter
of common knowledge in the Aristotelian Problems and the
Harmonics of Aristoxenus consists of eight notes, named as follows
from their place on the lyre:
Nêtê (neatê or nêtê, lit. 'lowest,' our 'highest').
Paranêtê (paranêtê, 'next to Nêtê').
Tritê (tritê, i.e. 'third' string).
Paramesê (paramesê or paramesos, 'next to Mesê').
Mesê (mesê, 'middle string').
Lichanos (lichanos, i.e. 'forefinger' string).
Parhypatê (parypatê).
Hypatê (hypatê, lit. 'uppermost,' our 'lowest').
It will be seen that the conventional sense of high and low in the
words hypatê and neatê was the reverse of the modern usage.
The musical scale formed by these eight notes consists of two
tetrachords or scales of four notes, and a major tone. The lower of
the tetrachords consists of the notes from Hypatê to Mesê, the higher
of those from Paramesê to Nêtê: the interval between Mesê and
Paramesê being the so-called Disjunctive Tone (tonos
diazeuktikos). Within each tetrachord the intervals depend upon
the Genus (genos). Thus the four notes just mentioned—Hypatê,
Mesê, Paramesê, Nêtê—are the same for every genus, and
accordingly are called the 'standing' or 'immoveable' notes
(phthongoi hestôtes, akinêtoi), while the others vary with the
genus, and are therefore 'moveable' (pheromenoi).
In the ordinary Diatonic genus the intervals of the tetrachords are, in
the ascending order, semitone + tone + tone: i.e. Parhypatê is a
semitone above Hypatê, and Lichanos a tone above Parhypatê. In the
Enharmonic genus the intervals are two successive quarter-tones
(diesis) followed by a ditone or major Third: consequently Parhypatê
is only a quarter of a tone above Hypatê, and Lichanos again a
quarter of a tone above Parhypatê. The group of three notes
separated in this way by small intervals (viz. two successive quarter-
tones) is called a pyknon. If we use an asterisk to denote that a
note is raised a quarter of a tone, these two scales may be
represented in modern notation as follows:

πμκνον = pyknon

In the Chromatic genus and its varieties the division is of an

intermediate kind. The interval between Lichanos and Mesê is more
than one tone, but less than two: and the two other intervals, as in
the enharmonic, are equal.
The most characteristic feature of this scale, in contrast to those of
the modern Major and Minor, is the place of the small intervals
(semitone or pyknon), which are always the lowest intervals of a
tetrachord. It is hardly necessary to quote passages from Aristotle
and Aristoxenus to show that this is the succession of intervals
assumed by them. The question is asked in the Aristotelian Problems
(xix. 4), why Parhypatê is difficult to sing, while Hypatê is easy,
although there is only a diesis between them (kaitoi diesis
hekateras). Again (Probl. xix. 47), speaking of the old heptachord
scale, the writer says that the Paramesê was left out, and
consequently the Mesê became the lowest note of the upper
pyknon, i.e. the group of 'close' notes consisting of Mesê, Tritê, and
Paranêtê. Similarly Aristoxenus (Harm. p. 23) observes that the
'space' of the Lichanos, i.e. the limit within which it varies in the
different genera, is a tone while the space of the Parhypatê is only a
diesis, for it is never nearer Hypatê than a diesis or further off than a
semitone.
 § 17. Earlier Heptachord Scales.
Regarding the earlier seven-stringed scales which preceded this
octave our information is scanty and somewhat obscure. The chief
notice on the subject is the following passage of the Aristotelian
Problems:

Probl. xix. 47 dia ti hoi archaioi heptachordous poiountes

tas harmonias tên hypatên all' ou tên nêtên katelipon: hê
ou tên hypatên (leg. nêtên), alla tên nyn paramesên
kaloumenên aphêroun kai to toniaion diastêma; echrônto
de tê eschatê mesê tou epi to oxy pyknou; did kai mesên
autên prosêloreusan [hê] oti ên tou men anô
tetrachordon teleutê, tou de katô archê, kai meson eiche
logon tonô tôn akrôn?
'Why did the ancient seven-stringed scales include Hypatê but
not Nêtê? Or should we say that the note omitted was not Nêtê,
but the present Paramesê and the interval of a tone (i.e. the
disjunctive tone)? The Mesê, then, was the lowest note of the
upper pyknon: whence the name mesê, because it was the end
of the upper tetrachord and beginning of the lower one, and was
in pitch the middle between the extremes.'

This clearly implies two conjunct tetrachords—

In another place (Probl. xix. 32) the question is asked, why the
interval of the octave is called dia pasôn, not di' oktô,—as the
Fourth is dia tessarôn, the Fifth dia pente. The answer suggested
is that there were anciently seven strings, and that Terpander left out
the Tritê and added the Nêtê. That is to say, Terpander increased the
compass of the scale from the ancient two tetrachords to a full
Octave; but he did not increase the number of strings to eight. Thus
he produced a scale like the standard octave, but with one note
wanting; so that the term di oktô was inappropriate.
Among later writers who confirm this account we may notice
Nicomachus, p. 7 Meib. mesê dia tessarôn pros amphotera en tê
heptachordô kata to palaion diestôsa: and p. 20 tê toinyn
archaiotropô lyra toutesti tê heptachordô, kata synaphên ek
duo tetrachordôn synestôsê k.t.l.
It appears then that two kinds of seven-stringed scales were known,
at least by tradition: viz. (1) a scale composed of two conjunct
tetrachords, and therefore of a compass less than an octave by one
tone; and (2) a scale of the compass of an octave, but wanting a
note, viz. the note above Mesê. The existence of this incomplete
scale is interesting as a testimony to the force of the tradition which
limited the number of strings to seven.
 § 18. The Perfect System.
The term 'Perfect System' (systêma teleion) is applied by the
technical writers to a scale which is evidently formed by successive
additions to the heptachord and octachord scales explained in the
preceding chapter. It may be described as a combination of two
scales, called the Greater and Lesser Perfect System.
The Greater Perfect System (systêma teleion meizon) consists of
two octaves formed from the primitive octachord System by adding a
tetrachord at each end of the scale. The new notes are named like
those of the adjoining tetrachord of the original octave, but with the
name of the tetrachord added by way of distinction. Thus below the
original Hypatê we have a new tetrachord Hypatôn (tetrachordon
hypatôn), the notes of which are accordingly called Hypatê Hypatôn,
Parhypatê Hypatôn, and Lichanos Hypatôn: and similarly above Nêtê
we have a tetrachord Hyperbolaiôn. Finally the octave downwards
from Mesê is completed by the addition of a note appropriately called
Proslambanomenos.
The Lesser Perfect System (systêma teleion elasson) is apparently
based upon the ancient heptachord which consisted of two 'conjunct'
tetrachords meeting in the Mesê. This scale was extended
downwards in the same way as the Greater System, and thus became
a scale of three tetrachords and a tone.
These two Systems together constitute the Perfect and
'unmodulating' System (systêma teleion ametabolon), which may
be represented in modern notation [9] as follows:
a Nêtê Hyperbolaiôn } Tetrachord
g Paranêtê Hyperbolaiôn } Hyperbolaiôn
f Tritê Hyperbolaiôn }
e Nêtê Diezeugmenôn
 d Paranêtê Diezeugmenôn }
c Tritê Diezeugmenôn } Tetrachord
b Paramesê } Diezeugmenôn
d Nêtê Synêmmenôn }
c Paranêtê Synêmmenôn } Tetrachord
b♭ Tritê Synêmmenôn } Synêmmenôn
a Mesê }
g Lichanos Mesôn } Tetrachord
f Parhypatê Mesôn } Mesôn
e Hypatê Mesôn
d Lichanos Hypatôn }
c Parhypatê Hypatôn } Tetrachord
b Hypatê Hypatôn } Hypatôn
a Proslambanomenos

No account of the Perfect System is given by Aristoxenus, and there

is no trace in his writings of an extension of the standard scale
beyond the limits of the original octave. In one place indeed (Harm.
p. 8, 12 Meib.) Aristoxenus promises to treat of Systems, 'and among
them of the perfect System' (peri te tôn allôn kai tou teleiou).
But we cannot assume that the phrase here had the technical sense
which it bore in later writers. More probably it meant simply the
octave scale, in contrast to the tetrachord and pentachord—a sense
in which it is used by Aristides Quintilianus, p. 11 Meib.
synêmmenôn de eklêthê to holon systêma hoti tô
prokeimenô teleiô tô mechri mesês synêptai, 'the whole scale
was called conjunct because it is conjoined to the complete scale that
reaches up to Mesê' (i.e. the octave extending from
Proslambanomenos to Mesê). So p. 16 kai ha men autôn esti
teleia, ha d' ou, atelê men tetrachordon, pentachordon,
teleion de oktachordon. This is a use of teleios which is likely
enough to have come from Aristoxenus. The word was doubtless
applied in each period to the most complete scale which musical
theory had then recognised.
Little is known of the steps by which this enlargement of the Greek
scale was brought about. We shall not be wrong in conjecturing that
it was connected with the advance made from time to time in the
form and compass of musical instruments [10]. Along with the lyre,
which kept its primitive simplicity as the instrument of education and
everyday use, the Greeks had the cithara (kithara), an enlarged and
improved lyre, which, to judge from the representations on ancient
monuments, was generally seen in the hands of professional players
(kitharôdoi). The development of the cithara showed itself in the
increase, of which we have good evidence even before the time of
Plato, in the number of the strings. The poet Ion, the contemporary
of Sophocles, was the author of an epigram on a certain ten-stringed
lyre, which seems to have had a scale closely approaching that of the
Lesser Perfect System [11]. A little later we hear of the comic poet
Pherecrates attacking the musician Timotheus for various innovations
tending to the loss of primitive simplicity, in particular the use of
twelve strings [12]. According to a tradition mentioned by Pausanias,
the Spartans condemned Timotheus because in his cithara he had
added four strings to the ancient seven. The offending instrument
was hung up in the Scias (the place of meeting of the Spartan
assembly), and apparently was seen there by Pausanias himself
(Paus. iii. 12, 8).
A similar or still more rapid development took place in the flute
(aulos). The flute-player Pronomus of Thebes, who was said to have
been one of the instructors of Alcibiades, invented a flute on which it
was possible to play in all the modes. 'Up to his time,' says Pausanias
(ix. 12, 5), 'flute-players had three forms of flute: with one they
played Dorian music; a different set of flutes served for the Phrygian
mode (harmonia); and the so-called Lydian was played on another
kind again. Pronomus was the first who devised flutes fitted for every
sort of mode, and played melodies different in mode on the same
flute.' The use of the new invention soon became general, since in
Plato's time the flute was the instrument most distinguished by the
multiplicity of its notes: cp. Rep. p. 399 ti de? aulopoious ê
aulêtas paradexei eis tên polin? ê ou touto polychordotaton?
Plato may have had the invention of Pronomus in mind when he
wrote these words.
With regard to the order in which the new notes obtained a place in
the schemes of theoretical musicians we have no trustworthy
information. The name proslambanomenos, applied to the lowest
note of the Perfect System, points to a time when it was the last new
addition to the scale. Plutarch in his work on the Timaeus of Plato
(peri tês en Timaiô psychogonias) speaks of the
Proslambanomenos as having been added in comparatively recent
times (p. 1029 c hoi de neôteroi ton proslambanomenon tonô
diapheronta tês hypatês epi to bary taxantes to men holon
diastêma dis dia pasôn epoiêsan). The rest of the Perfect System
he ascribes to 'the ancients' (tous palaious ismen hypatas men
dyo, treis de nêtas, mian de mesên kai mian paramesên
tithemenous). An earlier addition—perhaps the first made to the
primitive octave—was a note called Hyperhypatê, which was a tone
below the old Hypatê, in the place afterwards occupied on the
Diatonic scale by Lichanos Hypatôn. It naturally disappeared when
the tetrachord Hypatôn came into use. It is only mentioned by one
author, Thrasyllus (quoted by Theon Smyrnaeus, cc. 35-36 [13]).
The notes of the Perfect System, with the intervals of the scale which
they formed, are fully set out in the two treatises that pass under the
name of the geometer Euclid, viz. the Introductio Harmonica and the
Sectio Canonis. Unfortunately the authorship of both these works is
doubtful [14]. All that we can say is that if the Perfect System was
elaborated in the brief interval between the time of Aristotle and that
of Euclid, the materials for it must have already existed in musical
practice.
 § 19. Relation of System and Key.
Let us now consider the relation between this fixed or standard scale
and the varieties denoted by the terms harmonia and tonos.
With regard to the tonoi or Keys of Aristoxenus we are not left in
doubt. A system, as we have seen, is a series of notes whose relative
pitch is fixed. The key in which the System is taken fixes the absolute
pitch of the series. As Aristoxenus expresses it, the Systems are
melodies set at the pitch of the different keys (tous tonous, eph'
hôn tithemena ta systêmata melôdeitai). If then we speak of
Hypatê or Mesê (just as when we speak of a moveable Do), we mean
as many different notes as there are keys: but the Dorian Hypatê or
the Lydian Mesê has an ascertained pitch. The Keys of Aristoxenus, in
short, are so many transpositions of the scale called the Perfect
System.
Such being the relation of the standard System to the key, can we
suppose any different relation to have subsisted between the
standard System and the ancient 'modes' known to Plato and
Aristotle under the name of harmoniai?
It appears from the language used by Plato in the Republic that
Greek musical instruments differed very much in the variety of modes
or harmoniai of which they were susceptible. After Socrates has
determined, in the passage quoted above (p. 7), that he will admit
only two modes, the Dorian and Phrygian, he goes on to observe that
the music of his state will not need a multitude of strings, or an
instrument of all the modes (panarmonion) [15]. 'There will be no
custom therefore for craftsmen who make triangles and harps and
other instruments of many notes and many modes. How then about
makers of the flute (aulos) and players on the flute? Has not the
flute the greatest number of notes, and are not the scales which
admit all the modes simply imitations of the flute? There remain then
the lyre and the cithara for use in our city; and for shepherds in the
country a syrinx (pan's pipes).' The lyre, it is plain, did not admit of
changes of mode. The seven or eight strings were tuned to furnish
the scale of one mode, not of more. What then is the relation
between the mode or harmonia of a lyre and the standard scale or
systêma which (as we have seen) was based upon the lyre and its
primitive gamut?
If harmonia means 'key,' there is no difficulty. The scale of a lyre
was usually the standard octave from Hypatê to Nêtê: and that
octave might be in any one key. But if a mode is somehow
characterised by a particular succession of intervals, what becomes of
the standard octave? No one succession of intervals can then be
singled out. It may be said that the standard octave is in fact the
scale of a particular mode, which had come to be regarded as the
type, viz. the Dorian. But there is no trace of any such prominence of
the Dorian mode as this would necessitate. The philosophers who
recognise its elevation and Hellenic purity are very far from implying
that it had the chief place in popular regard. Indeed the contrary was
evidently the case [16].
 § 20. Tonality of the Greek musical
scale.
It may be said here that the value of a series of notes as the basis of
a distinct mode—in the modern sense of the word—depends
essentially upon the tonality. A single scale might yield music of
different modes if the key-note were different. It is necessary
therefore to collect the scanty notices which we possess bearing
upon the tonality of Greek music. The chief evidence on the subject
is a passage of the Problems, the importance of which was first
pointed out by Helmholtz [17].
It is as follows:

Arist. Probl. xix. 20: Dia ti ean men tis tên mesên kinêsê
hêmôn, harmosas tas allas chordas, kai chrêtai tô
organô, ou monon hotan kata ton tês mesês genêtai
phthongon lypei kai phainetai anarmoston, alla kai kata
tên allên melôdian, ean de tên lichanon ê tina allon
phthongon, tote phainetai diapherein monon hotan
kakeinê tis chrêtai? ê eulogôs touto symbainei? panta
gar ta chrêsta melê pollakis tê mesê chrêtai, kai pantes
hoi agathoi poiêtai pykna pros tên mesên apantôsi, kan
apelthôsi tachy epanerchontai, pros de allên houtôs
oudemian. kathaper ek tôn logôn eniôn exairethentôn
syndesmôn ouk estin ho logos Hellênikos, hoion to te kai
to kai, enioi de outhen lypousi, dia to tois men anankaion
einai chrêsthai pollakis, ei estai logos, tois de mê, houtô
kai tôn phthongôn hê mesê hôsper syndesmos esti, kai
malista tôn kalôn, dia to pleistakis enyparchein ton
phthongon autês.
 'Why is it that if the Mesê is altered, after the other strings have
been tuned, the instrument is felt to be out of tune, not only
when the Mesê is sounded, but through the whole of the music,
—whereas if the Lichanos or any other note is out of tune, it
seems to be perceived only when that note is struck? Is it to be
explained on the ground that all good melodies often use the
Mesê, and all good composers resort to it frequently, and if they
leave it soon return again, but do not make the same use of any
other note? just as language cannot be Greek if certain
conjunctions are omitted, such as te and kai, while others may
be dispensed with, because the one class is necessary for
language, but not the other: so with musical sounds the Mesê is
a kind of 'conjunction,' especially of beautiful sounds, since it is
most often heard among these.'

In another place (xix. 36) the question is answered by saying that the
notes of a scale stand in a certain relation to the Mesê, which
determines them with reference to it (hê taxis hê hekastês êdê di'
ekeinên): so that the loss of the Mesê means the loss of the ground
and unifying element of the scale (arthentos tou aitiou tou
hêrmosthai kai tou synechontos) [18].
These passages imply that in the scale known to Aristotle, viz. the
octave e-e, the Mesê a had the character of a Tonic or key-note. This
must have been true a fortiori of the older seven-stringed scale, in
which the Mesê united the two conjunct tetrachords. It was quite in
accordance with this state of things that the later enlargement
completed the octaves from Mesê downwards and upwards, so that
the scale consisted of two octaves of the form a-a. As to the question
how the Tonic character of the Mesê was shown, in what parts of the
melody it was necessarily heard, and the like, we can but guess. The
statement of the Problems is not repeated by any technical writer,
and accordingly it does not appear that any rules on the subject had
been arrived at. It is significant, perhaps, that the frequent use of the
Mesê is spoken of as characteristic of good melody (panta ta
chrêsta melê pollakis tê mesê chrêtai), as though tonality were
a merit rather than a necessity.
Another passage of the Problems has been thought to show that in
Greek music the melody ended on the Hypatê. The words are these
(Probl. xix. 33):

Dia ti euarmostoteron apo tou oxeos epi to bary ê apo

tou

bareos epi to oxy; poteron hoti to apo tês archês ginetai

archesthai? hê gar mesê kai hêgemôn oxytatê tou
tetrachordou; to de ouk ap' archês all' apo teleutês.
'Why is a descending scale more musical than an ascending one? Is it
that in this order we begin with the beginning,—since the Mesê or
leading note [19] is the highest of the tetrachord,—but with the
reverse order we begin with the end?'
There is here no explicit statement that the melody ended on the
Hypatê, or even that it began with the Mesê. In what sense, then,
was the Mesê a 'beginning' (archê), and the Hypatê an 'end'? In
Aristotelian language the word archê has various senses. It might be
used to express the relation of the Mesê to the other notes as the
basis or ground-work of the scale. Other passages, however, point to
a simpler explanation, viz. that the order in question was merely
conventional. In Probl. xix. 44 it is said that the Mesê is the beginning
(archê) of one of the two tetrachords which form the ordinary octave
scale (viz. the tetrachord Mesôn); and again in Probl. xix. 47 that in
the old heptachord which consisted of two conjunct tetrachords (e-a-
d) the Mesê (a) was the end of the upper tetrachord and the
beginning of the lower one (hoti ên tou men anô tetrachordou
teleutê, tou de katô archê). In this last passage it is evident that
there is no reference to the beginning or end of the melody.
Another instance of the use of archê in connexion with the musical
scale is to be found in the Metaphysics (iv. 11, p. 1018 b 26), where
Aristotle is speaking of the different senses in which things may be
prior and posterior:

Ta de kata taxin; tauta d' estin hosa pros ti hen

hôrismenon diestêke kata ton logon, hoion parastatês
tritostatou proteron, kai paranêtê nêtês; entha men gar
ho koryphaios, entha de hê mesê archê.
'Other things [are prior and posterior] in order: viz. those which
are at a varying interval from some one definite thing; as the
second man in the rank is prior to the third man, and the
Paranêtê to the Nêtê: for in the one case the coryphaeus is the
starting-point, in the other the Mesê.'

Here the Mesê is again the archê or beginning, but the order is the
ascending one, and consequently the Nêtê is the end. The passage
confirms what we have learned of the relative importance of the
Mesê: but it certainly negatives any inference regarding the note on
which the melody ended.
It appears, then, that the Mesê of the Greek standard System had
the functions of a key-note in that System. In other words, the music
was in the mode (using that term in the modern sense) represented
by the octave a-a of the natural key—the Hypo-dorian or Common
Species. We do not indeed know how the predominant character of
the Mesê was shown—whether, for example, the melody ended on
the Mesê. The supposed evidence for an ending on the Hypatê has
been shown to be insufficient. But we may at least hold that as far as
the Mesê was a key-note, so far the Greek scale was that of the
modern Minor mode (descending). The only way of escape from this
conclusion is to deny that the Mesê of Probl. xix. 20 was the note
which we have understood by the term—the Mesê of the standard
System. This, as we shall presently see, is the plea to which Westphal
has recourse.
 § 21. The Species of a Scale.
The object of the preceding discussion has been to make it clear that
the theory of a system of modes—in the modern sense of the word—
finds no support from the earlier authorities on Greek music. There
is, however, evidence to show that Aristoxenus, and perhaps other
writers of the time, gave much thought to the varieties to be
obtained by taking the intervals of a scale in different order. These
varieties they spoke of as the forms or species (schêmata, eidê) of
the interval which measured the compass of the scale in question.
Thus, the interval of the Octave (dia pasôn) is divided into seven
intervals, and these are, in the Diatonic genus, five tones and two
semitones, in the Enharmonic two ditones, four quarter-tones, and a
tone. As we shall presently see in detail, there are seven species of
the Octave in each genus. That is to say, there are seven admissible
octachord scales (systêmata emmelê), differing only in the
succession of the intervals which compose them.
Further, there is evidence which goes to connect the seven species of
the Octave with the Modes or harmoniai. In some writers these
species are described under names which are familiar to us in their
application to the modes. A certain succession of intervals is called
the Dorian species of the Octave, another succession is called the
Phrygian species, and so on for the Lydian, Mixo-lydian, Hypo-dorian,
Hypo-phrygian, and Hypo-lydian. It seems natural to conclude that
the species or successions of intervals so named were characteristic
in some way of the modes which bore the same names, consequently
that the modes were not keys, but modes in the modern sense of the
term.
In order to estimate the value of this argument, it is necessary to
ask, (1) how far back we can date the use of these names for the
species of the Octave, and (2) in what degree the species of the
Octave can be shown to have entered into the practice of music at
any period. The answer to these questions must be gathered from a
careful examination of all that Aristoxenus and other early writers say
of the different musical scales in reference to the order of their
intervals.
 § 22. The Scales as treated by
Aristoxenus.
The subject of the musical scales (systêmata) is treated by
Aristoxenus as a general problem, without reference to the scales in
actual use. He complains that his predecessors dealt only with the
octave scale, and only with the Enharmonic genus, and did not
address themselves to the real question of the melodious sequence
of intervals. Accordingly, instead of beginning with a particular scale,
such as the octave, he supposes a scale of indefinite compass,—just
as a mathematician postulates lines and surfaces of unlimited
magnitude. His problem virtually is, given any interval known to the
particular genus supposed, to determine what intervals can follow it
on a musical scale, either ascending or descending. In the Diatonic
genus, for example, a semitone must be followed by two tones, so as
to make up the interval of a Fourth. In the Enharmonic genus the
dieses or quarter-tones can only occur two together, and every such
pair of dieses (pyknon) must be followed in the ascending order by
a ditone, in the descending order by a ditone or a tone. By these and
similar rules, which he deduces mathematically from one or two
general principles of melody, Aristoxenus in effect determines all the
possible scales of each genus, without restriction of compass or pitch
[20]. But whenever he refers for the purpose of illustration to a scale
in actual use, it is always the standard octave already described (from
Hypatê to Nêtê), or a part of it. Thus nothing can be clearer than the
distinction which he makes between the theoretically infinite scale,
subject only to certain principles or laws determining the succession
of intervals, and the eight notes, of fixed relative pitch, which
constituted the gamut of practical music.
The passages in which Aristoxenus dwells upon the advance which he
has made upon the methods of his predecessors are of considerable
importance for the whole question of the species of the Octave.
There are three or four places which it will be worth while to quote.

1. Aristoxenus, Harm. p. 2, 15 Meib.: ta gar diagrammata

autois tôn enarmoniôn (harmoniôn MSS.) ekkeitai monon
systêmatôn, diatonôn d' ê chrômatikôn oudeis pôpoth'
heôraken; kaitoi ta diagrammata g' autôn edêlou tên
pasan tês melôdias taxin, en hois peri systêmatôn
oktachordôn enarmoniôn (harmoniôn MSS.) monon
elegon, peri de tôn allôn genôn te kai schêmatôn en autô
te tô genei tontô kai tois loipois oud' epecheirei oudeis
katamanthanein.

'The diagrams of the earlier writers set forth Systems in the

Enharmonic genus only, never in the Diatonic or Chromatic: and
yet these diagrams professed to give the whole scheme of their
music, and in them they treated of Enharmonic octave Systems
only; of other genera and other forms of this or any genus no
one attempted to discover anything.'
2. Ibid. p. 6, 20 Meib.: tôn d' allôn katholou men kathaper
emprosthen eipomen oudeis hêptai, henos de systêmatos
Eratoklês epecheirêse kath' hen genos exarithmêsai ta
schêmata tou dia pasôn apodeiktikôs tê periphora tôn
diastêmatôn deiknys; ou katamathôn hoti, mê
prosapodeichthentôn (qu. proapod.) tôn de tou dia pente
schêmatôn kai tôn tou dia tessarôn pros de toutois kai
tês syntheseôs autôn tis pot' esti kath' hên emmelôs
syntithentai, pollaplasia tôn hepta symbainein gignesthai
deiknytai.
'The other Systems no one has dealt with by a general method:
but Eratocles has attempted in the case of one System, in one
genus, to enumerate the forms or species of the Octave, and to
determine them mathematically by the periodic recurrence of the
intervals: not perceiving that unless we have first demonstrated
the forms of the Fifth and the Fourth, and the manner of their
 melodious combination, the forms of the Octave will come to be
many more than seven.'

The 'periodic recurrence of intervals' here spoken of may be

illustrated on the key-board of a piano. If we take successive octaves
of white notes, a-a, b-b, and so on, we obtain each time a different
order of intervals (i.e. the semitones occur in different places), until
we reach a-a again, when the series begins afresh. In this way it is
shown that only seven species of the Octave can be found on any
particular scale. Aristoxenus shows how to prove this from first
principles, viz. by analysing the Octave as the combination of a Fifth
with a Fourth.
3. Ibid. p. 36, 29 Meib.: tôn de systêmatôn tas diaphoras hoi
men holôs ouk epecheiroun exarithmein, alla peri autôn
monon tôn heptachordôn ha ekaloun harmonias tên
episkepsin epoiounto, hoi de epicheirêsantes oudena tropon
exêrithmounto.
For heptachordôn Meibomius and other editors read hepta
oktachordôn—a correction strongly suggested by the parallel words
systêmatôn oktachordôn in the first passage quoted.
'Some did not attempt to enumerate the differences of the Systems,
but confined their view to the seven octachord Systems which they
called harmoniai; others who did make the attempt did not
succeed.'
It appears from these passages that before the time of Aristoxenus
musicians had framed diagrams or tables showing the division of the
octave scale according to the Enharmonic genus: and that a certain
Eratocles—of whom nothing else is known—had recognised seven
forms or species of the octachord scale, and had shown how the
order of the intervals in the several species passes through a sort of
cycle. Finally, if the correction proposed in the third passage is right,
the seven species of the Octave were somehow shown in the
diagrams of which the first passage speaks. In what respect Eratocles
failed in his treatment of the seven species can hardly be
conjectured.
Elsewhere the diagrams are described by Aristoxenus somewhat
differently, as though they exhibited a division into Enharmonic dieses
or quarter-tones, without reference to the melodious character of the
scale. Thus we find him saying—
4. Harm. p. 28 Meib.: zêtêteon de to syneches ouch hôs hoi
harmonikoi en tais tôn diagrammatôn katapyknôsesin
apodidonai peirôntai, toutous apophainontes tôn phthongôn
hexês allêlôn keisthai hois symbebêke to elachiston diastêma
diechein aph' hautôn. ou gar to mê dynasthai dieseis oktô kai
eikosin hexês melôdeisthai tês phônês estin, alla tên tritên
diesin panta poiousa ouch hoia t' esti prostithenai.
'We must seek continuity of succession, not as theoretical musicians
do in filling up their diagrams with small intervals, making those
notes successive which are separated from each other by the least
interval. For it is not merely that the voice cannot sing twenty-eight
successive dieses: with all its efforts it cannot sing a third diesis [21].'
This representation of the musical diagrams is borne out by the
passage in the Republic in which Plato derides the experimental study
of music:
Rep. p. 531 a tas gar akouomenas au symphônias kai
phthongous allêlois anametrountes anênyta, hôsper hoi
astronomoi, ponousin. Nê tous theous, ephê, kai geloiôs ge,
pyknômat' atta onomazontes kai paraballontes ta ôta, hoion
ek geitonôn phônên thêreuomenoi, hoi men phasin eti
katakouein en mesô tina êchên kai smikrotaton einai touto
diastêma, hô metrêteon, hoi de k.t.l.
Here Socrates is insisting that the theory of music should be studied
as a branch of mathematics, not by observation of the sounds and
concords actually heard, about which musicians spend toil in vain.
'Yes,' says Glaucon, 'they talk of the close-fitting of intervals, and put
their ears down to listen for the smallest possible interval, which is
then to be the measure.' The smallest interval was of course the
Enharmonic diesis or quarter of a tone, and this accordingly was the
measure or unit into which the scale was divided. A group of notes
separated by a diesis was called 'close' (pyknon, or a pyknôma),
and the filling up of the scale in that way was therefore a
katapyknôsis tou diagrammatos—a filling up with 'close-set'
notes, by the division of every tone into four equal parts.
An example of a diagram of this kind has perhaps survived in a
comparatively late writer, viz. Aristides Quintilianus, who gives a scale
of two octaves, one divided into twenty-four dieses, the next into
twelve semitones (De Mus. p. 15 Meib.). The characters used are not
otherwise known, being quite different from the ordinary notation:
but the nature of the diagram is plain from the accompanying words:
hautê estin hê para tois archaiois kata dieseis harmonia,
heôs κδ dieseôn to proteron diagousa dia pasôn, to deuteron
dia tôn hêmitoniôn auxêsasa: 'this is the harmonia (division of
the scale) according to dieses in use among the ancients, carried in
the case of the first octave as far as twenty-four dieses, and dividing
the second into semitones [22].'
The phrase hê kata dieseis harmonia, used for the division of an
octave scale into quarter-tones, serves to explain the statement of
Aristoxenus (in the third of the passages above quoted) that the
writers who treated of octave Systems called them 'harmonies' (ha
ekaloun harmonias). That statement has usually been taken to
refer to the ancient Modes called harmoniai by Plato and Aristotle,
and has been used accordingly as proof that the scales of these
Modes were based upon the different species (eidê) of the Octave.
But the form of the reference—'which they called harmoniai'—
implies some forgotten or at least unfamiliar use of the word by the
older technical writers. It is very much more probable that the
harmoniai in question are divisions of the octave scale, as shown in
theoretical diagrams, and had no necessary connexion with the
Modes. Apparently some at least of these diagrams were not musical
scales, but tables of all the notes in the compass of an octave; and
the Enharmonic diesis was used, not merely on account of the
importance of that genus, but because it was the smallest interval,
and therefore the natural unit of measurement [23].
The use of harmonia as an equivalent for 'System' or 'division of the
scale' appears in an important passage in Plato's Philebus (p. 17):
all', ô phile, epeidan labês ta diastêmata hoposa esti ton
arithmon tês phônês oxytêtos te peri kai barytêtos, kai
hopoia, kai tous horous tôn diastêmatôn, kai ta ek toutôn
hosa systêmata gegonen, ha katidontes hoi prosthen
paredosan hêmin tois hepomenois ekeinois kalein auta
harmonias, k.t.l. In this passage,—which has an air of technical
accuracy not usual in Plato's references to music (though perhaps
characteristic of the Philebus),—there is a close agreement with the
technical writers, especially Aristoxenus. The main thought is the
application of limit or measure to matter which is given as unlimited
or indefinite—the distinction drawn out by Aristoxenus in a passage
quoted below (p. 81). The treatment of the term 'System' is notably
Aristoxenean (cp. Harm. p. 36 ta systêmata theôrêsai posa te
esti kai poia atta, kai pôs ek te tôn diastêmatôn kai
phthongôn synestêkota). Further, the use of harmonia for
systêma, or rather of the plural harmoniai for the systêmata
observed by the older musical theorists, is exactly what is noticed by
Aristoxenus as if it were more or less antiquated. Even in the time of
Plato it appears as a word of traditional character (hoi prosthen
paredosan), his own word being systêma. It need not be said that
there is no such hesitation, either in Plato or in Aristotle, about the
use of harmoniai for the modes.
The same use of harmonia is found in the Aristotelian Problems (xix.
26), where the question is asked, dia ti mesê kaleitai en tais
harmoniais, tôn de oktô ouk esti meson, i.e. how can we speak
of the Mesê or 'middle note' of a scale of eight notes?
We have now reviewed all the passages in Aristoxenus which can be
thought to bear upon the question whether the harmoniai or Modes
of early Greek music are the same as the tonoi or Keys discussed by
Aristoxenus himself. The result seems to be that we have found
nothing to set against the positive arguments for the identification
already urged. It may be thought, perhaps, that the variety of senses
ascribed to the word harmonia goes beyond what is probable. In
itself however the word meant simply 'musical scale [24].' The
Pythagorean use of it in the sense of 'octave scale,' and the very
similar use in reference to diagrams which represented the division of
that scale, were antiquated in the time of Aristoxenus. The sense of
'key' was doubtless limited in the first instance to the use in
conjunction with the names Dorian, &c., which suggested a
distinction of pitch. From the meaning 'Dorian scale' to 'Dorian key' is
an easy step. Finally, in reference to genus harmonia meant the
Enharmonic scale. It is not surprising that a word with so many
meanings did not keep its place in technical language, but was
replaced by unambiguous words, viz. tonos in one sense, systêma
in another, genos enarmonion in a third. Naturally, too, the more
precise terms would be first employed by technical writers.
 § 23. The Seven Species.
(See the Appendix, Table I.)
In the Harmonics of Aristoxenus an account of the seven species of
the Octave followed the elaborate theory of Systems already referred
to (p. 48), and doubtless exhibited the application of that general
theory to the particular cases of the Fourth, Fifth, and Octave.
Unfortunately the existing manuscripts have only preserved the first
few lines of this chapter of the Aristoxenean work (p. 74, ll. 10-24
Meib.).
The next source from which we learn anything of this part of the
subject is the pseudo-Euclidean Introductio Harmonica. The writer
enumerates the species of the Fourth, the Fifth, and the Octave, first
in the Enharmonic and then in the Diatonic genus. He shows that if
we take Fourths on a Diatonic scale, beginning with Hypatê Hypatôn
(our b), we get successively b c d e (a scale with the intervals ½ 1
1), c d e f (1 1 ½) and d e f g (1 ½ 1). Similarly on the Enharmonic
scale we get—
Hypatê Hypatôn to Hypatê Mesôn b b* c e (¼ ¼ 2 )
Parhypatê " " Parhypatê " b* c e e* (¼ 2 ¼)
Lichanos " " Lichanos " c e e* f (2 ¼ ¼)
In the case of the Octave the species is distinguished on the
Enharmonic scale by the place of the tone which separates the
tetrachords, the so-called Disjunctive Tone (tonos diazeuktikos).
Thus in the octave from Hypatê Hypatôn to Paramesê (b-b) this tone
(a-b) is the highest interval; in the next octave, from Parhypatê
Hypatôn to Tritê Diezeugmenôn (c-c), it is the second highest; and so
on. These octaves, or species of the Octave, the writer goes on to tell
us, were anciently called by the same names as the seven oldest
Keys, as follows: